Domestication of vertebrates

235:. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Human selection included tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. Domestic animals need not be tame in the behavioral sense, such as the Spanish fighting bull. Wild animals can be tame, such as a hand-raised cheetah. A domestic animal's breeding is controlled by humans and its tameness and tolerance of humans is genetically determined. However, an animal merely bred in captivity is not necessarily domesticated. Tigers, gorillas, and polar bears breed readily in captivity but are not domesticated. Asian elephants are wild animals that with taming manifest outward signs of domestication, yet their breeding is not human controlled and thus they are not true domesticates. 250: 97:. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and (5) responses to humans and new environments, including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli. 369:

choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and (5) responses to humans and new environments, including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli. Reduced wariness to humans and low reactivity to both humans and other external stimuli are a key pre-adaptation for domestication, and these behaviors are also the primary target of the selective pressures experienced by the animal undergoing domestication. This implies that not all animals can be domesticated, e.g. a wild member of the horse family, the zebra.

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between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the lead partner in the relationship. This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in which both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, and pets far beyond that of their wild progenitors. Domesticates have provided humans with resources that they could more predictably and securely control, move, and redistribute, which has been the advantage that had fueled a population explosion of the agro-pastoralists and their spread to all corners of the planet.

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a discrete population in time and space. Subsequent admixture between introduced domestic populations and local wild populations that were never domesticated should be referred to as "introgressive capture". Conflating these two processes muddles understanding of the original process and can lead to an artificial inflation of the number of times domestication took place. This introgression can, in some cases, be regarded as adaptive introgression, as observed in domestic sheep due to gene flow with the wild European Mouflon.

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a response to localized pressure on the supply of the animal. Over time and with the more responsive species, these game-management strategies developed into herd-management strategies that included the sustained multi-generational control over the animals' movement, feeding, and reproduction. As human interference in the life-cycles of prey animals intensified, the evolutionary pressures for a lack of aggression would have led to an acquisition of the same domestication syndrome traits found in the commensal domesticates.

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but not an end. Various criteria have been established to provide a definition of domestic animals, but all decisions about exactly when an animal can be labelled "domesticated" in the zoological sense are arbitrary, although potentially useful. Domestication is a fluid and nonlinear process that may start, stop, reverse, or go down unexpected paths with no clear or universal threshold that separates the wild from the domestic. However, there are universal features held in common by all domesticated animals.

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see to many domestic mammals, such as lopped ears (seen in rabbit, dog, fox, pig, sheep, goat, cattle, and donkeys) as well as curly tails (pigs, foxes, and dogs). Although they do not affect the development of the adrenal cortex directly, the neural crest cells may be involved in relevant upstream embryological interactions. Furthermore, artificial selection targeting tameness may affect genes that control the concentration or movement of NCCs in the embryo, leading to a variety of phenotypes.

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traits could arise through the selection for a phenotypic trait. In addition, the experiment provided a mechanism for the start of the animal domestication process that did not depend on deliberate human forethought and action. In the 1980s, a researcher used a set of behavioral, cognitive, and visible phenotypic markers, such as coat color, to produce domesticated fallow deer within a few generations. Similar results for tameness and fear have been found for mink and Japanese quail.

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wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates and were selected during the initial episode of domestication, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations. A second issue is whether traits associated with the domestication syndrome resulted from a relaxation of selection as animals exited the wild environment or from

638:, boar, sheep, and goats. A domestication process then began to develop. The grey wolf most likely followed the commensal pathway to domestication. When, where, and how many times wolves may have been domesticated remains debated because only a small number of ancient specimens have been found, and both archaeology and genetics continue to provide conflicting evidence. The most widely accepted, earliest dog remains date back 15,000 YBP to the 671: 485:

involved in coat coloration and neurotransmitters such as dopamine that help shape behavior and cognition. These linked traits may arise from mutations in a few key regulatory genes. A problem with this hypothesis is that it proposes that there are mutations in gene networks that cause dramatic effects that are not lethal, however no currently known genetic regulatory networks cause such dramatic change in so many different traits.

454:. Certain physiological changes characterize domestic animals of many species. These changes include extensive white markings (particularly on the head), floppy ears, and curly tails. These arise even when tameness is the only trait under selective pressure. The genes involved in tameness are largely unknown, so it is not known how or to what extent pleiotropy contributes to domestication syndrome. Tameness may be caused by the 438:

most affected portion of the brain in domestic mammals is the limbic system, which in domestic dogs, pigs, and sheep show a 40% reduction in size compared with their wild species. This portion of the brain regulates endocrine function that influences behaviors such as aggression, wariness, and responses to environmentally induced stress, all attributes which are dramatically affected by domestication.

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severely overhunted before domestication, suggesting that the intensive exploitation led to management strategies adopted throughout the region that ultimately led to the domestication of these populations following the prey pathway. This pattern of overhunting before domestication suggests that the prey pathway was as accidental and unintentional as the commensal pathway.

