Brain–computer interface

1621:, using visual stimuli modulated at certain frequencies. SSVEP stimuli are often formed from alternating checkerboard patterns and at times use flashing images. The frequency of the phase reversal of the stimulus used can be distinguished by EEG; this makes detection of SSVEP stimuli relatively easy. SSVEP is used within many BCI systems. This is due to several factors. The signal elicited is measurable in as large a population as the transient VEP and blink movement. Electrocardiographic artefacts do not affect the frequencies monitored. The SSVEP signal is robust; the topographic organization of the primary visual cortex is such that a broader area obtains afferents from the visual field's central or fovial region. SSVEP comes with problems. As SSVEPs use flashing stimuli to infer user intent, the user must gaze at one of the flashing or iterating symbols in order to interact with the system. It is, therefore, likely that the symbols become irritating and uncomfortable during longer play sessions. 1632:. P300 amplitude decreases as the target stimuli and the ignored stimuli grow more similar. P300 is thought to be related to a higher level attention process or an orienting response. Using P300 requires fewer training sessions. The first application to use it was the P300 matrix. Within this system, a subject chooses a letter from a 6 by 6 grid of letters and numbers. The rows and columns of the grid flashed sequentially and every time the selected "choice letter" was illuminated the user's P300 was (potentially) elicited. However, the communication process, at approximately 17 characters per minute, was slow. P300 offers a discrete selection rather than continuous control. The advantage of P300 within games is that the player does not have to learn how to use a new control system, requiring only short training instances to learn gameplay mechanics and the basic BCI paradigm. 1603:, sleep problems in children, teeth grinding, and chronic pain. EEG biofeedback systems typically monitor four brainwave bands (theta: 4–7 Hz, alpha:8–12 Hz, SMR: 12–15 Hz, beta: 15–18 Hz) and challenge the subject to control them. Passive BCI uses BCI to enrich human–machine interaction with information on the user's mental state, for example, simulations that detect when users intend to push brakes during emergency vehicle braking. Game developers using passive BCIs understand that through repetition of game levels the user's cognitive state adapts. During the first play of a given level, the player reacts differently than during subsequent plays: for example, the user is less surprised by an event that they expect. 686:. Research has reported that despite neuroscientists' inclination to believe that neurons have the most effect when working together, single neurons can be conditioned through the use of BCIs to fire in a pattern that allows primates to control motor outputs. BCIs led to development of the single neuron insufficiency principle that states that even with a well-tuned firing rate, single neurons can only carry limited information and therefore the highest level of accuracy is achieved by recording ensemble firings. Other principles discovered with BCIs include the neuronal multitasking principle, the neuronal mass principle, the neural degeneracy principle, and the plasticity principle. 1571:, which modulates sensorimotor oscillations in the EEG. This can be detected by the BCI and used to infer user intent. Motor imagery typically requires training to acquire acceptable control. Training sessions typically consume hours over several days. Regardless of the duration of the training session, users are unable to master the control scheme. This results in very slow pace of the gameplay. Machine learning methods were used to compute a subject-specific model for detecting motor imagery performance. The top performing algorithm from BCI Competition IV in 2022 dataset 2 for motor imagery was the Filter Bank Common Spatial Pattern, developed by Ang et al. from 503: 931: 1669:; directing attention to a chosen letter on a virtual keyboard, without the need to look directly at the letter. Each letter has its own (background) circle which micro-oscillates in brightness differently from the others. Letter selection is based on best fit between unintentional pupil-size oscillation and the background circle's brightness oscillation pattern. Accuracy is additionally improved by the user's mental rehearsal of the words 'bright' and 'dark' in synchrony with the brightness transitions of the letter's circle. 1491: 2022:

methods for motor recovery that include BCIs. In this approach, a BCI measures motor activity while the patient imagines or attempts movements as directed by a therapist. The BCI may provide two benefits: (1) if the BCI indicates that a patient is not imagining a movement correctly (non-compliance), then the BCI could inform the patient and therapist; and (2) rewarding feedback such as functional stimulation or the movement of a virtual avatar also depends on the patient's correct movement imagery.

