2431:
signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP or UDP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by
1089:
2761:
1211:. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed. In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client. The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.
822:
1326:
2745:(NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars. In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The
767:, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.
1147:) of the domain name record in question. Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.
2273:(EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams.
2460:, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.
1426:
The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.
695:
directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would
4279:
DNS over HTTPS (DoH) obviates many but not all of the risks, and its transport protocol (i.e. HTTPS) raises concerns of privacy due to (e.g.) 'cookies.' The Tor
Network exists to provide TCP circuits with some freedom from tracking, surveillance, and blocking. Thus: In combination with Tor, DoH, and
2393:
as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and
Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH). ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer
1272:
A common approach to reduce the burden on DNS servers is to cache the results of name resolution locally or on intermediary resolver hosts. Each DNS query result comes with a time to live (TTL), which indicates how long the information remains valid before it needs to be discarded or refreshed. This
1227:
Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the
2430:
standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC
2284:
use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. As a booting client may be assigned a
1168:
of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods,
890:
A label may contain zero to 63 characters. The null label of length zero is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation. In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage,
1370:
Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.
1348:
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the
2444:
Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early
Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the
2356:
was developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS. DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are
1218:
procedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers. Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request. For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server,
1312:
When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to
Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in
2627:
Solutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and
Internet censorship. They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for
705:
By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to
4120:
We investigate whether DoH traffic is distinguishable from encrypted Web traffic. To this end, we train a machine learning model to classify HTTPS traffic as either Web or DoH. With our DoH identification model in place, we show that an authoritarian ISP can identify ≈97.4% of the DoH packets
1263:
org includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.
2313:
53 for servers listening to queries. Such queries consist of a clear-text request sent in a single UDP packet from the client, responded to with a clear-text reply sent in a single UDP packet from the server. When the length of the answer exceeds 512 bytes and both client and server support
2161:. DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone
1107:
Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for
1304:
is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain
1258:
for example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org. As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the name server for the
624:
domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the
Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.
1276:
As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.
1377:
represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet
Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.
1358:, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
1353:
to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined
589:). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (
1349:
request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the
Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed
1481:
E-mail servers can query blacklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Many of such blacklists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.
1140:
To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the
Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration
2102:
is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).
1013:
to DNS queries from data that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data.
2069:
is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.
2698:
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290
894:
Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels from using any character that is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in labels are a subset of the
1309:. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.
2675:, that are charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry. A
2318:(EDNS), larger UDP packets may be used. Use of DNS over UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length. In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional
2435:
in
December 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH. It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and Windows.
1511:
The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field
2636:, the browser in Chrome, and the DNS resolver in the 8.8.8.8 service. Would this scenario be a case of a single corporate entity being in a position of overarching control of the entire namespace of the Internet?
2326:. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers. For larger responses, the server refers the client to TCP transport.
1317:(ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
2540:
Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables
1112:
servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the
927:(letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in a case-independent manner. Labels may not start or end with a hyphen. An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric.
1035:
were sometimes used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special
1366:
Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.
1132:
In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the
1072:
When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a "lame delegation" or "lame response".
2337:
emerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853.
1876:
The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:
985:. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the
1156:
typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.
2177:
is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain
2528:
DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and
2414:. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.
1485:
To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of
799:(RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.
2602:
and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level
1188:, a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. In case of a
930:
The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible,
2269:
The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an extension mechanism, called
1085:
Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.
480:
implement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.
1543:. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries. The flag field consists of sub-fields as follows:
510:(CNAME). Although not intended to be a general purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as
2301:(UDP) for transport over IP. Its limitations have motivated numerous protocol developments for reliability, security, privacy, and other criteria, in the following decades.
461:
service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the
1150:
The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.
4325:
1196:
delivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers.
1203:, a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester. For example, a simple stub resolver running on a
1313:
reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of
2373:. It has "privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) , and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP". This method is not the same as DNS over
1124:
is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.
1942:
The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a
3800:
e-Infrastructure and e-Services for Developing Countries: 8th International Conference, AFRICOMM 2016, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, December 6-7, 2016, Proceedings
1396:
Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in
476:. The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a
1656:
After the flags word, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.
1043:
Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.
4301:
3088:
2652:
used a DoH-resolution mechanism to bypass local DNS resolution and steer all DNS queries from Apple's platforms to a set of Apple-operated name resolvers?
2345:
specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.
1341:, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the
1104:) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.
2668:
616:
is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can
4271:
3002:
1120:
This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice
2953:
2734:, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the
388:
4209:
2479:, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.
5314:
1092:
A DNS resolver that implements the iterative approach mandated by RFC 1034; in this case, the resolver consults three name servers to resolve the
3660:
4446:
2640:
already fielded an app that used its own DNS resolution mechanism independent of the platform upon which the app was running. What if the
3271:
2568:
User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of
1284:, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the
683:
Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI
668:
developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by
445:
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating
148:
4415:
1333:
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as
1423:
provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.
1400:, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate
5248:
2609:
Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or
1273:
TTL is determined by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server and can range from a few seconds to several days or even weeks.
2785:
2683:
is a person or organization who asked for domain registration. The registry receives registration information from each domain name
457:
service and was designed to avoid a single large central database. In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of the
2679:
is responsible for operating the database of names within its authoritative zone, although the term is most often used for TLDs. A
4463:
3214:
833:
Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be
3084:
2703:(ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance,
3970:
James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 6th ed. Essex, England: Pearson Educ. Limited, 2012
2468:
1963:
1314:
434:) assigned to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical
4315:
2490:
are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen
721:
published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983. These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.
5032:
These RFCs are advisory in nature, but may provide useful information despite defining neither a standard or BCP. (RFC 1796)
4280:
the principle of "Don't Do That, Then" (DDTT) to mitigate request fingerprinting, I describe DNS over HTTPS over Tor (DoHoT).
3808:
3781:
3610:
3162:
381:
108:
2628:
monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet.
5324:
4226:
3798:
3771:
2825:
1934:
The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.
1280:
Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all.
845:
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A
238:
233:
203:
2557:. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on
5239:
1350:
1137:
of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.
63:
4112:
3945:
2887:"Information fusion-based method for distributed domain name system cache poisoning attack detection and identification"
2749:(users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers.
1062:
in its responses. This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such as
725:
310:
253:
178:
17:
2129:, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (
4529:
2780:
2692:
2687:, which is authorized (accredited) to assign names in the corresponding zone and publishes the information using the
814:
may consist of as many domains and subdomains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to
711:
673:
637:
320:
290:
374:
305:
98:
2076:
is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the
1647:
Response code, can be NOERROR (0), FORMERR (1, Format error), SERVFAIL (2), NXDOMAIN (3, Nonexistent domain), etc.
3563:
3511:
3462:
3421:
3045:
2427:
2366:
1499:(DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile
718:
644:
services. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.
4519:
4293:
3077:
1973:
network, all records (answer, authority, and additional sections) use the common format specified in RFC 1035:
1954:(RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement
677:
123:
113:
3383:
2855:
2700:
2522:
2507:
2319:
947:
935:
756:
740:
538:
243:
223:
173:
1292:
field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.
1040:
in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.
4264:
3873:
2971:
2946:
2835:
2315:
2270:
2134:
428:
163:
158:
153:
4493:
2122:(HS) exist. Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.