208: 563:). The study showed clear differences between the dental phenotypes of wild, captive wild, domestic, and hybrid pig populations, which supported the proposed categories through physical evidence. The study did not cover feral pig populations but called for further research to be undertaken on them, and on the genetic differences with hybrid pigs. 223:

ears), more frequent and nonseasonal estrus cycles, alterations in adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, changed concentrations of several neurotransmitters, prolongations in juvenile behavior, and reductions in both total brain size and of particular brain regions. The set of traits used to define the animal domestication syndrome is inconsistent.

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appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a portion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or

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domestication. Other studies have shown how human-induced selection is responsible for the allelic variation in pigs. Together, these insights suggest that, although natural selection has kept variation to a minimum before domestication, humans have actively selected for novel coat colors as soon as they appeared in managed populations.

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animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the tamer, less aggressive individuals with shorter fight or flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans that led to a domestic relationship. The leap from a

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The directed pathway was a more deliberate and directed process initiated by humans with the goal of domesticating a free-living animal. It probably only came into being once people were familiar with either commensal or prey-pathway domesticated animals. These animals were likely not to possess many

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The sustained admixture between dog and wolf populations across the Old and New Worlds over at least the last 10,000 years has blurred the genetic signatures and confounded efforts of researchers at pinpointing the origins of domestic dogs. None of the modern wolf populations are related to the

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is that modern domestic populations can often appear to have much greater genomic affinity to wild populations that were never involved in the original domestication process. Therefore, it is proposed that the term "domestication" should be reserved solely for the initial process of domestication of

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The prey pathway was the way in which most major livestock species entered into domestication as these were once hunted by humans for their meat. Domestication was likely initiated when humans began to experiment with hunting strategies designed to increase the availability of these prey, perhaps as

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The second group proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication: (1) commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g., dogs, cats, fowl, possibly pigs); (2) prey animals sought for food (e.g., sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer,

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Since 2012, a multi-stage model of animal domestication has been accepted by two groups. The first group proposed that animal domestication proceeded along a continuum of stages from anthropophily, commensalism, control in the wild, control of captive animals, extensive breeding, intensive breeding,

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Genetic hybrids of wild and domestic parents. They may be forms intermediate between both parents, forms more similar to one parent than the other, or unique forms distinct from both parents. Hybrids can be intentionally bred for specific characteristics or can arise unintentionally as the result of

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to produce many tissue types. Because the traits commonly affected by domestication syndrome are all derived from NCC in development, the neural crest hypothesis suggests that deficits in these cells cause the domain of phenotypes seen in domestication syndrome. These deficits could cause changes we

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Social structure – All species of domesticated large mammals had wild ancestors that lived in herds with a dominance hierarchy amongst the herd members, and the herds had overlapping home territories rather than mutually exclusive home territories. This arrangement allows humans to take control

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Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the

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The genetic difference between domestic and wild populations can be framed within two considerations. The first distinguishes between domestication traits that are presumed to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and improvement traits that have appeared since the split between

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Humans were already reliant on domestic plants and animals when they imagined the domestic versions of wild animals. Although horses, donkeys, and Old World camels were sometimes hunted as prey species, they were each deliberately brought into the human niche for sources of transport. Domestication

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The biomass of wild vertebrates is now increasingly small compared to the biomass of domestic animals, with the calculated biomass of domestic cattle alone being greater than that of all wild mammals. Because the evolution of domestic animals is ongoing, the process of domestication has a beginning

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specimens, archeologists have been able to document changes in the management strategies of hunted sheep, goats, pigs, and cows in the Fertile Crescent starting 11,700 YBP. A recent demographic and metrical study of cow and pig remains at Sha’ar Hagolan, Israel, demonstrated that both species were

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of both humans and numerous species of animals and plants. Areas with increasing agriculture, underwent urbanization, developing higher-density populations, expanded economies, and became centers of livestock and crop domestication. Such agricultural societies emerged across Eurasia, North Africa,

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pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their

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Domestication can be considered as the final phase of intensification in the relationship between animal or plant sub-populations and human societies, but it is divided into several grades of intensification. For studies in animal domestication, researchers have proposed five distinct categories:

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had experienced a significant reduction in cranial height and width and by inference in brain size, which supports the hypothesis that brain-size reduction is an early response to the selective pressure for tameness and lowered reactivity that is the universal feature of animal domestication. The

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Efficient diet – Animals that can efficiently process what they eat and live off plants are less expensive to keep in captivity. Carnivores feed on flesh, which would require the domesticators to raise additional animals to feed the carnivores and therefore increase the consumption of plants

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traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The term is also applied to animals and includes increased docility and tameness, coat color changes, reductions in tooth size, changes in craniofacial morphology, alterations in ear and tail form (e.g., floppy

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The single genetic regulatory network hypothesis proposes that domestication syndrome results from mutations in genes that regulate the expression pattern of more downstream genes. For example piebald, or spotted coat coloration, may be caused by a linkage in the biochemical pathways of melanins

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Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their

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of both the domesticator and the target domesticate." This definition recognizes both the biological and the cultural components of the domestication process and the effects on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship

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experiment demonstrated that selection for tameness within a few generations can result in modified behavioral, morphological, and physiological traits. The experiment demonstrated that domestic phenotypic traits could arise through selection for a behavioral trait, and that domestic behavioral

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population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, when the relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and human-controlled

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The archaeological and genetic data suggests that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks – including canids, donkeys, horses, New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs – was common. Bidirectional gene flow between domestic and wild reindeer continues today.

