224:. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Human selection included tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. Domestic animals need not be tame in the behavioral sense, such as the Spanish fighting bull. Wild animals can be tame, such as a hand-raised cheetah. A domestic animal's breeding is controlled by humans and its tameness and tolerance of humans is genetically determined. However, an animal merely bred in captivity is not necessarily domesticated. Tigers, gorillas, and polar bears breed readily in captivity but are not domesticated. Asian elephants are wild animals that with taming manifest outward signs of domestication, yet their breeding is not human controlled and thus they are not true domesticates.
239:
86:. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and (5) responses to humans and new environments, including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli.
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choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and (5) responses to humans and new environments, including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli. Reduced wariness to humans and low reactivity to both humans and other external stimuli are a key pre-adaptation for domestication, and these behaviors are also the primary target of the selective pressures experienced by the animal undergoing domestication. This implies that not all animals can be domesticated, e.g. a wild member of the horse family, the zebra.
188:
between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the lead partner in the relationship. This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in which both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, and pets far beyond that of their wild progenitors. Domesticates have provided humans with resources that they could more predictably and securely control, move, and redistribute, which has been the advantage that had fueled a population explosion of the agro-pastoralists and their spread to all corners of the planet.
375:
414:
841:
19:
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a discrete population in time and space. Subsequent admixture between introduced domestic populations and local wild populations that were never domesticated should be referred to as "introgressive capture". Conflating these two processes muddles understanding of the original process and can lead to an artificial inflation of the number of times domestication took place. This introgression can, in some cases, be regarded as adaptive introgression, as observed in domestic sheep due to gene flow with the wild
European Mouflon.
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a response to localized pressure on the supply of the animal. Over time and with the more responsive species, these game-management strategies developed into herd-management strategies that included the sustained multi-generational control over the animals' movement, feeding, and reproduction. As human interference in the life-cycles of prey animals intensified, the evolutionary pressures for a lack of aggression would have led to an acquisition of the same domestication syndrome traits found in the commensal domesticates.
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but not an end. Various criteria have been established to provide a definition of domestic animals, but all decisions about exactly when an animal can be labelled "domesticated" in the zoological sense are arbitrary, although potentially useful. Domestication is a fluid and nonlinear process that may start, stop, reverse, or go down unexpected paths with no clear or universal threshold that separates the wild from the domestic. However, there are universal features held in common by all domesticated animals.
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see to many domestic mammals, such as lopped ears (seen in rabbit, dog, fox, pig, sheep, goat, cattle, and donkeys) as well as curly tails (pigs, foxes, and dogs). Although they do not affect the development of the adrenal cortex directly, the neural crest cells may be involved in relevant upstream embryological interactions. Furthermore, artificial selection targeting tameness may affect genes that control the concentration or movement of NCCs in the embryo, leading to a variety of phenotypes.
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traits could arise through the selection for a phenotypic trait. In addition, the experiment provided a mechanism for the start of the animal domestication process that did not depend on deliberate human forethought and action. In the 1980s, a researcher used a set of behavioral, cognitive, and visible phenotypic markers, such as coat color, to produce domesticated fallow deer within a few generations. Similar results for tameness and fear have been found for mink and
Japanese quail.
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wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates and were selected during the initial episode of domestication, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations. A second issue is whether traits associated with the domestication syndrome resulted from a relaxation of selection as animals exited the wild environment or from
627:, boar, sheep, and goats. A domestication process then began to develop. The grey wolf most likely followed the commensal pathway to domestication. When, where, and how many times wolves may have been domesticated remains debated because only a small number of ancient specimens have been found, and both archaeology and genetics continue to provide conflicting evidence. The most widely accepted, earliest dog remains date back 15,000 YBP to the
660:
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involved in coat coloration and neurotransmitters such as dopamine that help shape behavior and cognition. These linked traits may arise from mutations in a few key regulatory genes. A problem with this hypothesis is that it proposes that there are mutations in gene networks that cause dramatic effects that are not lethal, however no currently known genetic regulatory networks cause such dramatic change in so many different traits.
443:. Certain physiological changes characterize domestic animals of many species. These changes include extensive white markings (particularly on the head), floppy ears, and curly tails. These arise even when tameness is the only trait under selective pressure. The genes involved in tameness are largely unknown, so it is not known how or to what extent pleiotropy contributes to domestication syndrome. Tameness may be caused by the
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most affected portion of the brain in domestic mammals is the limbic system, which in domestic dogs, pigs, and sheep show a 40% reduction in size compared with their wild species. This portion of the brain regulates endocrine function that influences behaviors such as aggression, wariness, and responses to environmentally induced stress, all attributes which are dramatically affected by domestication.
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severely overhunted before domestication, suggesting that the intensive exploitation led to management strategies adopted throughout the region that ultimately led to the domestication of these populations following the prey pathway. This pattern of overhunting before domestication suggests that the prey pathway was as accidental and unintentional as the commensal pathway.
197:
552:). The study showed clear differences between the dental phenotypes of wild, captive wild, domestic, and hybrid pig populations, which supported the proposed categories through physical evidence. The study did not cover feral pig populations but called for further research to be undertaken on them, and on the genetic differences with hybrid pigs.
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ears), more frequent and nonseasonal estrus cycles, alterations in adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, changed concentrations of several neurotransmitters, prolongations in juvenile behavior, and reductions in both total brain size and of particular brain regions. The set of traits used to define the animal domestication syndrome is inconsistent.
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appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a portion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or
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domestication. Other studies have shown how human-induced selection is responsible for the allelic variation in pigs. Together, these insights suggest that, although natural selection has kept variation to a minimum before domestication, humans have actively selected for novel coat colors as soon as they appeared in managed populations.