2001:(MCS). BCI research seeks to address DOC. A key initial goal is to identify patients who can perform basic cognitive tasks, which would change their diagnosis, and allow them to make important decisions (such as whether to seek therapy, where to live, and their views on end-of-life decisions regarding them). Patients incorrectly diagnosed may die as a result of end-of-life decisions made by others. The prospect of using BCI to communicate with such patients is a tantalizing prospect. 1966: 1820:

deep-brain stimulation, and the blurring of the line between human and machine. Other concerns involve the use of BCIs in advanced interrogation techniques, unauthorized access ("brain hacking"), social stratification through selective enhancement, privacy issues related to mind-reading, tracking and "tagging" systems, and the potential for mind, movement, and emotion control. Researchers have also theorized that BCIs could exacerbate existing social inequalities.

12658: 12263: 11605: 2047:. During this procedure, electrodes are placed on the brain to precisely identify the locations of structures and functional areas. Patients may be awake during neurosurgery and asked to perform tasks, such as moving fingers or repeating words. This is necessary so that surgeons can remove the desired tissue while sparing other regions. Removing too much brain tissue can cause permanent damage, while removing too little can mandate additional neurosurgery. 1120: 12682: 550: 13208: 356: 11174: 12670: 12275: 11617: 923:, which convert analog extracellular voltages into digital signals. Because a typical neuron action potential lasts for one millisecond, BCIs measuring spikes must have sampling rates ranging from 300 Hz to 5 kHz. Yet another concern is that invasive BCIs must be low-power, so as to dissipate less heat to surrounding tissue; at the most basic level more power is traditionally needed to optimize 11386: 778: 12689: 11821: 12703: 1095:

resolution and cannot effectively use higher-frequency signals because the skull interferes, dispersing and blurring the electromagnetic waves created by the neurons. EEG-based interfaces also require some time and effort prior to each usage session, while others require no prior-usage training. The choice of a specific BCI for a patient depends on numerous factors.

9053: 1416:(ICA) had been shown to be efficient in separating EEG signals from noise. The researchers stated that CCA data with and without ICA processing were similar. They concluded that CCA demonstrated robustness to motion artifacts. EEG-based BCI applications offer low spatial resolution. Possible solutions include: EEG source connectivity based on 2026:

investigating neuroplasticity during motor recovery post-stroke. Future systems might include the fMRI and other measures for real-time control, such as functional near-infrared, probably in tandem with EEGs. Non-invasive brain stimulation has also been explored in combination with BCIs for motor recovery. In 2016, scientists out of the

1334:. As he concentrated on simple but opposite concepts like up and down. A basic pattern was identified in his beta-rhythm EEG output and used to control a switch: Above average activity was interpreted as on, below average off. The signals were also used to drive nerve controllers embedded in his hands, restoring some movement. 1373:). SSVEPs are electrical responses to flickering visual stimuli with repetition rates over 6 Hz that are best found in the parietal and occipital scalp regions of the visual cortex. It was reported that all study participants were able to initiate the phone call with minimal practice in natural environments. 429: 6416:

Justin Williams, a biomedical engineer at the university, has already transformed the ECoG implant into a micro device that can be installed with a minimum of fuss. It has been tested in animals for a long period of time – the micro ECoG stays in place and doesn't seem to negatively affect the immune

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from individuals with communication difficulties, the impact on patients' and families' quality of life, health-related side effects, misuse of therapeutic applications, safety risks, and the non-reversible nature of some BCI-induced changes. Additionally, questions arise about access to maintenance,

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BCIs present significant ethical questions, including concerns about privacy, autonomy, consent, and the consequences of merging human cognition with external devices. Exploring these ethical considerations highlights the complex interplay between advancing technology and preserving fundamental human

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is awarded annually in recognition of innovative research. Each year, a renowned research laboratory is asked to judge projects. The jury consists of BCI experts recruited by that laboratory. The jury selects twelve nominees, then chooses a first, second, and third-place winner, who receive awards of

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Other researchers achieved brain-to-brain communication between at a distance using non-invasive technology attached to the participants' scalps. The words were encoded in binary streams by the cognitive motor input of the person sending the information. Pseudo-random bits of the information carried