2114:) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes
1592:
Authoritative Answer, in a response, indicates if the DNS server is authoritative for the queried hostname
1581:
The type can be QUERY (standard query, 0), IQUERY (inverse query, 1), or STATUS (server status request, 2)
1235:
In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the
442:. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
5329:
5319:
4168:
1114:
1093:
871:
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or
752:
340:
300:
168:
2633:
1959:
1405:
1153:
3849:
3325:
1100:
For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (
4249:
2715:
registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.
2181:, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.
1255:
1236:
1063:
1026:
628:
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet. Each subdomain is a
488:
446:
431:
4435:
5174:
4893:
Domain Name System (DNS) Security Extensions Mapping for the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP)
4412:
2947:"Globally Distributed Content Delivery, IEEE Internet Computing, September/October 2002, pp. 50–58"
2850:
2735:
2708:
2569:
2554:
2096:
record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.
1943:
770:
In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional
609:
523:
193:
133:
2667:
The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars which are accredited by the
2514:
may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in
2410:. A use which has become common since 2019 to warrant its own frequently used acronym is DNS over
4464:"Registration Data Access Protocol (RDAP) Operational Profile for gTLD Registries and Registrars"
3920:
3824:
3279:
2805:
2464:
2456:
Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is
2403:
978:
462:
360:
350:
143:
58:
42:
2886:
2820:
2800:
2298:
537:(UDP) as transport over IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the
534:
477:
228:
78:
1010:
652:
Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the
5113:
Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Background, Explanation, and Rationale
3924:
3738:
2390:
2119:
1193:
788:
453:
of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and
355:
128:
3553:
3501:
3360:
3300:
1946:, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (
4339:
4150:
4050:
3717:
3643:
3577:
3525:
3476:
3435:
3133:
3059:
2775:
2503:
2386:
1625:
Recursion Available, in a response, indicates if the replying DNS server supports recursion
974:
955:
771:
665:
633:
601:
138:
31:
1411:
DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance,
837:
to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.
612:. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the
8:
4736:
Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Definitions and Document Framework
2562:
2457:
2146:
1950:), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a
1412:
1229:
550:
4471:
2935:, Information Sciences Institute, J. Postel (Ed.), The Internet Society (September 1981)
728:
students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first
483:
The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (
4394:
4201:
4183:
2994:
2914:
2407:
1947:
1301:
1088:
503:
345:
2035:
Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 2−1, which is about 68 years)
818:
where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.
438:
needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying
4525:
4386:
3804:
3777:
3654:
3606:
3158:
2998:
2906:
2845:
2582:, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP,
2529:
2323:
1989:
1970:
1892:
1684:
1374:
1046:
An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed
744:
657:
519:
518:(RP) records. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating
507:
418:
273:
49:
4398:
4205:
3899:
3215:"Why Does the Net Still Work on Christmas? Paul Mockapetris - Internet Hall of Fame"
2918:
2760:
887:
is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.
702:, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.
4378:
4193:
4140:
4090:
4040:
4008:
3746:
3707:
3633:
3567:
3515:
3466:
3425:
3329:
3123:
3049:
2986:
2898:
2790:
2338:
2254:
2246:
1486:
1288:(SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the
1260:
1251:
of the response. A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address.
994:
986:
959:
861:
707:
439:
4756:
The Unicode Code Points and Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)
1345:
in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
965:) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893.
5123:
Mapping Characters for Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) 2008
4419:
2766:
2542:
1955:
1500:
1401:
1397:
604:
function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as
214:
5213:
5203:
5193:
5158:
5148:
5138:
5128:
5118:
5108:
5098:
5088:
5078:
5068:
5058:
5048:
5037:
5016:
5005:
4994:
4983:
4972:
4955:
4938:
4928:
4918:
4908:
4903:
Use of GOST Signature Algorithms in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC
4898:
4888:
4883:
Use of SHA-2 Algorithms with RSA in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC
4878:
4868:
4858:
4848:
4838:
4828:
4818:
4801:
4791:
4781:
4771:
4766:
Right-to-Left Scripts for Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)
4761:
4751:
4741:
4731:
4721:
4711:
4701:
4691:
4681:
4671:
4661:
4651:
4641:
4631:
4621:
4611:
4601:
4591:
4581:
4571:
4561:
4551:
4153:
4134:
4094:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4053:
4034:
4012:
3720:
3701:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3646:
3627:
3580:
3557:
3528:
3505:
3479:
3456:
3438:
3415:
3136:
3117:
3062:
3039:
2342:
2258:
2250:
1243:. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the
1068:
that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.
526:(RBL). The DNS database is traditionally stored in a structured text file, the
5182:
4366:
2810:
2610:
2558:
2450:
2446:
2353:
2289:
server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.
1281:
864:; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain
664:
that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET.
594:
499:
458:
454:
264:
5231:
2902:
735:
implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as
5308:
4390:
4197:
3349:
Elizabeth Feinler, IEEE Annals, 3B2-9 man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74
2910:
2830:
2795:
2593:
2585:
2546:
2411:
1603:
TrunCation, indicates that this message was truncated due to excessive length
1382:
1338:
1134:
807:
605:
473:
3454:
2990:
2380:
946:. In 2009, ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name
5253:
3697:
3113:
2972:"The Akamai Network: A Platform for High-Performance Internet Applications"
2815:
2614:
2599:
2550:
2471:(DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses.
2334:
2081:
2030:
1342:
1143:
854:
764:
661:
632:
of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a
410:
183:
5271:
1408:
to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.
710:. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the
2840:
2603:
2475:
has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such as
2310:
2281:
1966:(DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.
1496:
1385:
detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.
1334:
1204:
1165:
982:
846:
732:
562:
492:
423:
5249:"Meet the seven people who hold the keys to worldwide internet security"
4382:
2575:
The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:
2482:
Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example,
4030:
2944:
J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman, and B. Weihl.
2645:
1285:
760:
748:
669:
597:
without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
484:
435:
331:
4411:
APWG. "Global Phishing Survey: Domain Name Use and Trends in 1H2010."
2165:
specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of
1393:
The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.
1207:
typically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user's
5272:"Internet Governance and the Domain Name System: Issues for Congress"
5235:
4145:
4045:
3750:
3712:
3638:
3572:
3520:
3471:
3430:
3128:
3054:
2860:
2511:
2126:
1420:
938:(IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map
872:
688:
636:, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's
527:
469:
450:
2385:
Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at
821:
449:
for each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority over
5292:
4188:
3877:
3379:
2865:
2731:
2641:
2618:
2515:
2491:
2472:
2423:
2261:
was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.
2115:
2089:
1325:
943:
811:
684:
629:
554:
414:
4646:
DNSSEC and IPv6 A6 aware server/resolver message size requirements
4367:"Retrofitting Security into Network Protocols: The Case of DNSSEC"
3455:
Paul Hoffman; Andrew Sullivan; Kazunori Fujiwara (December 2015).
1614:
Recursion Desired, indicates if the client means a recursive query
1489:
exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via
549:
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the
4308:
4133:
Huitema, Christian; Dickinson, Sara; Mankin, Allison (May 2022).
2969:
2933:
Internet Protocol - DARPA Internet Program Protocol Specification
2727:
2723:
2672:
2637:
2432:
1490:
939:
653:
4853:
Use of SHA-256 in DNSSEC Delegation Signer (DS) Resource Records
4596:
A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)
3367:. USENIX Association Software Tools Users Group. pp. 23–31.