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animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the tamer, less aggressive individuals with shorter fight or flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans that led to a domestic relationship. The leap from a
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The directed pathway was a more deliberate and directed process initiated by humans with the goal of domesticating a free-living animal. It probably only came into being once people were familiar with either commensal or prey-pathway domesticated animals. These animals were likely not to possess many
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The sustained admixture between dog and wolf populations across the Old and New Worlds over at least the last 10,000 years has blurred the genetic signatures and confounded efforts of researchers at pinpointing the origins of domestic dogs. None of the modern wolf populations are related to the
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is that modern domestic populations can often appear to have much greater genomic affinity to wild populations that were never involved in the original domestication process. Therefore, it is proposed that the term "domestication" should be reserved solely for the initial process of domestication of
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The prey pathway was the way in which most major livestock species entered into domestication as these were once hunted by humans for their meat. Domestication was likely initiated when humans began to experiment with hunting strategies designed to increase the availability of these prey, perhaps as
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The second group proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication: (1) commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g., dogs, cats, fowl, possibly pigs); (2) prey animals sought for food (e.g., sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer,
560:
Since 2012, a multi-stage model of animal domestication has been accepted by two groups. The first group proposed that animal domestication proceeded along a continuum of stages from anthropophily, commensalism, control in the wild, control of captive animals, extensive breeding, intensive breeding,
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Genetic hybrids of wild and domestic parents. They may be forms intermediate between both parents, forms more similar to one parent than the other, or unique forms distinct from both parents. Hybrids can be intentionally bred for specific characteristics or can arise unintentionally as the result of
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to produce many tissue types. Because the traits commonly affected by domestication syndrome are all derived from NCC in development, the neural crest hypothesis suggests that deficits in these cells cause the domain of phenotypes seen in domestication syndrome. These deficits could cause changes we
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Social structure β All species of domesticated large mammals had wild ancestors that lived in herds with a dominance hierarchy amongst the herd members, and the herds had overlapping home territories rather than mutually exclusive home territories. This arrangement allows humans to take control
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Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the
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The genetic difference between domestic and wild populations can be framed within two considerations. The first distinguishes between domestication traits that are presumed to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and improvement traits that have appeared since the split between
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Humans were already reliant on domestic plants and animals when they imagined the domestic versions of wild animals. Although horses, donkeys, and Old World camels were sometimes hunted as prey species, they were each deliberately brought into the human niche for sources of transport. Domestication
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The biomass of wild vertebrates is now increasingly small compared to the biomass of domestic animals, with the calculated biomass of domestic cattle alone being greater than that of all wild mammals. Because the evolution of domestic animals is ongoing, the process of domestication has a beginning
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specimens, archeologists have been able to document changes in the management strategies of hunted sheep, goats, pigs, and cows in the
Fertile Crescent starting 11,700 YBP. A recent demographic and metrical study of cow and pig remains at Shaβar Hagolan, Israel, demonstrated that both species were
310:
of both humans and numerous species of animals and plants. Areas with increasing agriculture, underwent urbanization, developing higher-density populations, expanded economies, and became centers of livestock and crop domestication. Such agricultural societies emerged across
Eurasia, North Africa,
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pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their
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Domestication can be considered as the final phase of intensification in the relationship between animal or plant sub-populations and human societies, but it is divided into several grades of intensification. For studies in animal domestication, researchers have proposed five distinct categories:
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had experienced a significant reduction in cranial height and width and by inference in brain size, which supports the hypothesis that brain-size reduction is an early response to the selective pressure for tameness and lowered reactivity that is the universal feature of animal domestication. The
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Efficient diet β Animals that can efficiently process what they eat and live off plants are less expensive to keep in captivity. Carnivores feed on flesh, which would require the domesticators to raise additional animals to feed the carnivores and therefore increase the consumption of plants
211:
traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The term is also applied to animals and includes increased docility and tameness, coat color changes, reductions in tooth size, changes in craniofacial morphology, alterations in ear and tail form (e.g., floppy
473:
The single genetic regulatory network hypothesis proposes that domestication syndrome results from mutations in genes that regulate the expression pattern of more downstream genes. For example piebald, or spotted coat coloration, may be caused by a linkage in the biochemical pathways of melanins
357:
Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their
187:
of both the domesticator and the target domesticate." This definition recognizes both the biological and the cultural components of the domestication process and the effects on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship
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experiment demonstrated that selection for tameness within a few generations can result in modified behavioral, morphological, and physiological traits. The experiment demonstrated that domestic phenotypic traits could arise through selection for a behavioral trait, and that domestic behavioral
591:
population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, when the relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and human-controlled
793:
The archaeological and genetic data suggests that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks β including canids, donkeys, horses, New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs β was common. Bidirectional gene flow between domestic and wild reindeer continues today.
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pathway was traveled by vertebrates that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received no harm but little benefit. Those
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or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also a genetic difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have
735:
As agricultural societies migrated away from the domestication centers taking their domestic partners with them, they encountered populations of wild animals of the same or sister species. Because domestics often shared a recent common ancestor with the wild populations, they were capable of
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relationship between them, and the human role in their survival and reproduction, intensified. Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming, the other two pathways are not as goal-oriented and archaeological records suggest that they take place over much longer time frames.
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process with multiple stages along different pathways. Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal resulting from, either the commensal or prey pathways. In both of these cases, humans became entangled with these species as the
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Geneticists have identified more than 300 genetic loci and 150 genes associated with coat color variability. Knowing the mutations associated with different colors has allowed some correlation between the timing of the appearance of variable coat colors in horses with the timing of their
421:
The sustained selection for lowered reactivity among mammal domesticates has resulted in profound changes in brain form and function. The larger the size of the brain to begin with and the greater its degree of folding, the greater the degree of brain-size reduction under domestication.
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have lived apart from humans for thousands of years but still have the same brain size as that of a domestic dog. Feral dogs that actively avoid human contact are still dependent on human waste for survival and have not reverted to the self-sustaining behaviors of their wolf ancestors.
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The pathways that animals may have followed are not mutually exclusive. Pigs, for example, may have been domesticated as their populations became accustomed to the human niche, which would suggest a commensal pathway, or they may have been hunted and followed a prey pathway, or both.
722:
avoided culling reproductive females to promote population balance, neither gazelles nor zebras possessed the necessary prerequisites and were never domesticated. There is no clear evidence for the domestication of any herded prey animal in Africa, with the notable exception of the
451:. Based on this, the pleiotropy hypotheses can be separated into two theories. The Neural Crest Hypothesis relates adrenal gland function to deficits in neural crest cells during development. The Single Genetic Regulatory Network Hypothesis claims that genetic changes in
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of the behavioral preadaptions some species show before domestication. Therefore, the domestication of these animals requires more deliberate effort by humans to work around behaviors that do not assist domestication, with increased technological assistance needed.