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pathway was traveled by vertebrates that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received no harm but little benefit. Those

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or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also a genetic difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have

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As agricultural societies migrated away from the domestication centers taking their domestic partners with them, they encountered populations of wild animals of the same or sister species. Because domestics often shared a recent common ancestor with the wild populations, they were capable of

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relationship between them, and the human role in their survival and reproduction, intensified. Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming, the other two pathways are not as goal-oriented and archaeological records suggest that they take place over much longer time frames.

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process with multiple stages along different pathways. Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal resulting from, either the commensal or prey pathways. In both of these cases, humans became entangled with these species as the

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Geneticists have identified more than 300 genetic loci and 150 genes associated with coat color variability. Knowing the mutations associated with different colors has allowed some correlation between the timing of the appearance of variable coat colors in horses with the timing of their

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The sustained selection for lowered reactivity among mammal domesticates has resulted in profound changes in brain form and function. The larger the size of the brain to begin with and the greater its degree of folding, the greater the degree of brain-size reduction under domestication.

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have lived apart from humans for thousands of years but still have the same brain size as that of a domestic dog. Feral dogs that actively avoid human contact are still dependent on human waste for survival and have not reverted to the self-sustaining behaviors of their wolf ancestors.

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The pathways that animals may have followed are not mutually exclusive. Pigs, for example, may have been domesticated as their populations became accustomed to the human niche, which would suggest a commensal pathway, or they may have been hunted and followed a prey pathway, or both.

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avoided culling reproductive females to promote population balance, neither gazelles nor zebras possessed the necessary prerequisites and were never domesticated. There is no clear evidence for the domestication of any herded prey animal in Africa, with the notable exception of the

462:. Based on this, the pleiotropy hypotheses can be separated into two theories. The Neural Crest Hypothesis relates adrenal gland function to deficits in neural crest cells during development. The Single Genetic Regulatory Network Hypothesis claims that genetic changes in 721:

of the behavioral preadaptions some species show before domestication. Therefore, the domestication of these animals requires more deliberate effort by humans to work around behaviors that do not assist domestication, with increased technological assistance needed.

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8,000 years ago, pigs were domesticated from wild boar that were genetically different from those found in the Fertile Crescent. The horse was domesticated on the Central Asian steppe 5,500 years ago. The chicken in Southeast Asia was domesticated 4,000 years ago.

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The chicken is one of the most widespread domesticated species and one of the human world's largest sources of protein. Although the chicken was domesticated in South-East Asia, archaeological evidence suggests that it was not kept as a livestock species until

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and before the domestication of other animals. Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional

662:. Prior to this, chickens had been associated with humans for thousands of years and kept for cock-fighting, rituals, and royal zoos, so they were not originally a prey species. The chicken was not a popular food in Europe until only one thousand years ago. 881:

was not supported. The study indicated that pigs were domesticated separately in Western Asia and China, with Western Asian pigs introduced into Europe where they crossed with wild boar. A model that fitted the data included admixture with a now extinct

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Almada RC, Coimbra NC. Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake Bothrops alternatus Synapse

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Quick growth rate – Fast maturity rate compared to the human life span allows breeding intervention and makes the animal useful within an acceptable duration of caretaking. Some large animals require many years before they reach a useful

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enquired as to why, among the world's 148 large wild terrestrial herbivorous mammals, only 14 were domesticated, and proposed that their wild ancestors must have possessed six characteristics before they could be considered for domestication:

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was still a multi-generational adaptation to human selection pressures, including tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. For example, despite the fact that hunters of the Near Eastern

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2006. Archaeological approaches to documenting animal domestication. In Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms, ed. Melinda A. Zeder, D.G Bradley, E Emshwiller, B.D Smith, pp. 209–27. Berkeley: Univ. Calif.

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about 11,700 YBP, and by 10,000 YBP people were preferentially killing young males of a variety of species and allowed the females to live in order to produce more offspring. By measuring the size, sex ratios, and mortality profiles of

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Directly affected by a relaxation of natural selection associated with feeding, breeding and protection/confinement by humans, and an intensification of artificial selection through passive selection for animals that are more suited to

108:, fowl, possibly pigs); (2) animals sought for food and other byproducts (e.g., sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer, llama, alpaca, and turkey); and (3) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g., 770:

has demonstrated that gene flow is common, not only between geographically diverse domestic populations of the same species but also between domestic populations and wild species that never gave rise to a domestic population.