2502:
look very similar or even identical. This problem, known as the
5103:
Requirements for a Mechanism Identifying a Name Server Instance
5083:
Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names
4746:
Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA): Protocol
4521:
Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet
4320:
3703:
Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names
2707:, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, most
2589:
2374:
1416:
1181:. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods.
511:
294:
188:
87:
67:
4873:
DNS Security (DNSSEC) Hashed Authenticated Denial of Existence
3900:"Ben Anderson: Why Web Browser DNS Caching Can Be A Bad Thing"
4726:
Measures for Making DNS More Resilient against Forged Answers
4467:
2704:
2688:
2592:
domains, hiding both name resolution and user traffic behind
2133:), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for
1306:
931:
896:
692:
641:
315:
93:
4121:
correctly while only misclassifying 1 in 10,000 Web packets.
4028:
3737:
Fujiwara, Kazunori; Sullivan, Andrew; Hoffman, Paul (2024).
2322:(TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly,
5298:
3949:
3921:"How Internet Explorer uses the cache for DNS host entries"
2885:
Wu, Hao; Dang, Xianglei; Wang, Lidong; He, Longtao (2016).
2588:, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous
2476:
2370:
2286:
1037:
840:
736:
729:
698:
586:
574:
496:
283:
278:
248:
198:
118:
83:
5021:
DNS Root Name Service Protocol and Deployment Requirements
4863:
Minimally Covering NSEC Records and DNSSEC On-line Signing
4265:""No Port 53, Who Dis?" A Year of DNS over HTTPS over Tor"
2357:
easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.
1219:
then a "com" server, and finally an "example.com" server.
4923:
Specification for DNS over Transport Layer Security (TLS)
4676:
Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification
3770:
Nemeth, Evi; Snyder, Garth; Hein, Trent R. (2006-10-30).
3629:
Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification
3209:
3207:
2649:
2579:
2381:
Oblivious DoH (ODoH) and predecessor Oblivious DNS (ODNS)
2297:
From the time of its origin in 1983 the DNS has used the
1689:
1559:
1469:. This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to
1222:
1208:
1059:
613:
590:
417:, services, and other resources on the Internet or other
103:
5177:, but due to their age are not clearly labeled as such.
4716:
Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors
4166:
3252:
2088:
record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a
1247:
of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the
1239:
mentioned in the delegation. This information is called
553:
for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer
4576:
Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support
4167:
Schmitt, Paul; Edmundson, Anne; Feamster, Nick (2019).
4111:
Csikor, Levente; Divakaran, Dinil Mon (February 2021).
3736:
3377:
3230:
3228:
541:(TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments.
4843:
Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions
4606:
Dynamic Updates in the domain name system (DNS UPDATE)
4132:
4036:
Dynamic Updates in the Domain Name System (DNS UPDATE)
3204:
1570:
Indicates if the message is a query (0) or a reply (1)
421:(IP) networks. It associates various information with
4270:. Network and Distributed System Security Symposium.
2080:
record is used to translate from a domain name to an
1519:
The header section consists of the following fields:
4806:
Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)
4796:
DNS Transport over TCP - Implementation Requirements
3797:
Bissyande, Tegawendé F.; Sie, Oumarou (2017-10-09).
3240:
3225:
3201:
IEEE Annals man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74
3183:
3075:
2756:
1127:
829:, organized into zones, each served by a name server
774:
have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.
3365:
Summer Conference, Salt Lake City 1984: Proceedings
3359:Terry, Douglas B.; et al. (June 12–15, 1984).
3171:
2722:registry model is used. The domain registry (e.g.,
2669:
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
2632:Google is the dominant provider of the platform in
1503:, or when the IP address changes administratively.
875:of the domain to the right. For example, the label
4666:Handling of Unknown DNS Resource Record (RR) Types
4294:"DNSCrypt – Critical, fundamental, and about time"
4169:"Oblivious DNS: Practical Privacy for DNS Queries"
3323:
2426:protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the
849:consists of one or more parts, technically called
4933:Usage Profiles for DNS over TLS and DNS over DTLS
4113:"Privacy of DNS over HTTPS: Requiem for a Dream?"
3603:International Domain Name Law: ICANN and the UDRP
3358:
3352:
1355:
5306:
5295:, Open Source Guide – DNS for Rocket Scientists.
4977:Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers
4833:Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions
4227:"Oblivious DNS Deployed by Cloudflare and Apple"
3769:
3551:
3499:
2011:Type of RR in numeric form (e.g., 15 for MX RRs)
1415:use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver
5093:Threat Analysis of the Domain Name System (DNS)
5063:Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors
4686:The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System
4566:Domain Names - Implementation and Specification
4364:
4110:
4029:S. Thomson; Y. Rekhter; J. Bound (April 1997).
4017:The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System
3625:
3041:Domain Names - Implementation and Specification
2525:can also be used to help validate DNS results.
1516:) controls the content of these four sections.
1080:
942:strings into the valid DNS character set using
936:Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications
691:during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a
5218:DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types
5153:DNS Query Name Minimisation to Improve Privacy
4811:
4429:
4427:
4340:"Oblivious DoH · DNSCrypt/dnscrypt-proxy Wiki"
3371:
2970:Nygren., E.; Sitaraman R. K.; Sun, J. (2010).
2711:(gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called
2535:
2445:requirements for security measures to protect
2000:Name of the node to which this record pertains
857:, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.
825:The hierarchical Domain Name System for class
743:substantially revised the DNS implementation.
5301:– site where you can do experiments with DNS.
3559:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities
3507:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities
3417:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities
2304:
2125:In addition to resource records defined in a
1017:An authoritative name server can either be a
1009:name server is a name server that only gives
557:into IP addresses. For example, the hostname
382:
5010:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations
4626:Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)
4365:Herzberg, Amir; Shulman, Haya (2014-01-01).
3994:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations
3983:, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), Section 3
3981:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations
3897:
3796:
2884:
2467:, leading to many attack possibilities; the
2245:The role of wildcard records was refined in
1000:
5053:Domain Name System Structure and Delegation
4424:
4332:
3659:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3547:
3545:
3502:"Name space specifications and terminology"
3413:
3157:(5th ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 3.
3037:
2662:
2532:data, since it is often seen as innocuous.
2046:Length of RDATA field (specified in octets)
680:(ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.
533:The Domain Name System originally used the
4823:DNS Security Introduction and Requirements
4004:
4002:
3696:
3692:
3690:
3450:
3448:
3409:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3361:"The Berkeley Internet Name Domain Server"
3301:"Paul Mockapetris | Internet Hall of Fame"
3112:
2741:Some domain name registries, often called
2463:DNS responses traditionally do not have a
1050:, by setting a protocol flag, called the "
973:The Domain Name System is maintained by a
891:as it also stores the length of the name.
656:era. The Stanford Research Institute (now
389:
375:
30:"DNS" redirects here. For other uses, see
5133:Running a Root Server Local to a Resolver
4965:
4187:
4144:
4044:
3711:
3637:
3571:
3519:
3470:
3429:
3152:
3127:
3053:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3023:
2786:Decentralized object location and routing
1228:delegation is being provided, there is a
530:, but other database systems are common.
27:System to identify resources on a network
4706:DNS Name Server Identifier (NSID) Option
4291:
3996:, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), p. 11
3554:"How the database is divided into zones"
3542:
3493:
2718:For top-level domains on COM and NET, a
2149:which specify names that start with the
1324:
1087:
989:, the servers to query when looking up (
958:of the existing top-level domain names (
923:, and hyphen. This rule is known as the
899:character set, consisting of characters
841:Domain name syntax, internationalization
820:
5315:Internet properties established in 1983
5270:Kruger, Lennard G. (18 November 2016).