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A 2011 study reported second-by-second reconstruction of videos watched by the study's subjects, from fMRI data. This was achieved by creating a statistical model relating videos to brain activity. This model was then used to look up 100 one-second video segments, in a database of 18 million seconds

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of resultant EEG SSVEPs. The stated goals of this study were to "increase the practicability, portability, and ubiquity of an SSVEP-based BCI, for daily use". It was reported that the stimulation frequency on all mediums was accurate, although the phone's signal was not stable. The amplitudes of the

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Partially invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull but rest outside the brain rather than within the grey matter. They produce higher resolution signals than non-invasive BCIs where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms signals and have a lower risk of forming scar-tissue in

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an automobile slowly around the parking area of the research institute. Dobelle died in 2004 before his processes and developments were documented, leaving no one to continue his work. Subsequently, Naumann and the other patients in the program began having problems with their vision, and eventually

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Nicolelis and colleagues demonstrated that large neural ensembles can predict arm position. This work allowed BCIs to read arm movement intentions and translate them into actuator movements. Carmena and colleagues programmed a BCI that allowed a monkey to control reaching and grasping movements by a

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than owl monkeys. The monkeys were trained to reach and grasp objects on a computer screen by manipulating a joystick while corresponding movements by a robot arm were hidden. The monkeys were later shown the robot and learned to control it by viewing its movements. The BCI used velocity predictions

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The idea of combining/integrating brain signals from multiple individuals was introduced at Humanity+ @Caltech, in December 2010, by Adrian Stoica, who referred to the concept as multi-brain aggregation. A patent was applied for in 2012. Stoica's first paper on the topic appeared in 2012, after the

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One of the difficulties with EEG readings is susceptibility to motion artifacts. In most research projects, the participants were asked to sit still in a laboratory setting, reducing head and eye movements as much as possible. However, since these initiatives were intended to create a mobile device

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signals. Refined by a neuroimaging approach and a training protocol, They fashioned a non-invasive EEG based brain-computer interface to control the flight of a virtual helicopter in 3-dimensional space, based upon motor imagination. In June 2013 they announced a technique to guide a remote-control

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In 2002, Jens Naumann, also blinded in adulthood, became the first in a series of 16 paying patients to receive Dobelle's second generation implant, one of the earliest commercial uses of BCIs. The second generation device used a more sophisticated implant enabling better mapping of phosphenes into

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Metzger, Sean L.; Littlejohn, Kaylo T.; Silva, Alexander B.; Moses, David A.; Seaton, Margaret P.; Wang, Ran; Dougherty, Maximilian E.; Liu, Jessie R.; Wu, Peter; Berger, Michael A.; Zhuravleva, Inga; Tu-Chan, Adelyn; Ganguly, Karunesh; Anumanchipalli, Gopala K.; Chang, Edward F. (23 August 2023).

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were able to wirelessly control an operating system to text, email, shop, and bank using direct thought using Stentrode, marking the first time a brain-computer interface was implanted via the patient's blood vessels, eliminating the need for brain surgery. In January 2023, researchers reported no

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are central to the design of invasive BCIs. Variations in signal quality over time have been commonly observed with implantable microelectrodes. Optimal material and mechanical characteristics for long term signal stability in invasive BCIs has been an active area of research. It has been proposed

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of neurons reveal action potential voltages on the scale of hundreds of millivolts, chronic invasive BCIs rely on recording extracellular voltages which typically are three orders of magnitude smaller, existing at hundreds of microvolts. Further adding to the challenge of detecting signals on the

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In 1990, a report was given on a closed loop, bidirectional, adaptive BCI controlling a computer buzzer by an anticipatory brain potential, the Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential. The experiment described how an expectation state of the brain, manifested by CNV, used a feedback loop to

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1988 was the first demonstration of noninvasive EEG control of a physical object, a robot. The experiment demonstrated EEG control of multiple start-stop-restart cycles of movement, along an arbitrary trajectory defined by a line drawn on a floor. The line-following behavior was the default robot

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The evolution of BCIs mirrors that of pharmaceutical science, which began as a means to address impairments and now enhances focus and reduces the need for sleep. As BCIs progress from therapies to enhancements, the BCI community is working to create consensus on ethical guidelines for research,