339:
8,000 years ago, pigs were domesticated from wild boar that were genetically different from those found in the
Fertile Crescent. The horse was domesticated on the Central Asian steppe 5,500 years ago. The chicken in Southeast Asia was domesticated 4,000 years ago.
642:
The chicken is one of the most widespread domesticated species and one of the human world's largest sources of protein. Although the chicken was domesticated in South-East Asia, archaeological evidence suggests that it was not kept as a livestock species until
121:
and before the domestication of other animals. Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional
651:. Prior to this, chickens had been associated with humans for thousands of years and kept for cock-fighting, rituals, and royal zoos, so they were not originally a prey species. The chicken was not a popular food in Europe until only one thousand years ago.
870:
was not supported. The study indicated that pigs were domesticated separately in
Western Asia and China, with Western Asian pigs introduced into Europe where they crossed with wild boar. A model that fitted the data included admixture with a now extinct
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Almada RC, Coimbra NC. Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake
Bothrops alternatus Synapse
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Quick growth rate β Fast maturity rate compared to the human life span allows breeding intervention and makes the animal useful within an acceptable duration of caretaking. Some large animals require many years before they reach a useful
370:
enquired as to why, among the world's 148 large wild terrestrial herbivorous mammals, only 14 were domesticated, and proposed that their wild ancestors must have possessed six characteristics before they could be considered for domestication:
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was still a multi-generational adaptation to human selection pressures, including tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. For example, despite the fact that hunters of the Near
Eastern
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2006. Archaeological approaches to documenting animal domestication. In
Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms, ed. Melinda A. Zeder, D.G Bradley, E Emshwiller, B.D Smith, pp. 209β27. Berkeley: Univ. Calif.
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about 11,700 YBP, and by 10,000 YBP people were preferentially killing young males of a variety of species and allowed the females to live in order to produce more offspring. By measuring the size, sex ratios, and mortality profiles of
515:
Directly affected by a relaxation of natural selection associated with feeding, breeding and protection/confinement by humans, and an intensification of artificial selection through passive selection for animals that are more suited to
97:, fowl, possibly pigs); (2) animals sought for food and other byproducts (e.g., sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer, llama, alpaca, and turkey); and (3) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g.,
759:
has demonstrated that gene flow is common, not only between geographically diverse domestic populations of the same species but also between domestic populations and wild species that never gave rise to a domestic population.
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Prey pathway animals include sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer, llama and alpaca. The right conditions for the domestication for some of them appear to have been in place in the central and eastern
861:
In 2015, a study looked at over 100 pig genome sequences to ascertain their process of domestication. The process of domestication was assumed to have been initiated by humans, involved few individuals and relied on
326:
were the first livestock to be domesticated. Archaeologists working in Cyprus found an older burial ground, approximately 9500 years old, of an adult human with a feline skeleton. Two thousand years later, humped
286:
from 11,700 years ago, favorable climatic conditions and increasing human populations led to small-scale animal and plant domestication, which allowed humans to augment the food that they were obtaining through
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Kruska, D. 1988. "Mammalian domestication and its effect on brain structure and behavior," in
Intelligence and evolutionary biology. Edited by H. J. Jerison and I. Jerison, pp. 211β50. New York: Springer-Verlag
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Domesticates that have returned to a wild state. As such, they experience relaxed artificial selection induced by the captive environment paired with intensified natural selection induced by the wild habitat.
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resulting from intentional and unintentional human preference. Some recent genomic studies on the genetic basis of traits associated with the domestication syndrome have shed light on both of these issues.
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Fuller, D. Q.; Willcox, G.; Allaby, R. G. (2011). "Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins: Arguments against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East".
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occurred between dogs and wolves 20,000β40,000 YBP, however this is the upper time-limit for domestication because it represents the time of divergence and not the time of domestication.
482:
Feral mammals such as dogs, cats, goats, donkeys, pigs, and ferrets that have lived apart from humans for generations show no sign of regaining the brain mass of their wild progenitors.
810:
wolves that were first domesticated, and the extinction of the wolves that were the direct ancestors of dogs has muddied efforts to pinpoint the time and place of dog domestication.
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150:β was common. One study has concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs and created
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Subject to natural selection, although the action of past demographic events and artificial selection induced by game management or habitat destruction cannot be excluded.
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recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious
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Barbato, Mario; Hailer, Frank; Orozco-terWengel, Pablo; Kijas, James; Mereu, Paolo; Cabras, Pierangela; Mazza, Raffaele; Pirastru, Monica; Bruford, Michael W. (2017).
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llama and alpaca); and (3) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g., horse, donkey, camel). The beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted
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that occurred 12,900 years ago was a period of intense cold and aridity that put pressure on humans to intensify their foraging strategies. By the beginning of the
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1006:
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Hanotte, O.; Bradley, D. G.; Ochieng, J. W.; Verjee, Y.; Hill, E. W.; Rege, J. E. O. (2002). "African pastoralism: genetic imprints of origins and migrations".
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Birks, J. D. S., and A. C. Kitchener. 1999. The distribution and status of the polecat Mustela putorius in Britain in the 1990s. London: Vincent Wildlife Trust.
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Domestic animals vary in coat color, craniofacial morphology, reduced brain size, floppy ears, and changes in the endocrine system and reproductive cycle. The
89:
It is proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication: (1) commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g.,
883:
that affect behavior and morphology. Human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars and created
3266:
1300:
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1946:
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result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the
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Crockford, S. J. (2000). "A commentary on dog evolution: Regional variation, breed development and hybridization with wolves". In Crockford, S. (ed.).
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Subject to intensified artificial selection through husbandry practices with relaxation of natural selection associated with captivity and management.
70:(i.e. artificial selection) in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of
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Frantz, L. (2015). "Evidence of long-term gene flow and selection during domestication from analyses of Eurasian wild and domestic pig genomes".