4616:Clarifications to the DNS Specification
4262:
4022:
3999:
3687:
3619:
3600:
3445:
3398:
3324:Andrei Robachevsky (26 November 2013).
2671:(ICANN) or other organizations such as
2348:
2276:
1192:, the non-recursive query of its local
1108:"www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the
620:receive different translations for the
472:, the domain name hierarchy and the IP
14:
5307:
5269:
5208:Domain Administrators Operations Guide
5189:– Specified original top-level domains
5173:These RFCs have an official status of
4656:DNS Extensions to Support IP Version 6
4556:Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities
4433:
3106:
3076:Champika Wijayatunga (February 2015).
3020:
2469:Domain Name System Security Extensions
2360:
2292:
2285:different IP address each time from a
2264:
1964:Domain Name System Security Extensions
1797:
1315:American Registry for Internet Numbers
1223:Circular dependencies and glue records
791:. Each node or leaf in the tree has a
514:records, or for human queries such as
502:(MX), name servers (NS), pointers for
5229:
5027:
4636:Indicating Resolver Support of DNSSEC
4517:
4328:from the original on 25 October 2019.
4247:
3946:"Domain Name System (DNS) Parameters"
3258:
3246:
3234:
3189:
3177:
2925:
2329:
2253:, because the original definition in
1506:
1388:
981:. The nodes of this database are the
468:The Internet maintains two principal
5246:
4948:
4786:Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)
4118:. National University of Singapore.
4099:Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)
3605:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 8.
3119:Role of the Domain Name System (DNS)
2826:IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting
1537:Number of authority resource records
787:The domain name space consists of a
782:
409:) is a hierarchical and distributed
5257:. Guardian News & Media Limited
5242:from the original on 29 March 2023.
4999:DNS Proxy Implementation Guidelines
4696:HMAC SHA TSIG Algorithm Identifiers
4316:"Anonymized DNSCrypt specification"
4292:Ulevitch, David (6 December 2011).
4139:. Internet Engineering Task Force.
4136:DNS over Dedicated QUIC Connections
3414:Mockapetris, Paul (November 1987).
3153:Liu, Cricket; Albitz, Paul (2006).
3038:Mockapetris, Paul (November 1987).
2979:ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review
2506:, is acute in systems that support
2365:RFC 9250, published in 2022 by the
2140:
1937:
1914:Type of RR (A, AAAA, MX, TXT, etc.)
1871:
1361:
1189:
1121:
24:
4544:
4539:
3552:Paul Mockapetris (November 1987).
3500:Paul Mockapetris (November 1987).
2621:, which do provide such protection
2439:
581:2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946
413:that provides a naming system for
25:
5341:
5223:
5042:Choosing a Name for Your Computer
4988:Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation
4776:Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection
4470:. 3 December 2015. Archived from
4304:from the original on 1 July 2020.
4277:from the original on 2021-03-21.
4248:Pauly, Tommy (2 September 2021).
3898:Ben Anderson (7 September 2011).
2781:Comparison of DNS server software
2394:encryption in a single protocol.
1465:is not blacklisted and points to
1295:
1267:
1128:Recursive and caching name server
860:The right-most label conveys the
751:then took over BIND maintenance.
712:University of Southern California
674:University of Southern California
5247:Ball, James (28 February 2014).
4586:Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS
4452:from the original on 2019-09-30.
4215:from the original on 2022-01-21.
3626:D. Eastlake 3rd (January 2006).
2959:from the original on 2015-04-17.
2759:
2691:protocol. As of 2015, usage of
2145:The domain name system supports
1320:
1159:
948:country code top-level domains (
687:(NIC), directed by Feinler, via
4524:. New York: Portfolio/Penguin.
4486:
4456:
4405:
4358:
4285:
4263:Muffett, Alec (February 2021).
4256:
4241:
4219:
4160:
4126:
4104:
4084:
3986:
3973:
3964:
3938:
3913:
3891:
3866:
3842:
3817:
3790:
3776:. Addison-Wesley Professional.
3763:
3730:
3594:
3386:from the original on 2019-06-30
3343:
3317:
3293:
3264:
3195:
3094:from the original on 2015-12-22
3008:from the original on 2010-12-02
2397:
2367:Internet Engineering Task Force
1025:server. Historically the terms
968:
719:Internet Engineering Task Force
660:) maintained a text file named
5279:Congressional Research Service
4176:Privacy Enhancing Technologies
3146:
3069:
2963:
2938:
2878:
2701:country code top-level domains
2508:internationalized domain names
2110:of a record is set to IN (for
1903:Name of the requested resource
678:Information Sciences Institute
13:
1:
4443:The Internet Protocol Journal
3874:"Providers ignoring DNS TTL?"
3773:Linux Administration Handbook
3378:Internet Systems Consortium.
2872:
2856:List of managed DNS providers
2523:forward-confirmed reverse DNS
2510:, as many character codes in
2320:Transmission Control Protocol
1636:Zero, reserved for future use
1467:6.113.0.203.blacklist.example
1444:5.113.0.203.blacklist.example
1442:is blacklisted. It points to
879:specifies a subdomain of the
539:Transmission Control Protocol
4943:DNS Queries over HTTPS (DoH)
2836:Public recursive name server
2316:Extension Mechanisms for DNS
2271:Extension Mechanisms for DNS
2169:use the mail exchanger (MX)
1977:Resource record (RR) fields
1880:Resource record (RR) fields
1081:Address resolution mechanism
1075:
1038:automatic updating mechanism
777:
565:translates to the addresses
7:
5325:Application layer protocols
5198:Domain Administrators Guide
4812:Proposed security standards
4434:Huston, Geoff (July 2019).
3326:"Happy 30th Birthday, DNS!"
2752:
2743:network information centers
2536:Privacy and tracking issues
2494:. In many fonts the letter
2417:
2057:Additional RR-specific data
1115:fully qualified domain name
1094:fully qualified domain name
753:Internet Systems Consortium
739:. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of
544:
10:
5346:
5230:Vixie, Paul (4 May 2007).
5168:
5143:DNS Privacy Considerations
4913:The EDNS(0) Padding Option
4511:
4436:"DNS Privacy and the IETF"
4250:"Oblivious DNS Over HTTPS"
4081:.
3850:"What is DNS propagation?"
3684:.
2644:app included DoH? What if
2305:DNS over UDP/TCP/53 (Do53)
2060:Variable, as per RDLENGTH
1864:
1861:
1850:
1847:
1800:
1154:Internet service providers
853:, that are conventionally
802:The tree sub-divides into
685:Network Information Center
647:
447:authoritative name servers
29:
4518:Evans, Claire L. (2018).
4039:. Network Working Group.
3706:. Network Working Group.
3632:. Network Working Group.
3122:. Network Working Group.
2903:10.1049/iet-ifs.2014.0386
2606:or pornography blocking.
2570:Content Delivery Networks
2555:man-in-the-middle attacks
1865:Number of additional RRs
1836:
1833:
1810:
1794:
1791:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1256:authoritative name server
1237:authoritative name server
1001:Authoritative name server
610:content delivery networks
4198:10.2478/popets-2019-0028
4101:, P. Vixie (August 1999)
2891:IET Information Security
2851:List of DNS record types
2736:Public Interest Registry
2709:Generic top-level domain
2663:Domain name registration
2657:DNS Privacy and the IETF
2404:virtual private networks
2183:
1944:list of DNS record types
1862:Number of authority RRs
1541:Number of additional RRs
524:real-time blackhole list
4371:IEEE Internet Computing
3601:Lindsay, David (2007).