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In their current form, most BCIs are more akin to corrective therapies that engage few of such ethical issues. Bioethics is well-equipped to address the challenges posed by BCI technologies, with Clausen suggesting in 2009 that "BCIs pose ethical challenges, but these are conceptually similar to

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ECoG offers higher spatial resolution, better signal-to-noise ratio, wider frequency range, and less training requirements than scalp-recorded EEG, and at the same time has lower technical difficulty, lower clinical risk, and may have superior long-term stability than intracortical single-neuron

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Invasive BCI requires surgery to implant electrodes under the scalp for accessing brain signals. The main advantage is to increase accuracy. Downsides include side effects from the surgery, including scar tissue that can obstruct brain signals or the body may not accept the implanted electrodes.

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People may lose some of their ability to move due to many causes, such as stroke or injury. Research in recent years has demonstrated the utility of EEG-based BCI systems in aiding motor recovery and neurorehabilitation in patients who have had a stroke. Several groups have explored systems and

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framework program. The project was funded by the European Commission. It started in November 2013 and published a roadmap in April 2015. A 2015 publication describes this project, as well as the Brain-Computer Interface Society. It reviewed work within this project that further defined BCIs and

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In May 2021, a Stanford University team reported a successful proof-of-concept test that enabled a quadraplegic participant to produce English sentences at about 86 characters per minute and 18 words per minute. The participant imagined moving his hand to write letters, and the system performed

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Mitchell, Peter; Lee, Sarah C. M.; Yoo, Peter E.; Morokoff, Andrew; Sharma, Rahul P.; Williams, Daryl L.; MacIsaac, Christopher; Howard, Mark E.; Irving, Lou; Vrljic, Ivan; Williams, Cameron; Bush, Steven; Balabanski, Anna H.; Drummond, Katharine J.; Desmond, Patricia; Weber, Douglas; Denison,

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had an array of 100 electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his nervous system to the Internet. Warwick carried out a series of experiments. Electrodes were implanted into his wife's nervous system, allowing them to conduct the first direct electronic communication experiment

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Many such patients cannot use BCIs based on vision. Hence, tools must rely on auditory and/or vibrotactile stimuli. Patients may wear headphones and/or vibrotactile stimulators placed on responsive body parts. Another challenge is that patients may be able to communicate only at unpredictable

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The legal and social aspects of BCIs complicate mainstream adoption. Concerns include issues of accountability and responsibility, such as claims that BCI influence overrides free will and control over actions, inaccurate translation of cognitive intentions, personality changes resulting from

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to prevent impending fits by controlling this low voltage wave.) The experiment trained ten patients to move a computer cursor. The process was slow, requiring more than an hour for patients to write 100 characters with the cursor, while training often took months. The slow cortical potential

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L. Bozinovska, G. Stojanov, M. Sestakov, S. Bozinovski: CNV pattern recognition: a step toward a cognitive wave observation, In L. Torres, E. Masgrau, E. Lagunas (eds.) Signal Processing V: Theories and Applications, Proc. EUSIPCO-90: Fifth European Signal Processing Conference, Elsevier, p.

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So far, BCIs for motor recovery have relied on the EEG to measure the patient's motor imagery. However, studies have also used fMRI to study different changes in the brain as persons undergo BCI-based stroke rehab training. Imaging studies combined with EEG-based BCI systems hold promise for

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Automated tools can ask questions that patients can easily answer, such as "Is your father named George?" or "Were you born in the USA?" Automated instructions inform patients how to coney yes or no, for example by focusing their attention on stimuli on the right vs. left wrist. This focused

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interfaces. The majority of published BCI research involves noninvasive EEG-based BCIs. EEG-based technologies and interfaces have been used for the broadest variety of applications. Although EEG-based interfaces are easy to wear and do not require surgery, they have relatively poor spatial

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The Carney Institute reported training rhesus monkeys to use a BCI to track visual targets on a computer screen (closed-loop BCI) with or without a joystick. The group created a BCI for three-dimensional tracking in virtual reality and reproduced BCI control in a robotic arm. The same group

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In a review article, authors wondered whether human information transfer rates can surpass that of language with BCIs. Language research has reported that information transfer rates are relatively constant across many languages. This may reflect the brain's information processing limit.