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Jones, R. Bryan; Satterlee, Daniel G.; Marks, Henry L. (1997). "Fear-related behaviour in Japanese quail divergently selected for body weight".
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in the genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals. Some of the most commonly domesticated animals are cats and dogs.
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In 2015, a study compared the diversity of dental size, shape and allometry across the proposed domestication categories of modern pigs (genus
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between the two eventually led to the domestic population becoming more genetically divergent from its original domestic source population.
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around 21,000 years ago and which continue to this present day. These changes made obtaining food difficult. The first domesticate was the
879:. The study also found that despite back-crossing with wild pigs, the genomes of domestic pigs have strong signatures of selection at
1682:
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Ability to breed in captivity β Animals that will not breed in captivity are limited to acquisition through capture in the wild.
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The domestication of animals and plants was triggered by the climatic and environmental changes that occurred after the peak of the
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Irving-Pease, Evan K.; Ryan, Hannah; Jamieson, Alexandra; Dimopoulos, Evangelos A.; Larson, Greger; Frantz, Laurent A. F. (2018).
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Machugh, David E.; Larson, Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2016). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication".
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246:, showing very low temperatures for the most part of the Younger Dryas, rapidly rising afterwards to reach the level of the warm
3267:"Phenotype and animal domestication: A study of dental variation between domestic, wild, captive, hybrid and insular Sus scrofa"
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Bocquet-Appel, J. P. (2011). "When the world's population took off: The springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition".
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that included another species with evolving behaviors. Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.
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Meyer, Rachel S.; Purugganan, Michael D. (2013). "Evolution of crop species: Genetics of domestication and diversification".
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and care of another organism in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest, and through which the
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Evin, Allowen; Dobney, Keith; Schafberg, Renate; Owen, Joseph; Vidarsdottir, Una; Larson, Greger; Cucchi, Thomas (2015).
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Valclav Smil, 2011, Harvesting the Biosphere:The Human Impact, Population and Development Review 37(4): 613β636, Table 2)
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Pierpaoli, M.; Biro, Z. S.; Herrmann, M.; Hupe, K.; Fernandes, M.; et al. (2003). "Genetic distinction of wildcat (
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producing fertile offspring. Domestic populations were small relative to the surrounding wild populations, and repeated
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in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of
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gains advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship, thereby benefitting and often increasing the
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Pig herding in fog, Armenia. Human selection for domestic traits is not affected by later gene flow from wild boar.
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2999:"The "Domestication Syndrome" in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics"
2370:"The 'Domestication Syndrome' in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics"
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species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious
3200:"The origins of animal domestication and husbandry: a major change in the history of humanity and the biosphere"
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Olsen, K. M.; Wendel, J. F. (2013). "A bountiful harvest: genomic insights into crop domestication phenotypes".
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1997:
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452:
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Tendency not to panic β Some species are nervous, fast, and prone to flight when they perceive a threat.
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Sykes, Naomi (2012). "A social perspective on the introduction of exotic animals: The case of the chicken".
3454:"Earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia: Evidence from the Hellenistic Southern Levant"
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Perri, Angela (2016). "A wolf in dog's clothing: Initial dog domestication and Pleistocene wolf variation".
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between wild and domestic forms, but the study found that the assumption of reproductive isolation with
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Currat, M.; et al. (2008). "The hidden side of invasions: Massive introgression by local genes".
1825:"Unraveling the Mysteries of Animal Domestication: Whole-genome sequencing challenges old assumptions"
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Jordana, J.; Pares, P. M.; Sanchez, A. (1995). "Analysis of genetic-relationships in horse breeds".
1173:"Beyond the single gene: How epistasis and gene-by-environment effects influence crop domestication"
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Hemmer, H. (2005). "Neumuhle-Riswicker Hirsche: Erste planmaΒ¨Γige Zucht einer neuen Nutztierform".
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Pleasant disposition β Animals with nasty dispositions are dangerous to keep around humans.
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and finally to pets in a slow, gradually intensifying relationship between humans and animals.
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233:
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2079:"Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication"
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Hale, E. B. (1969). "Domestication and the evolution of behavior". In Hafez, E. S. E. (ed.).
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The yellow leg trait possessed by numerous modern commercial chicken breeds was acquired via
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3828:"Maternal and paternal lineages in crossbreeding bovine species. HasWisent a hybrid origin?"
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2504:"Unlocking the origins and biology of domestic animals using ancient DNA and paleogenomics"
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Driscoll, Carlos; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Kitchener, Andrew; O'Brien, Stephen (June 2009).
1319:
1142:
786:
Numerous other bovid species, including bison, yak, banteng, and gaur hybridize with ease.
8:
3681:
3239:
Wild Pigs in the United States: Their History, Comparative Morphology, and Current Status
2575:
1732:
1171:
Doust, A. N.; Lukens, L.; Olsen, K. M.; Mauro-Herrera, M.; Meyer, A.; Rogers, K. (2014).
752:
635:, however their status as dogs or wolves remains debated. Recent studies indicate that a
462:
251:
196:
168:
4219:
3958:
3943:"Genomic signatures of adaptive introgression from European mouflon into domestic sheep"
3788:
3726:"Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken"
3632:
Kimura, Birgitta; Marshall, Fiona; Beja-Pereira, Albano; Mulligan, Connie (2013-03-01).
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process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel
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3927:
3413:
2747:
911:
Hybrid (biology)#Examples of hybrid animals and animal populations derived from hybrid
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2401:
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1989:
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184:
71:
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3900:
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3710:
2690:
2655:
2354:
1947:"Rethinking dog domestication by integrating genetics, archeology, and biogeography"
1653:
1589:
1327:
705:
Kazakh shepherd with horse and dogs. Their job is to guard the sheep from predators.
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The increased use of agriculture and continued domestication of species during the
114:
4102:
3826:
Verkaar, E. L. C.; Nijman, I. J.; Beeke, M.; Hanekamp, E.; Lenstra, J. A. (2004).
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Larson, G.; Piperno, D. R.; Allaby, R. G.; Purugganan, M. D.; et al. (2014).
4493:
4321:
4277:
4018:
3742:
3524:
2682:
2240:
1763:"Evaluating the roles of directed breeding and gene flow in animal domestication"
1581:
780:
769:
727:, which was domesticated in Northeast Africa sometime in the 4th millennium BCE.