2991:10.1145/1842733.1842736
2806:DNS management software
2543:network packet sniffing
2465:cryptographic signature
1329:DNS resolution sequence
977:system, which uses the
755:was founded in 1994 by
561:within the domain name
463:Internet protocol suite
43:Internet protocol suite
4966:Best Current Practices
4960:New DNS RR Definitions
4065:. Updated by RFC
4019:, E. Lewis (July 2006)
3305:internethalloffame.org
3219:internethalloffame.org
2821:Hierarchical namespace
2801:DNS Long-Lived Queries
2660:
2299:User Datagram Protocol
1330:
1097:
830:
535:User Datagram Protocol
478:communication protocol
3925:Microsoft Corporation
3380:"The History of BIND"
3276:Internet Hall of Fame
2695:is being considered.
2630:
2596:counter-surveillance,
2391:University of Chicago
2369:, describes DNS over
1328:
1117:"www.wikipedia.org".
1091:
824:
747:, Phil Almquist, and
3668:Updated by RFC
3282:on 14 September 2018
3078:"DNS Abuse Handling"
2776:Alternative DNS root
2504:IDN homograph attack
2402:DNS may be run over
2387:Princeton University
2349:DNS over HTTPS (DoH)
2277:Dynamic zone updates
2147:wildcard DNS records
1956:round-robin ordering
1848:Number of questions
1547:Header flags format
1446:, which resolves to
1413:mail transfer agents
1254:For example, if the
1190:caching DNS resolver
1096:"www.wikipedia.org".
1052:Authoritative Answer
975:distributed database
954:. In addition, many
772:Request for Comments
522:(spam) by storing a
32:DNS (disambiguation)
5187:Domain Requirements
5073:The Naming of Hosts
4474:on 22 December 2015
4413:10/15/2010 apwg.org
4383:10.1109/MIC.2014.14
3672:. Updates RFC
3382:. History of BIND.
3272:"Elizabeth Feinler"
2551:DNS cache poisoning
2521:Techniques such as
2458:DNS cache poisoning
2408:tunneling protocols
2361:DNS over QUIC (DoQ)
2293:Transport protocols
2282:Dynamic DNS updates
2265:Protocol extensions
2173:. The A record for
1978:
1962:. In contrast, the
1952:resource record set
1881:
1661:
1548:
1529:Number of questions
1230:circular dependency
1186:non-recursive query
979:client–server model
789:tree data structure
508:domain name aliases
504:reverse DNS lookups
5330:Internet Standards
5320:Domain Name System
5028:Informational RFCs
4494:"Find a Registrar"
4418:2012-10-03 at the
4346:. DNSCrypt project
4059:Proposed Standard.
3854:IONOS Digitalguide
3829:IONOS Digitalguide
3666:Proposed Standard.
3261:, p. 120–121.
2330:DNS over TLS (DoT)
1976:
1969:When sent over an
1879:
1851:Number of answers
1659:
1546:
1507:DNS message format
1389:Other applications
1331:
1302:reverse DNS lookup
1286:Start of Authority
1245:additional section
1098:
831:
516:responsible person
403:Domain Name System
18:Domain name system
4949:Experimental RFCs
4229:. 9 December 2020
4061:Updates RFC
3831:. 27 January 2022
3810:978-3-319-66742-3
3783:978-0-13-700275-7
3739:"DNS Terminology"
3700:(February 2004).
3612:978-1-84113-584-7
3566:. sec. 4.2.
3514:. sec. 3.1.
3164:978-0-596-10057-5
3116:(February 2003).
2846:Split-horizon DNS
2064:
2063:
1971:Internet Protocol
1932:
1931:
1869:
1868:
1654:
1653:
1533:Number of answers
1487:root name servers
1406:load distribution
1375:Internet Explorer
1249:authority section
1033:primary/secondary
987:root name servers
806:beginning at the
795:and zero or more
783:Domain name space
666:Elizabeth Feinler
658:SRI International
600:An important and
520:unsolicited email
487:), IP addresses (
440:network protocols
419:Internet Protocol
399:
398:
50:Application layer
16:(Redirected from
5337:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5276:
5266:
5264:
5262:
5243:
5232:"DNS Complexity"
4535:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4501:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4460:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4440:
4431:
4422:
4409:
4403:
4402:
4362:
4356:
4355:
4353:
4351:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4312:
4306:
4305:
4289:
4283:
4282:
4276:
4269:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4234:
4223:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4191:
4173:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4148:
4146:10.17487/RFC9250
4130:
4124:
4123:
4117:
4108:
4102:
4088:
4082:
4057:
4048:
4046:10.17487/RFC2136
4026:
4020:
4006:
3997:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3971:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3932:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3895:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3821:
3815:
3814:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3767:
3761:
3760:
3758:
3757:
3751:10.17487/RFC9499
3734:
3728:
3724:
3715:
3713:10.17487/RFC3696
3694:
3685:
3664:
3658:
3650:
3641:
3639:10.17487/RFC4343
3623:
3617:
3616:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3575:
3573:10.17487/RFC1034
3549:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3523:
3521:10.17487/RFC1034
3497:
3491:
3490:
3488:
3486:
3474:
3472:10.17487/RFC7719
3452:
3443:
3442:
3433:
3431:10.17487/RFC1034
3411:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3356:
3350:
3347:
3341:
3340:
3338:
3336:
3330:Internet Society
3321:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3278:. Archived from
3268:
3262:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3238:
3232:
3223:
3222:
3211:
3202:
3199:
3193:
3187:
3181:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3150:
3144:
3140:
3131:
3129:10.17487/RFC3467
3110:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3093:
3082:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3057:
3055:10.17487/RFC1035
3035:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3013:
3007:
2976:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2951:
2942:
2936:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2882:
2791:Domain hijacking
2769:
2764:
2763:
2658:
2498:and the numeral
2489:
2485:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2160:
2156:
2141:Wildcard records
1979:
1975:
1938:Resource records
1882:
1878:
1872:Question section
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1808:
1662:
1658:
1549:
1545:
1475:
1474:
1468:
1463:
1462:
1452:
1451:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1362:Broken resolvers
1282:Negative caching
1261:top level domain
862:top-level domain
797:resource records
708:Paul Mockapetris
696:have the domain
595:e-mail addresses
583:
582:
571:
570:
560:
391:
384:
377:
39:
38:
21:
5345:
5344:
5340:
5339:
5338:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5305:
5304:
5283:
5281:
5274:
5260:
5258:
5226:
5171:
5163:DNS Terminology
5030:
4968:
4951:
4814:
4547:
4545:Standards track
4542:
4540:Further reading
4532:
4514:
4509:
4499:
4497:
4496:. VeriSign, Inc
4492:
4491:
4487:
4477:
4475:
4462:
4461:
4457:
4449:
4438:
4432:
4425:
4420:Wayback Machine
4410:
4406:
4363:
4359:
4349:
4347:
4338:
4337:
4333:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4290:
4286:
4274:
4267:
4261:
4257:
4246:
4242:
4232:
4230:
4225:
4224:
4220:
4212:
4171:
4165:
4161:
4131:
4127:
4115:
4109:
4105:
4089:
4085:
4027:
4023:
4007:
4000:
3991:
3987:
3978:
3974:
3969:
3965:
3955:
3953:
3944:
3943:
3939:
3930:
3928:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3904:
3902:
3896:
3892:
3883:
3881:
3872:
3871:
3867:
3858:
3856:
3848:
3847:
3843:
3834:
3832:
3823:
3822:
3818:
3811:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3768:
3764:
3755:
3753:
3735:
3731:
3695:
3688:
3652:
3651:
3624:
3620:
3613:
3599:
3595:
3585:
3583:
3550:
3543:
3533:
3531:
3498:
3494:
3484:
3482:
3458:DNS Terminology
3453:
3446:
3412:
3399:
3389:
3387:
3376:
3372:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3334:
3332:
3322:
3318:
3309:
3307:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3285:
3283:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3257:
3253:
3245:
3241:
3233:
3226:
3221:. 23 July 2012.