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Prey pathway animals include sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer, llama and alpaca. The right conditions for the domestication for some of them appear to have been in place in the central and eastern

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In 2015, a study looked at over 100 pig genome sequences to ascertain their process of domestication. The process of domestication was assumed to have been initiated by humans, involved few individuals and relied on

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were the first livestock to be domesticated. Archaeologists working in Cyprus found an older burial ground, approximately 9500 years old, of an adult human with a feline skeleton. Two thousand years later, humped

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from 11,700 years ago, favorable climatic conditions and increasing human populations led to small-scale animal and plant domestication, which allowed humans to augment the food that they were obtaining through

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Kruska, D. 1988. "Mammalian domestication and its effect on brain structure and behavior," in Intelligence and evolutionary biology. Edited by H. J. Jerison and I. Jerison, pp. 211–50. New York: Springer-Verlag

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Domesticates that have returned to a wild state. As such, they experience relaxed artificial selection induced by the captive environment paired with intensified natural selection induced by the wild habitat.

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resulting from intentional and unintentional human preference. Some recent genomic studies on the genetic basis of traits associated with the domestication syndrome have shed light on both of these issues.

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Fuller, D. Q.; Willcox, G.; Allaby, R. G. (2011). "Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins: Arguments against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East".

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occurred between dogs and wolves 20,000–40,000 YBP, however this is the upper time-limit for domestication because it represents the time of divergence and not the time of domestication.

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Feral mammals such as dogs, cats, goats, donkeys, pigs, and ferrets that have lived apart from humans for generations show no sign of regaining the brain mass of their wild progenitors.

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wolves that were first domesticated, and the extinction of the wolves that were the direct ancestors of dogs has muddied efforts to pinpoint the time and place of dog domestication.

4082: 1684: 2891: 161:– was common. One study has concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs and created 517:

Subject to natural selection, although the action of past demographic events and artificial selection induced by game management or habitat destruction cannot be excluded.

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recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious

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Barbato, Mario; Hailer, Frank; Orozco-terWengel, Pablo; Kijas, James; Mereu, Paolo; Cabras, Pierangela; Mazza, Raffaele; Pirastru, Monica; Bruford, Michael W. (2017).

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llama and alpaca); and (3) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g., horse, donkey, camel). The beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted

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that occurred 12,900 years ago was a period of intense cold and aridity that put pressure on humans to intensify their foraging strategies. By the beginning of the

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Hanotte, O.; Bradley, D. G.; Ochieng, J. W.; Verjee, Y.; Hill, E. W.; Rege, J. E. O. (2002). "African pastoralism: genetic imprints of origins and migrations".

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Birks, J. D. S., and A. C. Kitchener. 1999. The distribution and status of the polecat Mustela putorius in Britain in the 1990s. London: Vincent Wildlife Trust.

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Domestic animals vary in coat color, craniofacial morphology, reduced brain size, floppy ears, and changes in the endocrine system and reproductive cycle. The

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It is proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication: (1) commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g.,

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that affect behavior and morphology. Human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars and created

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result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the

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Crockford, S. J. (2000). "A commentary on dog evolution: Regional variation, breed development and hybridization with wolves". In Crockford, S. (ed.).

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Subject to intensified artificial selection through husbandry practices with relaxation of natural selection associated with captivity and management.

81:(i.e. artificial selection) in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of 2144:

Frantz, L. (2015). "Evidence of long-term gene flow and selection during domestication from analyses of Eurasian wild and domestic pig genomes".

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Jones, R. Bryan; Satterlee, Daniel G.; Marks, Henry L. (1997). "Fear-related behaviour in Japanese quail divergently selected for body weight".

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in the genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals. Some of the most commonly domesticated animals are cats and dogs.

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In 2015, a study compared the diversity of dental size, shape and allometry across the proposed domestication categories of modern pigs (genus

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between the two eventually led to the domestic population becoming more genetically divergent from its original domestic source population.

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around 21,000 years ago and which continue to this present day. These changes made obtaining food difficult. The first domesticate was the

890:. The study also found that despite back-crossing with wild pigs, the genomes of domestic pigs have strong signatures of selection at 1693: 405:

Ability to breed in captivity – Animals that will not breed in captivity are limited to acquisition through capture in the wild.

2922: 269:

The domestication of animals and plants was triggered by the climatic and environmental changes that occurred after the peak of the

17: 3423:

Irving-Pease, Evan K.; Ryan, Hannah; Jamieson, Alexandra; Dimopoulos, Evangelos A.; Larson, Greger; Frantz, Laurent A. F. (2018).

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Machugh, David E.; Larson, Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2016). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication".

4603: 257:, showing very low temperatures for the most part of the Younger Dryas, rapidly rising afterwards to reach the level of the warm 3278:"Phenotype and animal domestication: A study of dental variation between domestic, wild, captive, hybrid and insular Sus scrofa" 2627:

Bocquet-Appel, J. P. (2011). "When the world's population took off: The springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition".

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that included another species with evolving behaviors. Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.

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Meyer, Rachel S.; Purugganan, Michael D. (2013). "Evolution of crop species: Genetics of domestication and diversification".