632:
378:
288:
3014:
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importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.
4398:
4261:"Contrasting mode of evolution at a coat color locus in wild and domestic pigs"
3967:
3215:
2310:
2293:
1954:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1767:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1002:
946:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
818:
789:
Cats and horses have been shown to hybridize with many closely related species.
776:
756:
744:
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689:
323:
319:
59:
3649:
3362:
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2467:
1407:
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466:
448:
439:. Pleiotropy occurs when one gene influences two or more seemingly unrelated
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279:
63:
4227:
3844:
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2639:
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1974:
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3871:) populations in Europe, and hybridization with domestic cats in Hungary".
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A putative cause for the broad changes seen in domestication syndrome is
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62:recognized a small number of traits that made
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4063:
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3358:Coppinger, Raymond; Coppinger, Laura (2001).
3351:
3326:
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1940:
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1813:
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1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1060:
1058:
1030:
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1026:
298:marked the beginning of a rapid shift in the
126:between wild and domestic stocks β including
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1234:
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997:
995:
227:
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3934:
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3539:
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3254:
3252:
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1160:
1128:
1124:
1122:
1120:
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930:
779:maternal mitochondrial signal and an Asian
4371:
4357:
4193:
4044:
3672:
3093:
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1922:
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4276:
4235:
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1973:
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1672:Price, Edward O. (2002).
1404:Price, Edward O. (2008).
772:indigenous to South Asia.
318:10,000-11,000 years ago,
228:History, cause and timing
4573:Domestication of the dog
4561:Domestication of the cat
4380:Domestication of animals
3724:Eriksson, Jonas (2008).
3274:BMC Evolutionary Biology
3204:Comptes Rendus Biologies
2894:(MarchβApril): 160β169.
2083:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1863:. Springer. p. 397.
875:of wild pigs during the
797:The consequence of this
4509:Domesticated silver fox
4228:10.1126/science.1172750
3797:10.1126/science.1069878
3556:10.1126/science.aah7308
3479:10.1073/pnas.1504236112
2724:"The Taming of the Cat"
2640:10.1126/science.1208880
2603:Oxford University Press
2196:10.1126/science.aad1692
1975:10.1073/pnas.1203005109
1788:10.1073/pnas.1312984110
1472:10.1073/pnas.0901586106
1360:Nature Reviews Genetics
1198:10.1073/pnas.1308940110
1092:10.1073/pnas.1323964111
1035:Diamond, Jared (1997).
1011:. London: John Murray.
967:10.1073/pnas.1501711112
893:catecholamine synthesis
834:domesticated silver fox
654:
409:Brain size and function
4669:History of agriculture
4095:10.1006/anbe.2002.3058
3634:"Donkey Domestication"
2959:10.1002/bies.200800070
1823:Blaustein, R. (2015).
1457:(Suppl 1): 9971β9978.
1038:Guns, Germs, and Steel
868:population bottlenecks
864:reproductive isolation
845:
706:
667:
418:
382:
367:Guns, Germs, and Steel
353:Behavioral preadaption
268:Canis lupus familiaris
255:
234:History of agriculture
216:Difference from taming
205:Domestication syndrome
201:
192:Domestication syndrome
113:before the end of the
30:
4566:cats in ancient Egypt
4444:Domestic Muscovy duck
4000:Freedman, A. (2014).
3845:10.1093/molbev/msh064
3426:10.1007/13836_2018_55
3198:Vigne, J. D. (2011).
3133:Zoologischer Anzeiger
1842:10.1093/biosci/biu201
1761:Marshall, F. (2013).
885:domestication islands
843:
704:
662:
461:(NCC) are vertebrate
416:
377:
241:
232:Further information:
199:
152:domestication islands
21:
4664:Domesticated animals
3387:Russell, N. (2012).
3131:, Troughton 1957)".
2917:on February 15, 2010
2419:Lair, R. C. (1997).
605:years before present
463:embryonic stem cells
296:Neolithic transition
260:Last Glacial Maximum
244:Last Glacial Maximum
134:, New and Old World
77:regional populations
4679:Biology and culture
4220:2009Sci...324..485L
3959:2017NatSR...7.7623B
3789:2002Sci...296..336H
3603:10.1038/nature01019
3595:2002Natur.418..700D
3470:2015PNAS..112.9849P
3103:Hemmer, H. (1990).
2900:1999AmSci..87.....T
2811:Larson, G. (2013).
2740:2009SciAm.300f..68D
2632:2011Sci...333..560B
2597:Barker, G. (2006).
2452:2017NatSR...740338P
1966:2012PNAS..109.8878L
1945:Larson, G. (2012).
1779:2014PNAS..111.6153M
1463:2009PNAS..106.9971D
1299:Larson, G. (2014).
1189:2014PNAS..111.6178D
1083:2014PNAS..111.6139L
958:2015PNAS..112.3191Z
753:population genetics
629:BonnβOberkassel dog
252:Greenland ice cores
4631:Self-domestication
4626:Selective breeding
3947:Scientific Reports
3069:10.4137/bbi.s28902
3063:(Suppl 4): 11β20.
2908:10.1511/1999.2.160
2888:American Scientist
2820:Trends in Genetics
2440:Scientific Reports
2347:10.1007/bf02098682
851:positive selection
846:
823:selective breeding
814:Positive selection
707:
679:at the end of the
668:
637:genetic divergence
459:Neural crest cells
419:
383:
344:Universal features
256:
202:
68:selective breeding
31:
4651:
4650:
3873:Molecular Ecology
3589:(6898): 700β707.
3513:World Archaeology
3464:(32): 9849β9854.
3435:978-3-030-04752-8
3398:978-0-521-14311-0
2671:World Archaeology
2626:(6042): 560β561.
2460:10.1038/srep40338
2250:978-1-4419-0426-3
2211:Brassica oleracea
2141:(10): 1141β1148.
1960:(23): 8878β8883.
1773:(17): 6153β6158.
1566:Zeder, Melinda A.
1183:(17): 6178β6183.
1077:(17): 6139β6146.