3213:
3212:
3205:
3200:
3196:
3188:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3151:
3147:
3111:
3107:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3080:
3074:
3070:
3036:
3021:
3011:
3009:
3005:
2974:
2968:
2964:
2956:
2949:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2930:
2926:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2767:Internet portal
2765:
2758:
2755:
2728:BigRock and PDR
2665:
2659:
2656:
2559:captive portals
2538:
2487:
2483:
2442:
2440:Security issues
2420:
2400:
2383:
2363:
2351:
2332:
2307:
2295:
2279:
2267:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2158:
2154:
2143:
1940:
1874:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1806:
1509:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1402:fault tolerance
1398:virtual hosting
1391:
1364:
1323:
1298:
1270:
1225:
1216:iterative query
1201:recursive query
1162:
1130:
1083:
1078:
1003:
971:
843:
785:
780:
650:
580:
579:
568:
567:
559:www.example.com
558:
547:
500:mail exchangers
395:
215:Transport layer
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5343:
5333:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5303:
5302:
5296:
5290:
5267:
5244:
5225:
5224:External links
5222:
5221:
5220:
5210:
5200:
5190:
5170:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5155:
5145:
5135:
5125:
5115:
5105:
5095:
5085:
5075:
5065:
5055:
5045:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5013:
5002:
4991:
4980:
4967:
4964:
4963:
4962:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4935:
4925:
4915:
4905:
4895:
4885:
4875:
4865:
4855:
4845:
4835:
4825:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4808:
4798:
4788:
4778:
4768:
4758:
4748:
4738:
4728:
4718:
4708:
4698:
4688:
4678:
4668:
4658:
4648:
4638:
4628:
4618:
4608:
4598:
4588:
4578:
4568:
4558:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4530:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4507:
4485:
4455:
4423:
4404:
4357:
4331:
4307:
4298:Cisco Umbrella
4284:
4255:
4240:
4218:
4182:(2): 228–244.
4159:
4125:
4103:
4083:
4021:
3998:
3985:
3972:
3963:
3937:
3912:
3890:
3865:
3841:
3816:
3809:
3789:
3782:
3762:
3743:tools.ietf.org
3729:
3726:Informational.
3686:
3618:
3611:
3593:
3541:
3492:
3444:
3397:
3370:
3351:
3342:
3316:
3292:
3263:
3251:
3249:, p. 120.
3239:
3237:, p. 119.
3224:
3203:
3194:
3192:, p. 113.
3182:
3180:, p. 112.
3170:
3163:
3145:
3142:Informational.
3105:
3068:
3019:
2962:
2937:
2924:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2811:DNS over HTTPS
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2754:
2751:
2664:
2661:
2654:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2611:DNS over HTTPS
2597:
2583:
2537:
2534:
2451:authentication
2447:data integrity
2441:
2438:
2419:
2416:
2399:
2396:
2382:
2379:
2362:
2359:
2354:DNS over HTTPS
2350:
2347:
2331:
2328:
2324:zone transfers
2306:
2303:
2294:
2291:
2278:
2275:
2266:
2263:
2210:*.a.x.example.
2184:
2151:asterisk label
2142:
2139:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1983:
1960:load balancing
1939:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1896:
1889:
1886:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1799:
1798:Transaction ID
1796:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1556:
1553:
1521:Identification
1508:
1505:
1479:
1478:
1455:
1390:
1387:
1363:
1360:
1339:e-mail clients
1322:
1319:
1297:
1296:Reverse lookup
1294:
1269:
1268:Record caching
1266:
1224:
1221:
1161:
1158:
1129:
1126:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1066:, to indicate
1002:
999:
970:
967:
842:
839:
784:
781:
779:
776:
724:In 1984, four
649:
646:
618:simultaneously
606:cloud services
546:
543:
474:address spaces
455:fault-tolerant
429:identification
397:
396:
394:
393:
386:
379:
371:
368:
367:
366:
365:
358:
353:
348:
343:
335:
334:
328:
327:
326:
325:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
288:
287:
286:
281:
268:
267:
265:Internet layer
261:
260:
259:
258:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
218:
217:
211:
210:
209:
208:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
81:
76:
71:
61:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5342:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5312:
5310:
5300:
5299:Mess with DNS
5297:
5294:
5291:
5280:
5273:
5268:
5256:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5241:
5237:
5233:
5228:
5227:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5034:
5033:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5003:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4969:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4952:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4815:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4548:
4533:
4531:9780735211759
4527:
4523:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4495:
4489:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4459:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4430:
4428:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4408:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4345:
4341:
4335:
4327:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4311:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4288:
4281:
4273:
4266:
4259:
4251:
4244:
4228:
4222:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4170:
4163:
4155:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4137:
4129:
4122:
4114:
4107:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4087:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4055:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4025:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4005:
4003:
3995:
3989:
3982:
3976:
3967:
3951:
3947:
3941:
3926:
3922:
3916:
3901:
3894:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3855:
3851:
3845:
3830:
3826:
3820:
3812:
3806:
3802:
3801:
3793:
3785:
3779:
3775:
3774:
3766:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3733:
3727:
3722:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3693:
3691:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3648:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3630:
3622:
3614:
3608:
3604:
3597:
3582:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3548:
3546:
3530:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3503:
3496:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3451:
3449:
3440:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3366:
3362:
3355:
3346:
3331:
3327:
3320:
3306:
3302:
3296:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3260:
3255:
3248:
3243:
3236:
3231:
3229:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3198:
3191:
3186:
3179:
3174:
3166:
3160:
3156:
3149:
3143:
3138:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3109:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3042:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2877:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2831:Multicast DNS
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2796:DNS hijacking
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2762:
2757:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2738:exclusively.