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Vidal coined the term "BCI" and produced the first peer-reviewed publications on this topic. He is widely recognized as the inventor of BCIs. A review pointed out that Vidal's 1973 paper stated the "BCI challenge" of controlling external objects using EEG signals, and especially use of

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and the direction in which they moved their arms. He also found that dispersed groups of neurons, in different areas of the monkey's brains, collectively controlled motor commands. He was able to record the firings of neurons in only one area at a time, due to equipment limitations.

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After Vidal stated the BCI challenge, the initial reports on non-invasive approaches included control of a cursor in 2D using VEP, control of a buzzer using CNV, control of a physical object, a robot, using a brain rhythm (alpha), control of a text written on a screen using P300.

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published preclinical proof-of-concept data related to a potential brain-computer interface technology platform being developed for patients with paralysis to facilitate control of external devices such as robotic limbs, computers and exoskeletons by translating brain activity.

1745:. Experiments on cultured neural tissue focused on building problem-solving networks, constructing basic computers and manipulating robotic devices. Research into techniques for stimulating and recording individual neurons grown on semiconductor chips is neuroelectronics or 1412:

for daily use, the technology had to be tested in motion. In 2013, researchers tested mobile EEG-based BCI technology, measuring SSVEPs from participants as they walked on a treadmill. Reported results were that as speed increased, SSVEP detectability using CCA decreased.

770:, the sensation of seeing light. The system included cameras mounted on glasses to send signals to the implant. Initially, the implant allowed Jerry to see shades of grey in a limited field of vision at a low frame-rate. This also required him to be hooked up to a 1696:

Gerwin Schalk reported that ECoG signals can discriminate vowels and consonants embedded in spoken and imagined words, shedding light on the mechanisms associated with their production and could provide a basis for brain-based communication using imagined speech.

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released the EPOC, a 14 channel EEG device that can read 4 mental states, 13 conscious states, facial expressions, and head movements. The EPOC was the first commercial BCI to use dry sensor technology, which can be dampened with a saline solution for a better

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reported that ECoG signals could be used to decode speech from epilepsy patients implanted with high-density ECoG arrays over the peri-Sylvian cortices. They reported word error rates of 3% (a marked improvement from prior efforts) utilizing an encoder-decoder

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leakage, either at the time of insertion or over time, may be responsible for the inflammatory and glial reaction to chronic microelectrodes implanted in the brain. As a result, flexible and tissue-like designs have been researched and developed to minimize

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Studies in the 2010s suggested neural stimulation's potential to restore functional connectivity and associated behaviors through modulation of molecular mechanisms. This opened the door for the concept that BCI technologies may be able to restore function.

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those that bioethicists have addressed for other realms of therapy." Haselager and colleagues highlighted the importance of managing expectations and value. Standard protocols can ensure ethically sound informed-consent procedures for locked-in patients.

1388:) algorithm can support mobile BCIs. The CCA algorithm has been applied in experiments investigating BCIs with claimed high accuracy and speed. Cellular BCI technology can reportedly be translated for other applications, such as picking up sensorimotor 1763:. The neurochip was designed for rat brains. The hippocampus was chosen because it is thought to be the most structured and most studied part of the brain. Its function is to encode experiences for storage as long-term memories elsewhere in the brain. 1010:. Stentrode communicates neural activity to a battery-less telemetry unit implanted in the chest, which communicates wirelessly with an external telemetry unit capable of power and data transfer. While an endovascular BCI benefits from avoiding a 646:

The biggest impediment to BCI technology is the lack of a sensor modality that provides safe, accurate and robust access to brain signals. The use of a better sensor expands the range of communication functions that can be provided using a BCI.

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technology are pushing and enabling integrated, invasive BCI designs with smaller size, lower power requirements, and higher signal acquisition capabilities. Invasive BCIs involve electrodes that penetrate brain tissue in an attempt to record

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were reported to be more effective than alternatives. Another 2021 systematic review focused on post-stroke robot-assisted EEG-based BCI for hand rehabilitation. Improvement in motor assessment scores was observed in three of eleven studies.