1048:978-0-09-930278-0
952:(11): 3191β3198.
938:Zeder, Melinda A.
827:natural selection
757:nuclear sequences
690:zooarchaeological
478:Limited reversion
441:phenotypic traits
117:era, well before
72:natural selection
4686:
4373:
4366:
4359:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4317:
4311:
4307:
4301:
4300:
4290:
4280:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4239:
4197:
4191:
4190:
4154:
4148:
4147:
4127:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4111:
4105:. Archived from
4083:Animal Behaviour
4080:
4067:
4061:
4060:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4031:
4021:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3980:
3970:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3869:Felis silvestris
3864:
3858:
3857:
3847:
3838:(7): 1165β1170.
3823:
3817:
3816:
3783:(5566): 336β39.
3772:
3766:
3765:
3755:
3745:
3721:
3715:
3714:
3689:(8): 1908β1920.
3676:
3670:
3669:
3629:
3623:
3622:
3578:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3491:
3481:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3384:
3378:
3377:
3365:
3355:
3349:
3348:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3314:
3308:. Archived from
3299:
3289:
3271:
3262:
3243:
3242:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3195:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3176:
3170:. Archived from
3147:
3141:
3140:
3129:Canis hallstromi
3124:
3118:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3100:
3091:
3090:
3080:
3048:
3037:
3036:
3026:
2994:
2981:
2980:
2970:
2938:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2922:
2916:
2910:. Archived from
2885:
2876:
2870:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2848:
2842:. Archived from
2817:
2808:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2759:
2719:
2713:
2709:Melinda A. Zeder
2706:
2695:
2694:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2559:
2544:
2543:
2533:
2523:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2479:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2399:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2313:
2289:
2280:
2279:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2178:
2167:
2166:
2130:
2119:
2118:
2108:
2098:
2074:
2057:
2056:
2048:
2039:
2038:
2018:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2002:
1996:. Archived from
1987:
1977:
1951:
1942:
1929:
1928:
1920:
1911:
1910:
1902:
1893:
1892:
1874:
1865:
1864:
1856:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1820:
1811:
1810:
1800:
1790:
1758:
1745:
1744:
1716:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1687:
1680:
1669:
1658:
1657:
1621:
1612:
1611:
1603:
1594:
1593:
1562:
1513:
1512:
1504:
1495:
1494:
1484:
1474:
1442:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1401:
1392:
1391:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1330:. Archived from
1305:
1296:
1221:
1220:
1210:
1200:
1168:
1155:
1154:
1126:
1115:
1114:
1104:
1094:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1032:
1021:
1020:
999:
990:
989:
979:
969:
934:
873:ghost population
677:Fertile Crescent
633:Paleolithic dogs
617:hunter-gatherers
335:in Pakistan. In
316:Fertile Crescent
289:hunter-gathering
181:partner organism
115:Late Pleistocene
4694:
4693:
4689:
4688:
4687:
4685:
4684:
4683:
4654:
4653:
4652:
4647:
4609:
4549:
4528:
4494:Domestic rabbit
4382:
4377:
4347:
4340:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4304:
4271:(1): e1000341.
4257:
4253:
4198:
4194:
4155:
4151:
4128:
4124:
4115:
4113:
4109:
4078:
4068:
4064:
4049:
4045:
4012:(1): e1004016.
3998:
3994:
3939:
3935:
3912:
3908:
3879:(10): 2585β98.
3865:
3861:
3824:
3820:
3773:
3769:
3736:(2): e1000010.
3722:
3718:
3677:
3673:
3630:
3626:
3576:
3567:
3563:
3544:
3540:
3509:
3505:
3450:
3443:
3436:
3410:
3406:
3399:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3331:
3327:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3269:
3263:
3246:
3235:
3231:
3196:
3189:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3148:
3144:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3101:
3094:
3051:Wright (2015).
3049:
3040:
2995:
2984:
2939:
2930:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2883:
2877:
2873:
2868:
2861:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2815:
2809:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2698:
2667:
2663:
2614:
2610:
2595:
2591:
2560:
2547:
2500:
2493:
2432:
2428:
2417:
2413:
2366:
2362:
2331:
2327:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2262:
2258:
2251:
2226:
2222:
2207:
2203:
2179:
2170:
2147:10.1038/ng.3394
2135:Nature Genetics
2131:
2122:
2075:
2060:
2049:
2042:
2019:
2015:
2006:
2004:
2000:
1949:
1943:
1932:
1921:
1914:
1903:
1896:
1889:
1875:
1868:
1857:
1850:
1821:
1814:
1759:
1748:
1717:
1700:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1678:
1670:
1661:
1622:
1615:
1604:
1597:
1563:
1516:
1505:
1498:
1443:
1432:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1402:
1395:
1372:10.1038/nrg3605
1356:
1349:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1303:
1297:
1224:
1169:
1158:
1127:
1118:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1033:
1024:
1003:Darwin, Charles
1000:
993:
935:
928:
924:
902:
887:in the genome.
816:
781:Indicine cattle
770:grey junglefowl
733:
699:
657:
580:
558:
493:
480:
445:down regulation
433:
411:
379:Hereford cattle
355:
346:
236:
230:
218:
194:
165:
160:
12:
11:
5:
4692:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4645:
4640:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4617:
4615:
4614:Related topics
4611:
4610:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4569:
4568:
4557:
4555:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4399:Bactrian camel
4396:
4390:
4388:
4384:
4383:
4376:
4375:
4368:
4361:
4353:
4346:
4345:
4338:
4312:
4302:
4251:
4192:
4165:(4): 885β899.
4149:
4138:(1β2): 87β98.
4122:
4089:(3): 487β501.
4062:
4043:
3992:
3933:
3922:(7): 320β328.
3906:
3859:
3818:
3767:
3716:
3671:
3624:
3570:Diamond, Jared
3561:
3538:
3503:
3441:
3434:
3404:
3397:
3379:
3373:978-0684855301
3372:
3350:
3344:978-1841710891
3343:
3325:
3244:
3229:
3210:(3): 171β181.
3187:
3142:
3119:
3110:
3092:
3038:
3009:(3): 795β808.
2982:
2953:(3): 349β360.