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:advertisement
2601:
2598:
2595:
2594:onion routing
2591:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2547:DNS hijacking
2544:
2533:
2531:
2526:
2524:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2459:
2454:
2452:
2448:
2437:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2358:
2355:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2312:
2309:UDP reserves
2302:
2300:
2290:
2288:
2283:
2274:
2272:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2152:
2148:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2068:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1974:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1877:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1805:
1804:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1515:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1476:
1464:
1456:
1453:
1441:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:For example:
1428:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1386:
1384:
1383:Google Chrome
1379:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1359:
1357:
1352:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1327:
1321:Client lookup
1318:
1316:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1265:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1175:non-recursive
1172:
1167:
1160:DNS resolvers
1157:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1136:
1125:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1111:
1105:
1103:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1048:authoritative
1044:
1041:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1007:authoritative
998:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
966:
964:
962:
957:
953:
951:
945:
941:
937:
934:approved the
933:
928:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
892:
888:
886:
882:
878:
874:
869:
867:
863:
858:
856:
852:
848:
838:
836:
828:
823:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
775:
773:
768:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
731:
727:
722:
720:
715:
713:
709:
703:
701:
700:
694:
690:
686:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
626:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
598:
596:
592:
588:
584:
576:
572:
569:93.184.216.34
564:
556:
552:
542:
540:
536:
531:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
498:
494:
490:
486:
481:
479:
475:
471:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
430:
426:
425:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
392:
387:
385:
380:
378:
373:
372:
370:
369:
364:
363:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
338:
337:
336:
333:
330:
329:
324:
323:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
296:
292:
289:
285:
282:
280:
277:
276:
275:
272:
271:
270:
269:
266:
263:
262:
257:
256:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
221:
220:
219:
216:
213:
212:
207:
206:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
89:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
69:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
55:
54:
51:
48:
47:
44:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
5282:. Retrieved
5278:
5259:. Retrieved
5254:The Guardian
5252:
5217:
5207:
5197:
5186:
5172:
5162:
5152:
5142:
5132:
5122:
5112:
5102:
5092:
5082:
5072:
5062:
5052:
5041:
5031:
5020:
5009:
4998:
4987:
4976:
4959:
4942:
4932:
4922:
4912:
4902:
4892:
4882:
4872:
4862:
4852:
4842:
4832:
4822:
4805:
4795:
4785:
4775:
4765:
4755:
4745:
4735:
4725:
4715:
4705:
4695:
4685:
4675:
4665:
4655:
4645:
4635:
4625:
4615:
4605:
4595:
4585:
4575:
4565:
4555:
4520:
4498:. Retrieved
4488:
4476:. Retrieved
4472:the original
4458:
4442:
4407:
4377:(1): 66–71.
4374:
4370:
4360:
4348:. Retrieved
4343:
4334:
4324:. DNSCrypt.
4319:
4310:
4297:
4287:
4278:
4258:
4243:
4231:. Retrieved
4221:
4179:
4175:
4162:
4135:
4128:
4119:
4106:
4098:
4086:
4058:
4035:
4024:
4016:
3993:
3988:
3980:
3975:
3966:
3954:. Retrieved
3952:. DNS RCODEs
3940:
3929:. Retrieved
3915:
3903:. Retrieved
3893:
3882:. Retrieved
3868:
3857:. Retrieved
3853:
3844:
3833:. Retrieved
3828:
3819:
3803:. Springer.
3799:
3792:
3772:
3765:
3754:. Retrieved
3742:
3732:
3725:
3702:
3665:
3628:
3621:
3602:
3596:
3584:. Retrieved
3558:
3532:. Retrieved
3506:
3495:
3483:. Retrieved
3457:
3416:
3388:. Retrieved
3373:
3364:
3354:
3345:
3333:. Retrieved
3319:
3308:. Retrieved
3304:
3295:
3284:. Retrieved
3280:the original
3275:
3266:
3254:
3242:
3218:
3197:
3185:
3173:
3155:DNS and BIND
3154:
3148:
3141:
3118:
3108:
3096:. Retrieved
3071:
3040:
3012:November 19,
3010:. Retrieved
2982:
2978:
2965:
2940:
2932:
2927:
2897:(1): 37–44.
2894:
2890:
2880:
2816:DNS over TLS
2746:
2742:
2740:
2719:
2717:
2712:
2697:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2666:
2631:
2626:
2615:DNS over TLS
2574:
2567:
2539:
2527:
2520:
2499:
2495:
2481:
2462:
2455:
2443:
2421:
2401:
2398:DNS over Tor
2384:
2364:
2352:
2335:DNS over TLS
2333:
2308:
2296:
2280:
2268:
2244:
2234:a.x.example.
2231:a.x.example.
2222:a.x.example.
2219:a.x.example.
2207:a.x.example.
2198:*.x.example.
2195:a.x.example.
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2150:
2144:
2130:
2124:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2085:
2082:IPv4 address
2077:
2073:
2072:
2066:
2065:
1968:
1951:
1948:time to live
1941:
1933:
1875:
1665:
1655:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1495:
1493:addressing.
1484:
1480:
1470:
1458:
1457:The address
1447:
1435:
1434:The address
1429:
1425:
1410:
1395:
1392:
1380:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1347:
1343:DNS resolver
1335:web browsers
1332:
1311:
1299:
1289:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1226:
1215:
1213:
1200:
1198:
1185:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1152:
1149:
1144:time-to-live
1142:
1139:
1131:
1119:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1084:
1071:
1067:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1032:
1028:master/slave
1027:
1022:
1021:server or a
1018:
1016:
1006:
1004:
990:
983:name servers
972:
969:Name servers
960:
949:
929:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
889:
884:
883:domain, and
880:
876:
870:
865:
859:
855:concatenated
850:
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834:
832:
826:
815:
803:
801:
796:
792:
786:
769:
765:Carl Malamud
723:
716:
704:
697:
682:
651:
627:
621:
617:
599:
578:
566:
548:
532:
515:
482:
467:
444:
436:IP addresses
424:domain names
422:
411:name service
406:
402:
400:
361:
321:
254:
204:
73:
36:
5261:28 February
4500:18 December
4478:18 December
3586:17 December
3534:17 December
3485:18 December
3335:18 December
3098:18 December
2985:(3): 2–19.
2841:resolv.conf
2747:registrants
2406:(VPNs) and
2311:port number
2240:2001:db8::1
2179:a.x.example
2175:a.x.example
2171:a.x.example
2131:on the wire
1985:Description
1958:to achieve
1888:Description
1660:DNS Header
1555:Description
1539:(RRs), and
1497:Dynamic DNS
1461:203.0.113.6
1438:203.0.113.5
1205:home router
1166:client side
847:domain name
745:Mike Karels
733:name server
726:UC Berkeley
563:example.com
506:(PTR), and
5309:Categories
5293:Zytrax.com
4189:1806.00276
3992:RFC 5395,
3979:RFC 5395,
3931:2010-07-25
3905:20 October
3884:2012-04-07
3859:2022-04-22
3835:2022-03-31
3825:"DNS zone"
3756:2024-07-01
3698:J. Klensin
3310:2020-02-12
3286:2018-11-25
3259:Evans 2018
3247:Evans 2018
3235:Evans 2018
3190:Evans 2018
3178:Evans 2018
3114:J. Klensin
2873:References
2681:registrant
2563:censorship
2530:exfiltrate
2488:paypa1.com
2484:paypal.com
2186:x.example.