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and care of another organism in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest, and through which the

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Evin, Allowen; Dobney, Keith; Schafberg, Renate; Owen, Joseph; Vidarsdottir, Una; Larson, Greger; Cucchi, Thomas (2015).

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Valclav Smil, 2011, Harvesting the Biosphere:The Human Impact, Population and Development Review 37(4): 613–636, Table 2)

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Pierpaoli, M.; Biro, Z. S.; Herrmann, M.; Hupe, K.; Fernandes, M.; et al. (2003). "Genetic distinction of wildcat (

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producing fertile offspring. Domestic populations were small relative to the surrounding wild populations, and repeated

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in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of

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gains advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship, thereby benefitting and often increasing the

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Pig herding in fog, Armenia. Human selection for domestic traits is not affected by later gene flow from wild boar.

4679: 3010:"The "Domestication Syndrome" in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics" 2381:"The 'Domestication Syndrome' in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics" 455: 77:

species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious

3211:"The origins of animal domestication and husbandry: a major change in the history of humanity and the biosphere" 1140:

Olsen, K. M.; Wendel, J. F. (2013). "A bountiful harvest: genomic insights into crop domestication phenotypes".

3320: 1342: 2854: 2008: 4674: 4367: 463: 411:

Tendency not to panic – Some species are nervous, fast, and prone to flight when they perceive a threat.

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Sykes, Naomi (2012). "A social perspective on the introduction of exotic animals: The case of the chicken".

3465:"Earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia: Evidence from the Hellenistic Southern Levant" 2032:

Perri, Angela (2016). "A wolf in dog's clothing: Initial dog domestication and Pleistocene wolf variation".

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between wild and domestic forms, but the study found that the assumption of reproductive isolation with

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Currat, M.; et al. (2008). "The hidden side of invasions: Massive introgression by local genes".

1836:"Unraveling the Mysteries of Animal Domestication: Whole-genome sequencing challenges old assumptions" 4653: 4588: 3925:

Jordana, J.; Pares, P. M.; Sanchez, A. (1995). "Analysis of genetic-relationships in horse breeds".

1184:"Beyond the single gene: How epistasis and gene-by-environment effects influence crop domestication" 4583: 4571: 4390: 4062:

Hemmer, H. (2005). "Neumuhle-Riswicker Hirsche: Erste planma¨ßige Zucht einer neuen Nutztierform".

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Pleasant disposition – Animals with nasty dispositions are dangerous to keep around humans.

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and finally to pets in a slow, gradually intensifying relationship between humans and animals.

377: 244: 215: 2090:"Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication" 4576: 4454: 1617:

Hale, E. B. (1969). "Domestication and the evolution of behavior". In Hafez, E. S. E. (ed.).

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The yellow leg trait possessed by numerous modern commercial chicken breeds was acquired via

162: 3839:"Maternal and paternal lineages in crossbreeding bovine species. HasWisent a hybrid origin?" 424: 4226: 3965: 3795: 3601: 3476: 2906: 2746: 2638: 2515:"Unlocking the origins and biology of domestic animals using ancient DNA and paleogenomics" 2458: 1972: 1785: 1469: 1195: 1089: 964: 615: 434: 306: 270: 254: 2733:

Driscoll, Carlos; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Kitchener, Andrew; O'Brien, Stephen (June 2009).

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Numerous other bovid species, including bison, yak, banteng, and gaur hybridize with ease.

8: 3692: 3250:

Wild Pigs in the United States: Their History, Comparative Morphology, and Current Status

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Doust, A. N.; Lukens, L.; Olsen, K. M.; Mauro-Herrera, M.; Meyer, A.; Rogers, K. (2014).

763: 646:, however their status as dogs or wolves remains debated. Recent studies indicate that a 473: 262: 207: 179: 4230: 3969: 3954:"Genomic signatures of adaptive introgression from European mouflon into domestic sheep" 3799: 3737:"Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken" 3643:

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(2014). 1200:2014PNAS..111.6178D 1094:2014PNAS..111.6139L 969:2015PNAS..112.3191Z 764:population genetics 640:Bonn–Oberkassel dog 263:Greenland ice cores 4642:Self-domestication 4637:Selective breeding 3958:Scientific Reports 3080:10.4137/bbi.s28902 3074:(Suppl 4): 11–20. 2919:10.1511/1999.2.160 2899:American Scientist 2831:Trends in Genetics 2451:Scientific Reports 2358:10.1007/bf02098682 862:positive selection 857: 834:selective breeding 825:Positive selection 718: 690:at the end of the 679: 648:genetic divergence 470:Neural crest cells 430: 394: 355:Universal features 267: 213: 79:selective breeding 42: 4662: 4661: 3884:Molecular Ecology 3600:(6898): 700–707. 3524:World Archaeology 3475:(32): 9849–9854. 3446:978-3-030-04752-8 3409:978-0-521-14311-0 2682:World Archaeology 2637:(6042): 560–561. 2471:10.1038/srep40338 2261:978-1-4419-0426-3 2222:Brassica oleracea 2152:(10): 1141–1148. 1971:(23): 8878–8883. 1784:(17): 6153–6158. 1577:Zeder, Melinda A. 1194:(17): 6178–6183. 1088:(17): 6139–6146. 1059:978-0-09-930278-0 963:(11): 3191–3198. 949:Zeder, Melinda A. 838:natural selection 768:nuclear sequences 701:zooarchaeological 489:Limited reversion 452:phenotypic traits 128:era, well before 83:natural selection 16:(Redirected from 4697: 4384: 4377: 4370: 4361: 4360: 4355: 4354: 4328: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4301: 4291: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4250: 4208: 4202: 4201: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4138: 4132: 4131: 4129: 4128: 4122: 4116:. Archived from 4094:Animal Behaviour 4091: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4042: 4032: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3991: 3981: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3880:Felis silvestris 3875: 3869: 3868: 3858: 3849:(7): 1165–1170. 3834: 3828: 3827: 3794:(5566): 336–39. 3783: 3777: 3776: 3766: 3756: 3732: 3726: 3725: 3700:(8): 1908–1920. 3687: 3681: 3680: 3640: 3634: 3633: 3589: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3502: 3492: 3460: 3451: 3450: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3376: 3366: 3360: 3359: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3331: 3325: 3319:. Archived from 3310: 3300: 3282: 3273: 3254: 3253: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3206: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3187: 3181:. Archived from 3158: 3152: 3151: 3140:Canis hallstromi 3135: 3129: 3126: 3120: 3119: 3111: 3102: 3101: 3091: 3059: 3048: 3047: 3037: 3005: 2992: 2991: 2981: 2949: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2927: 2921:. Archived from 2896: 2887: 2881: 2878: 2869: 2868: 2866: 2865: 2859: 2853:. Archived from 2828: 2819: 2790: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2770: 2730: 2724: 2720:Melinda A. Zeder 2717: 2706: 2705: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2624: 2618: 2617: 2605: 2599: 2598: 2570: 2555: 2554: 2544: 2534: 2510: 2501: 2500: 2490: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2410: 2376: 2370: 2369: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2324: 2300: 2291: 2290: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2189: 2178: 2177: 2141: 2130: 2129: 2119: 2109: 2085: 2068: 2067: 2059: 2050: 2049: 2029: 2023: 2022: 2020: 2019: 2013: 2007:. Archived from 1998: 1988: 1962: 1953: 1940: 1939: 1931: 1922: 1921: 1913: 1904: 1903: 1885: 1876: 1875: 1867: 1858: 1857: 1855: 1831: 1822: 1821: 1811: 1801: 1769: 1756: 1755: 1727: 1708: 1707: 1705: 1704: 1698: 1691: 1680: 1669: 1668: 1632: 1623: 1622: 1614: 1605: 1604: 1573: 1524: 1523: 1515: 1506: 1505: 1495: 1485: 1453: 1440: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1412: 1403: 1402: 1366: 1357: 1356: 1354: 1353: 1347: 1341:. Archived from 1316: 1307: 1232: 1231: 1221: 1211: 1179: 1166: 1165: 1137: 1126: 1125: 1115: 1105: 1073: 1064: 1063: 1043: 1032: 1031: 1010: 1001: 1000: 990: 980: 945: 884:ghost population 688:Fertile Crescent 644:Paleolithic dogs 628:hunter-gatherers 346:in Pakistan. In 327:Fertile Crescent 300:hunter-gathering 192:partner organism 126:Late Pleistocene 21: 4705: 4704: 4700: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4695: 4694: 4665: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4620: 4560: 4539: 4505:Domestic rabbit 4393: 4388: 4358: 4351: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4315: 4282:(1): e1000341. 4268: 4264: 4209: 4205: 4166: 4162: 4139: 4135: 4126: 4124: 4120: 4089: 4079: 4075: 4060: 4056: 4023:(1): e1004016. 4009: 4005: 3950: 3946: 3923: 3919: 3890:(10): 2585–98. 3876: 3872: 3835: 3831: 3784: 3780: 3747:(2): e1000010. 3733: 3729: 3688: 3684: 3641: 3637: 3587: 3578: 3574: 3555: 3551: 3520: 3516: 3461: 3454: 3447: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3367: 3363: 3356: 3342: 3338: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3280: 3274: 3257: 3246: 3242: 3207: 3200: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3159: 3155: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3112: 3105: 3062:Wright (2015). 