2928:
2871:
2859:
2826:(4): 197β205.
2780:
2771:
2714:
2696:
2677:(4): 628β652.
2661:
2608:
2589:
2545:
2491:
2426:
2411:
2382:(3): 795β808.
2360:
2325:
2304:(2): 125β136.
2281:
2274:
2256:
2249:
2220:
2201:
2168:
2120:
2058:
2040:
2013:
1930:
1912:
1894:
1887:
1866:
1848:
1812:
1746:
1698:
1659:
1638:10.1086/413673
1613:
1595:
1576:(2): 161β190.
1514:
1496:
1430:
1416:
1393:
1366:(12): 840β52.
1347:
1222:
1156:
1116:
1054:
1047:
1022:
991:
925:
923:
920:
919:
918:
913:
908:
901:
898:
819:Charles Darwin
815:
812:
791:
790:
787:
784:
777:Taurine cattle
773:
745:DNA sequencing
738:hybridizations
732:
729:
720:Epipaleolithic
698:
695:
656:
653:
594:coevolutionary
579:
576:
567:coevolutionary
557:
554:
546:
545:
542:
536:
532:
526:
523:
517:
513:
507:
504:
492:
489:
479:
476:
449:adrenal glands
432:
429:
410:
407:
406:
405:
401:
398:
395:
392:
388:
354:
351:
345:
342:
324:taurine cattle
320:zooarchaeology
229:
226:
217:
214:
193:
190:
164:
161:
159:
156:
60:Charles Darwin
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4691:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4659:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4618:
4616:
4612:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4594:
4591:
4590:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4562:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4552:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4533:Invertebrates
4531:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4514:Water buffalo
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4439:Domestic duck
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4391:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4374:
4369:
4367:
4362:
4360:
4355:
4354:
4351:
4341:
4339:9780521425377
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4316:
4306:
4298:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4255:
4247:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4214:(5926): 485.
4213:
4209:
4208:
4203:
4196:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4153:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4126:
4112:on 2016-03-05
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4075:
4074:Mustela vison
4066:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4006:PLOS Genetics
4003:
3996:
3988:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3910:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3855:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3822:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3730:PLOS Genetics
3727:
3720:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3683:
3675:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3628:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3542:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3448:
3446:
3437:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3418:Paleogenomics
3415:
3408:
3400:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3375:
3369:
3364:
3363:
3354:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3315:on 2016-03-04
3311:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3240:
3233:
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2097:
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2017:
2003:on 2016-04-22
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1926:
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1908:
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1884:
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1688:on 2017-05-17
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1417:9781780640556
1413:
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1400:
1398:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
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1361:
1354:
1352:
1337:on 2019-05-13
1333:
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678:
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664:Humped cattle
661:
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650:
646:
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634:
630:
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615:) by nomadic
614:
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464:
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359:
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277:
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245:
240:
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223:
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210:
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189:
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174:
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153:
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3310:the original
3277:
3273:
3238:
3232:
3207:
3203:
3179:. Retrieved
3172:the original
3162:(1): 49β72.
3159:
3155:
3145:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3122:
3113:
3104:
3060:
3056:
3006:
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2919:. Retrieved
2912:the original
2891:
2887:
2874:
2851:. Retrieved
2844:the original
2823:
2819:
2774:
2734:(6): 68β75.
2731:
2727:
2717:
2674:
2670:
2664:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2598:
2592:
2567:
2563:
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2443:
2439:
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2016:
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1998:the original
1957:
1953:
1924:
1906:
1878:
1860:
1832:
1828:
1770:
1766:
1724:
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1683:the original
1674:
1629:
1625:
1607:
1573:
1569:
1508:
1454:
1450:
1421:. Retrieved
1406:
1363:
1359:
1339:. Retrieved
1332:the original
1311:
1307:
1180:
1176:
1134:
1130:
1074:
1070:
1037:
1007:
949:
945:
889:
881:genetic loci
860:
856:
847:
831:
817:
804:
796:
792:
743:Advances in
742:
734:
712:
708:
673:
669:
641:
612:
602:
589:synanthropic
581:
572:
563:
559:
549:
547:
538:
528:
519:
510:Captive wild
509:
500:
494:
481:
472:
457:
434:
420:
365:
364:in his book
360:
356:
347:
313:
293:
275:
267:
264:domestic dog
257:
219:
203:
177:reproduction
166:
88:
81:
64:domesticated
58:
34:
32:
15:
4484:Fancy mouse
4404:Bali cattle
4387:Vertebrates
3953:(1): 7623.
3519:: 158β169.
2921:January 12,
2570:: 329β351.
2508:BMC Biology
2182:Pennisi, E.
1835:(1): 7β13.
1632:(1): 1β32.
1423:January 21,
877:Pleistocene
808:Pleistocene
613:Canis lupus
529:Cross-breed
333:Baluchistan
276:Canis lupus
250:, based on
169:mutualistic
158:Definitions
119:cultivation
4658:Categories
4464:Guinea pig
4265:PLOS Genet
4116:2016-02-26
4059:: 255β261.
3319:2016-02-26
3181:2016-02-26
2853:2016-02-26
2007:2016-02-26
1829:BioScience
1692:2016-02-26
1341:2016-02-26
1314:: 115β36.
922:References
516:captivity.
491:Categories
437:pleiotropy
431:Pleiotropy
308:demography
274:ancestor (
209:phenotypic
52:, and the
44:including
39:vertebrate
4540:Honey bee
4434:Dromedary
4159:Biol. Rev
3682:Evolution
3666:189903961
3658:1572-9842
3619:205209520
3533:162265583
2947:BioEssays
2514:(1): 98.
2468:2045-2322
2446:: 40338.
2341:: 11β34.
2229:Zeder, M.
2163:205350534
1727:: 61β85.
1137:: 47β70.
1017:156100686
768:from the
643:400
621:Near East
609:grey wolf
584:commensal
578:Commensal
337:East Asia
300:evolution
270:) from a
124:gene flow
4593:theories
4545:Silkworm
4499:Reindeer
4297:19148282
4246:19390039
4187:24056549
4179:21443614
4038:24453982
3987:28790322
3901:25491695
3893:12969463
3854:14739241
3813:30291909
3805:11951043
3762:18454198
3711:20999005
3703:18452573
3611:12167878
3572:(2002).