2092:, and the
2022:Class code
1925:Class code
956:registries
778:Structure
761:Paul Vixie
757:Rick Adams
749:Paul Vixie
670:Jon Postel
602:ubiquitous
551:phone book
470:namespaces
451:subdomains
332:Link layer
5236:ACM Queue
5212:RFC
5202:RFC
5192:RFC
5181:RFC
5157:RFC
5147:RFC
5137:RFC
5127:RFC
5117:RFC
5107:RFC
5097:RFC
5087:RFC
5077:RFC
5067:RFC
5057:RFC
5047:RFC
5036:RFC
5015:RFC
5004:RFC
5001:(BCP 152)
4993:RFC
4982:RFC
4971:RFC
4954:RFC
4937:RFC
4927:RFC
4917:RFC
4907:RFC
4897:RFC
4887:RFC
4877:RFC
4867:RFC
4857:RFC
4847:RFC
4837:RFC
4827:RFC
4817:RFC
4800:RFC
4790:RFC
4780:RFC
4770:RFC
4760:RFC
4750:RFC
4740:RFC
4730:RFC
4720:RFC
4710:RFC
4700:RFC
4690:RFC
4680:RFC
4670:RFC
4660:RFC
4650:RFC
4640:RFC
4630:RFC
4620:RFC
4610:RFC
4600:RFC
4590:RFC
4580:RFC
4570:RFC
4560:RFC
4550:RFC
4391:1089-7801
2999:207181702
2931:RFC 781,
2911:1751-8717
2861:Zone file
2685:registrar
2512:ISO 10646
2449:and user
2167:x.example
2163:x.example
2159:*.example
2127:zone file
2118:(CH) and
2003:Variable
1906:Variable
1501:hot spots
1473:127.0.0.2
1450:127.0.0.1
1421:MX record
1194:DNS cache
1179:iterative
1171:recursive
1135:root zone
1076:Operation
1023:secondary
991:resolving
915:, digits
873:subdomain
835:delegated
808:root zone
689:telephone
662:HOSTS.TXT
555:hostnames
528:zone file
415:computers
5240:Archived
5023:(BCP 40)
5012:(BCP 42)
4990:(BCP 20)
4979:(BCP 16)
4447:Archived
4416:Archived
4399:12230888
4326:Archived
4302:Archived
4272:Archived
4210:Archived
4206:44126163
4031:P. Vixie
3878:Slashdot
3655:citation
3384:Archived
3089:Archived
3003:Archived
2954:Archived
2919:45091791
2866:DNS leak
2753:See also
2732:VeriSign
2677:registry
2655:—
2642:Facebook
2619:DNSCrypt
2516:phishing
2492:typeface
2473:DNSCurve
2424:DNSCrypt
2418:DNSCrypt
2389:and the
2157:, e.g.,
2112:Internet
2090:DNS zone
2043:RDLENGTH
1988:Length (
1891:Length (
1558:Length (
1169:such as
944:Punycode
925:LDH rule
919:through
911:through
903:through
827:Internet
812:DNS zone
634:registry
545:Function
459:database
5284:27 July
5175:Unknown
5169:Unknown
5044:(FYI 5)
4512:Sources
4350:28 July
4252:. IETF.
4233:27 July
4033:(ed.).
3956:14 June
3390:4 April
2724:GoDaddy
2673:OpenNIC
2638:Netflix
2634:Android
2600:Proxies
2433:OpenDNS
2137:(OPT).
1811:OPCODE
1666:Offsets
1491:anycast
1290:minimum
1122:caching
1019:primary
1011:answers
940:Unicode
877:example
672:at the
654:ARPANET
648:History
432:strings
362:more...
346:Tunnels
322:more...
255:more...
205:more...
194:TLS/SSL
149:ONC/RPC
86: (
4528:
4397:
4389:
4344:GitHub
4321:GitHub
4204:
4093:
4011:
3927:. 2004
3880:. 2005
3807:
3780:
3609:
3161:
2997:
2917:
2909:
2590:.onion
2375:HTTP/3
2341:
2257:
2249:
2120:Hesiod
2084:, the
1990:octets
1893:octets
1837:RCODE
1801:Flags
1578:OPCODE
1417:e-mail
1177:, and
851:labels
763:, and
593:) and
577:) and
512:DNSSEC
189:Telnet
88:HTTP/3
5275:(PDF)
4468:ICANN
4450:(PDF)
4439:(PDF)
4395:S2CID
4275:(PDF)
4268:(PDF)
4213:(PDF)
4202:S2CID
4184:arXiv
4172:(PDF)
4116:(PDF)
3092:(PDF)
3085:APNIC
3081:(PDF)
3006:(PDF)
2995:S2CID
2975:(PDF)
2957:(PDF)
2950:(PDF)
2915:S2CID
2713:thick
2705:DENIC
2689:WHOIS
2646:Apple
2116:Chaos
2108:CLASS
2100:RDATA
2054:RDATA
2019:CLASS
1982:Field
1922:CLASS
1885:Field
1685:Octet
1644:RCODE
1552:Field
1525:Flags
1514:flags
1419:: An
1381:When
1356:above
1199:In a
1184:In a
1102:hints
950:ccTLD
932:ICANN
897:ASCII
816:class
810:. A
804:zones
793:label
693:WHOIS
642:WHOIS
316:IPsec
94:HTTPS
5286:2024
5263:2014
5214:1101
5204:1033
5194:1032
5159:9499
5149:9156
5139:9076
5129:8806
5119:5895
5109:5894
5099:4892
5089:3833
5079:3696
5069:2100
5059:1912
5049:1591
5038:1178
5017:7720
5006:6895
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4909:7830
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4772:6672
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4752:5892
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4702:5001
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4672:4343
4662:3597
4652:3596
4642:3226
4632:3225
4622:2308
4612:2181
4602:2136
4592:1996
4582:1995
4572:1123
4562:1035
4552:1034
4526:ISBN
4502:2015
4480:2015
4387:ISSN
4352:2022
4235:2022
4180:2019
4154:9250
4095:2671
4079:4035
4077:and
4075:4034
4071:4033
4067:3007
4063:1035
4054:2136
4013:4592
3958:2019
3950:IANA
3907:2014
3805:ISBN
3778:ISBN
3721:3696
3682:2181
3680:and
3678:1035
3674:1034
3670:5890
3661:link
3647:4343
3607:ISBN
3588:2015
3581:1034
3564:IETF
3536:2015
3529:1034
3512:IETF
3487:2015
3480:7719
3463:IETF
3439:1034
3422:IETF
3392:2022
3337:2015
3159:ISBN
3137:3467
3100:2016
3063:1035
3046:IETF
3014:2012
2907:ISSN
2720:thin
2693:RDAP
2617:and
2580:VPNs
2561:and
2553:and
2486:and
2477:TSIG
2428:IETF
2422:The
2371:QUIC
2343:7858
2287:DHCP
2259:1034
2251:4592
2237:AAAA
2135:EDNS
2106:The
2074:TYPE
2067:NAME
2008:TYPE
1997:NAME
1911:TYPE
1900:NAME
1560:bits
1404:and
1351:DHCP
1307:arpa
1241:glue
1214:The
1164:The
1031:and
993:) a
737:BIND
730:Unix
717:The
640:and
638:RDAP
630:zone
622:same
608:and
591:URLs
587:IPv6
575:IPv4
497:SMTP
493:AAAA
491:and
401:The
311:IGMP
291:ICMP
249:QUIC
244:RSVP
239:SCTP
234:DCCP
199:XMPP
179:SNMP
174:SMTP
159:RTSP
134:OSPF
124:NNTP
119:MQTT
114:MGCP
109:LDAP
99:IMAP
84:HTTP
64:DHCP
5183:920
4379:doi
4194:doi
4151:RFC
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3134:RFC
3124:doi
3060:RFC
3050:doi
2987:doi
2899:doi
2650:iOS
2648:'s
2586:Tor
2412:Tor
2339:RFC
2255:RFC
2247:RFC
2031:TTL
1859:64
1845:32
1690:Bit
1209:ISP
1110:org
1064:dig
1060:bit
1054:" (
1005:An
995:TLD
961:TLD
885:www
881:com
866:com
741:DEC
699:edu
676:'s
614:URL
495:),
485:SOA
407:DNS
356:MAC
351:PPP
341:ARP
306:ECN
301:NDP
229:UDP
224:TCP
184:SSH
169:SIP
164:RIP
154:RTP
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139:POP
129:NTP
104:IRC
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