3060: 3051: 3006: 2995: 2950: 2941: 2931: 2929: 2925: 2894: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2872: 2863: 2861: 2857: 2826: 2820: 2793: 2788: 2784: 2731: 2727: 2718: 2709: 2678: 2674: 2625: 2621: 2606: 2602: 2571: 2558: 2511: 2504: 2443: 2439: 2428: 2424: 2377: 2373: 2342: 2338: 2301: 2294: 2287: 2273: 2269: 2262: 2237: 2233: 2218: 2214: 2190: 2181: 2158:10.1038/ng.3394 2146:Nature Genetics 2142: 2133: 2086: 2071: 2060: 2053: 2030: 2026: 2017: 2015: 2011: 1960: 1954: 1943: 1932: 1925: 1914: 1907: 1900: 1886: 1879: 1868: 1861: 1832: 1825: 1770: 1759: 1728: 1711: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1689: 1681: 1672: 1633: 1626: 1615: 1608: 1574: 1527: 1516: 1509: 1454: 1443: 1433: 1431: 1429: 1413: 1406: 1383:10.1038/nrg3605 1367: 1360: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1314: 1308: 1235: 1180: 1169: 1138: 1129: 1074: 1067: 1060: 1044: 1035: 1014:Darwin, Charles 1011: 1004: 946: 939: 935: 913: 898:in the genome. 827: 792:Indicine cattle 781:grey junglefowl 744: 710: 668: 591: 569: 504: 491: 456:down regulation 444: 422: 390:Hereford cattle 366: 357: 247: 241: 229: 205: 176: 171: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4703: 4693: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4660: 4659: 4657: 4656: 4651: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4628: 4626: 4625:Related topics 4622: 4621: 4619: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4580: 4579: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4547: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4410:Bactrian camel 4407: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4394: 4387: 4386: 4379: 4372: 4364: 4357: 4356: 4349: 4323: 4313: 4262: 4203: 4176:(4): 885–899. 4160: 4149:(1–2): 87–98. 4133: 4100:(3): 487–501. 4073: 4054: 4003: 3944: 3933:(7): 320–328. 3917: 3870: 3829: 3778: 3727: 3682: 3635: 3581:Diamond, Jared 3572: 3549: 3514: 3452: 3445: 3415: 3408: 3390: 3384:978-0684855301 3383: 3361: 3355:978-1841710891 3354: 3336: 3255: 3240: 3221:(3): 171–181. 3198: 3153: 3130: 3121: 3103: 3049: 3020:(3): 795–808. 2993: 2964:(3): 349–360. 2939: 2882: 2870: 2837:(4): 197–205. 2791: 2782: 2725: 2707: 2688:(4): 628–652. 2672: 2619: 2600: 2556: 2502: 2437: 2422: 2393:(3): 795–808. 2371: 2336: 2315:(2): 125–136. 2292: 2285: 2267: 2260: 2231: 2212: 2179: 2131: 2069: 2051: 2024: 1941: 1923: 1905: 1898: 1877: 1859: 1823: 1757: 1709: 1670: 1649:10.1086/413673 1624: 1606: 1587:(2): 161–190. 1525: 1507: 1441: 1427: 1404: 1377:(12): 840–52. 1358: 1233: 1167: 1127: 1065: 1058: 1033: 1002: 936: 934: 931: 930: 929: 924: 919: 912: 909: 830:Charles Darwin 826: 823: 802: 801: 798: 795: 788:Taurine cattle 784: 756:DNA sequencing 749:hybridizations 743: 740: 731:Epipaleolithic 709: 706: 667: 664: 605:coevolutionary 590: 587: 578:coevolutionary 568: 565: 557: 556: 553: 547: 543: 537: 534: 528: 524: 518: 515: 503: 500: 490: 487: 460:adrenal glands 443: 440: 421: 418: 417: 416: 412: 409: 406: 403: 399: 365: 362: 356: 353: 335:taurine cattle 331:zooarchaeology 240: 237: 228: 225: 204: 201: 175: 172: 170: 167: 71:Charles Darwin 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4702: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4649: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4605: 4602: 4601: 4600: 4597: 4595: 4592: 4590: 4587: 4585: 4582: 4578: 4575: 4574: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4548: 4546: 4544:Invertebrates 4542: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4525:Water buffalo 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4450:Domestic duck 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4385: 4380: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4366: 4365: 4362: 4352: 4350:9780521425377 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4266: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4225:(5926): 485. 4224: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4207: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4164: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4137: 4123:on 2016-03-05 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4086: 4085:Mustela vison 4077: 4069: 4065: 4058: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4017:PLOS Genetics 4014: 4007: 3999: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3948: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3741:PLOS Genetics 3738: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3694: 3686: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3639: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3594: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3457: 3448: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3429:Paleogenomics 3426: 3419: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3394: 3386: 3380: 3375: 3374: 3365: 3357: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3326:on 2016-03-04 3322: 3318: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3251: 3244: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3205: 3203: 3188:on 2021-08-13 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3125: 3117: 3110: 3108: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2886: 2877: 2875: 2860:on 2019-06-08 