3498:26195775
3306:25648385
3280:(1): 6.
3224:21377611
3139:: 42β72.
3087:26512200
3033:25024034
3003:Genetics
2977:19260016
2840:23415592
2766:19485091
2691:56437102
2656:29655920
2648:21798934
2584:27813680
2540:31791340
2486:28059138
2406:25024034
2375:Genetics
2355:42389667
2320:31810775
2155:26323058
2115:26754411
1994:22615366
1807:24753599
1741:26526544
1654:83908518
1590:85348232
1491:19528637
1380:24240513
1328:56381833
1217:24753598
1151:23451788
1111:24757054
1005:(1868).
986:25713127
940:(2015).
916:Landrace
900:See also
697:Directed
685:Holocene
556:Pathways
520:Domestic
453:upstream
387:further.
284:Holocene
248:Holocene
173:organism
136:camelids
4554:History
4489:Poultry
4419:Chicken
4288:2613536
4237:5102060
4216:Bibcode
4207:Science
4029:3894170
3978:5548776
3955:Bibcode
3785:Bibcode
3777:Science
3753:2265484
3591:Bibcode
3548:Science
3489:4538678
3466:Bibcode
3297:4328033
3078:4603525
3024:4096361
2968:2763232
2896:Bibcode
2757:5790555
2736:Bibcode
2628:Bibcode
2619:Science
2531:6889691
2477:5216412
2448:Bibcode
2397:4096361
2187:Science
2106:4710014
2029:: 1β4.
1985:3384140
1962:Bibcode
1798:4035985
1775:Bibcode
1646:2827868
1482:2702791
1459:Bibcode
1208:4035984
1185:Bibcode
1102:4035915
1079:Bibcode
977:4371924
954:Bibcode
718:in the
716:gazelle
647:in the
625:aurochs
541:animals
531:animals
522:animals
512:animals
503:animals
314:In the
304:ecology
185:fitness
128:donkeys
111:Eurasia
50:mammals
42:animals
4449:Ferret
4429:Donkey
4414:Cattle
4394:Alpaca
4336:
4295:
4285:
4244:
4234:
4185:
4177:
4103:491466
4101:
4036:
4026:
3985:
3975:
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3891:
3852:
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3803:
3760:
3750:
3709:
3701:
3664:
3656:
3617:
3609:
3582:Nature
3531:
3496:
3486:
3432:
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3370:
3341:
3304:
3294:
3222:
3085:
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2838:
2764:
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2728:Sci Am
2689:
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2353:
2318:
2272:
2247:
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2113:
2103:
2089:: 10.
1992:
1982:
1885:
1805:
1795:
1739:
1652:
1644:
1588:
1489:
1479:
1414:
1388:529535
1386:
1378:
1326:
1215:
1205:
1149:
1109:
1099:
1045:
1015:
984:
974:
749:genome
725:donkey
649:Levant
484:Dingos
306:, and
222:taming
146:, and
132:horses
103:donkey
84:taming
54:humans
4504:Sheep
4474:Llama
4469:Horse
4454:Gayal
4183:S2CID
4110:(PDF)
4099:S2CID
4079:(PDF)
3897:S2CID
3809:S2CID
3707:S2CID
3662:S2CID
3615:S2CID
3577:(PDF)
3529:S2CID
3313:(PDF)
3270:(PDF)
3175:(PDF)
2915:(PDF)
2884:(PDF)
2847:(PDF)
2816:(PDF)
2712:Press
2687:S2CID
2652:S2CID
2351:S2CID
2217:: 38.
2213:L.".
2159:S2CID
2001:(PDF)
1950:(PDF)
1686:(PDF)
1679:(PDF)
1650:S2CID
1642:JSTOR
1586:S2CID
1384:S2CID
1335:(PDF)
1324:S2CID
1304:(PDF)
598:niche
539:Feral
391:size.
144:sheep
140:goats
107:camel
99:horse
46:birds
27:sheep
4524:Zebu
4459:Goat
4334:ISBN
4293:PMID
4242:PMID
4175:PMID
4034:PMID
3983:PMID
3889:PMID
3850:PMID
3801:PMID
3758:PMID
3699:PMID
3654:ISSN
3607:PMID
3494:PMID
3430:ISBN
3393:ISBN
3368:ISBN
3339:ISBN
3302:PMID
3220:PMID
3083:PMID
3029:PMID
2973:PMID
2923:2016
2836:PMID
2762:PMID
2644:PMID
2580:PMID
2536:PMID
2482:PMID
2464:ISSN
2402:PMID
2316:PMID
2270:ISBN
2245:ISBN
2151:PMID
2111:PMID
1990:PMID
1883:ISBN
1803:PMID
1737:PMID
1487:PMID
1425:2016
1412:ISBN
1376:PMID
1213:PMID
1147:PMID
1107:PMID
1043:ISBN
1013:OCLC
982:PMID
655:Prey
582:The
501:Wild
329:zebu
272:wolf
148:pigs
95:cats
91:dogs
48:and
33:The
25:and
23:Dogs
4519:Yak
4424:Dog
4409:Cat
4283:PMC
4273:doi
4232:PMC
4224:doi
4212:324
4167:doi
4140:doi
4091:doi
4024:PMC
4014:doi
3973:PMC
3963:doi
3924:doi
3881:doi
3840:doi
3793:doi
3781:296
3748:PMC
3738:doi
3691:doi
3646:doi
3599:doi
3587:418
3552:doi
3521:doi
3484:PMC
3474:doi
3462:112
3422:doi
3292:PMC
3282:doi
3212:doi
3208:334
3164:doi
3137:183
3073:PMC
3065:doi
3061:9S4
3019:PMC
3011:doi
3007:197
2963:PMC
2955:doi
2904:doi
2828:doi
2752:PMC
2744:doi
2732:300
2679:doi
2636:doi
2624:333
2572:doi
2526:PMC
2516:doi
2472:PMC
2456:doi
2392:PMC
2384:doi
2380:197
2343:doi
2306:doi
2237:doi
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