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2825: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2786: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2631: 2623: 2615: 2611: 2604: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2538: 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1768: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1699:on 2017-05-17 1695: 1688: 1687: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1631: 1629: 1620: 1613: 1611: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1572: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1521: 1514: 1512: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1430: 1428:9781780640556 1424: 1420: 1419: 1411: 1409: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1365: 1363: 1348:on 2019-05-13 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1313: 1306: 1304: 1302: 1300: 1298: 1296: 1294: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1264: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1178: 1176: 1174: 1172: 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407: 404: 400: 396: 395: 391: 387: 383: 380: 379: 374: 373:Jared Diamond 370: 361: 352: 349: 345: 341: 336: 332: 328: 323: 320: 316: 312: 308: 303: 301: 296: 292: 291:Younger Dryas 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 264: 260: 256: 251: 246: 236: 234: 224: 221: 217: 209: 200: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 174:Domestication 166: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 98: 96: 91: 89: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 66: 62: 58: 54: 51: 47: 39: 35: 31: 27: 19: 4646: 4490:Domestic pig 4336: 4326: 4321:2015:n/a–n/a 4316: 4279: 4275: 4265: 4222: 4216: 4206: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4125:. Retrieved 4118:the original 4097: 4093: 4084: 4076: 4067: 4063: 4057: 4020: 4016: 4006: 3961: 3957: 3947: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3846: 3842: 3832: 3791: 3787: 3781: 3744: 3740: 3730: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3655:(1): 83–95. 3652: 3648: 3638: 3597: 3591: 3575: 3558: 3552: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3472: 3468: 3428: 3418: 3399: 3393: 3377:. Scribner. 3372: 3364: 3345: 3339: 3328:. Retrieved 3321:the original 3288: 3284: 3249: 3243: 3218: 3214: 3190:. Retrieved 3183:the original 3173:(1): 49–72. 3170: 3166: 3156: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3124: 3115: 3071: 3067: 3017: 3013: 2961: 2957: 2930:. Retrieved 2923:the original 2902: 2898: 2885: 2862:. Retrieved 2855:the original 2834: 2830: 2785: 2745:(6): 68–75. 2742: 2738: 2728: 2685: 2681: 2675: 2634: 2628: 2622: 2609: 2603: 2578: 2574: 2522: 2518: 2454: 2450: 2440: 2431: 2425: 2390: 2384: 2374: 2349: 2345: 2339: 2312: 2308: 2276: 2270: 2243: 2234: 2225: 2221: 2215: 2196: 2149: 2145: 2097: 2093: 2063: 2037: 2033: 2027: 2016:. 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Retrieved 1343:the original 1322: 1318: 1191: 1187: 1145: 1141: 1085: 1081: 1048: 1018: 960: 956: 900: 892:genetic loci 871: 867: 858: 842: 828: 815: 807: 803: 754:Advances in 753: 745: 723: 719: 684: 680: 652: 623: 613: 600:synanthropic 592: 583: 574: 570: 560: 558: 549: 539: 530: 521:Captive wild 520: 511: 505: 492: 483: 468: 445: 431: 376: 375:in his book 371: 367: 358: 324: 304: 286: 278: 275:domestic dog 268: 230: 214: 188:reproduction 177: 99: 92: 75:domesticated 69: 45: 43: 26: 4495:Fancy mouse 4415:Bali cattle 4398:Vertebrates 3964:(1): 7623. 3530:: 158–169. 2932:January 12, 2581:: 329–351. 2519:BMC Biology 2193:Pennisi, E. 1846:(1): 7–13. 1643:(1): 1–32. 1434:January 21, 888:Pleistocene 819:Pleistocene 624:Canis lupus 540:Cross-breed 344:Baluchistan 287:Canis lupus 261:, based on 180:mutualistic 169:Definitions 130:cultivation 4669:Categories 4475:Guinea pig 4276:PLOS Genet 4127:2016-02-26 4070:: 255–261. 3330:2016-02-26 3192:2016-02-26 2864:2016-02-26 2018:2016-02-26 1840:BioScience 1703:2016-02-26 1352:2016-02-26 1325:: 115–36. 933:References 527:captivity. 502:Categories 448:pleiotropy 442:Pleiotropy 319:demography 285:ancestor ( 220:phenotypic 63:, and the 55:including 50:vertebrate 4551:Honey bee 4445:Dromedary 4170:Biol. Rev 3693:Evolution 3677:189903961 3669:1572-9842 3630:205209520 3544:162265583 2958:BioEssays 2525:(1): 98. 2479:2045-2322 2457:: 40338. 2352:: 11–34. 2240:Zeder, M. 2174:205350534 1738:: 61–85. 1148:: 47–70. 1028:156100686 779:from the 654:400 632:Near East 620:grey wolf 595:commensal 589:Commensal 348:East Asia 311:evolution 281:) from a 135:gene flow 4604:theories 4556:Silkworm 4510:Reindeer 4308:19148282 4257:19390039 4198:24056549 4190:21443614 4049:24453982 3998:28790322 3912:25491695 3904:12969463 3865:14739241 3824:30291909 3816:11951043 3773:18454198 3722:20999005 3714:18452573 3622:12167878 3583:(2002). 3509:26195775 3317:25648385 3291:(1): 6. 3235:21377611 3150:: 42–72. 3098:26512200 3044:25024034 3014:Genetics 2988:19260016 2851:23415592 2777:19485091 2702:56437102 2667:29655920 2659:21798934 2595:27813680 2551:31791340 2497:28059138 2417:25024034 2386:Genetics 2366:42389667 2331:31810775 2166:26323058 2126:26754411 2005:22615366 1818:24753599 1752:26526544 1665:83908518 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