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Willett, Francis R.; Kunz, Erin M.; Fan, Chaofei; Avansino, Donald T.; Wilson, Guy H.; Choi, Eun Young; Kamdar, Foram; Glasser, Matthew F.; Hochberg, Leigh R.; Druckmann, Shaul; Shenoy, Krishna V.; Henderson, Jaimie M. (23 August 2023).

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The active electrode array is an integrated system containing an array of capacitive sensors with local integrated circuitry packaged with batteries to power the circuitry. This level of integration was required to achieve the result.

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using BCI for post-stroke upper-limb rehabilitation, EEG-based BCI was reported to have efficacy in improving upper-limb motor function compared to control therapies. More specifically, BCI studies that utilized band power features,

839:(area of the motor cortex for arm movement), the 96-electrode implant allowed Nagle to control a robotic arm by thinking about moving his hand as well as a computer cursor, lights and TV. One year later, Jonathan Wolpaw received the 1185:

A 2005 study reported EEG emulation of digital control circuits, using a CNV flip-flop. A 2009 study reported noninvasive EEG control of a robotic arm using a CNV flip-flop. A 2011 study reported control of two robotic arms solving

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Várkuti B, Guan C, Pan Y, Phua KS, Ang KK, Kuah CW, et al. (January 2013). "Resting state changes in functional connectivity correlate with movement recovery for BCI and robot-assisted upper-extremity training after stroke".

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concerned with neural prostheses, that is, using artificial devices to replace the function of impaired nervous systems and brain-related problems, or of sensory or other organs (bladder, diaphragm, etc.). As of December 2010,

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In 1989, a study reported control of a mobile robot by eye movement using electrooculography signals. A mobile robot was driven to a goal point using five EOG commands, interpreted as forward, backward, left, right, and stop.

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control the S2 buzzer in the S1-S2-CNV paradigm. The resulting cognitive wave representing the expectation learning in the brain was termed Electroexpectogram (EXG). The CNV brain potential was part of Vidal's 1973 challenge.

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Mrachacz-Kersting N, Voigt M, Stevenson AJ, Aliakbaryhosseinabadi S, Jiang N, Dremstrup K, Farina D (November 2017). "The effect of type of afferent feedback timed with motor imagery on the induction of cortical plasticity".

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In February 2014, They Shall Walk (a nonprofit organization fixed on constructing exoskeletons, dubbed LIFESUITs, for paraplegics and quadriplegics) began a partnership with James W. Shakarji on the development of a wireless

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Researchers explored ways to improve neurosurgical mapping. This work focuses largely on high gamma activity, which is difficult to detect non-invasively. Results improved methods for identifying key functional areas.

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In 2020, NextMind released a dev kit including an EEG headset with dry electrodes at $ 399. The device can run various visual-BCI demonstration applications or developers can create their own. It was later acquired by

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signals (also known as spikes) from individual, or small groups of, neurons near the electrode. The interface between a recording electrode and the electrolytic solution surrounding neurons has been modelled using the

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trained paralysed people to self-regulate the slow cortical potentials in their EEG to such an extent that these signals could be used as a binary signal to control a computer cursor. (Birbaumer had earlier trained

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In 2016, a group of hobbyists developed an open-source BCI board that sends neural signals to the audio jack of a smartphone, dropping the cost of entry-level BCI to £20. Basic diagnostic software is available for

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Oxley TJ, Opie NL, John SE, Rind GS, Ronayne SM, Wheeler TL, et al. (March 2016). "Minimally invasive endovascular stent-electrode array for high-fidelity, chronic recordings of cortical neural activity".

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SSVEPs for the laptop and tablet were reported to be larger than those of the cell phone. These two qualitative characterizations were suggested as indicators of the feasibility of using a mobile stimulus BCI.

1041:(ECoG) measures brain electrical activity from beneath the skull in a way similar to non-invasive electroencephalography, using electrodes embedded in a thin plastic pad placed above the cortex, beneath the 790:

coherent vision. Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in what researchers call "the starry-night effect". Immediately after his implant, Jens was able to use his imperfectly restored vision to

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Adrijan Bozinovski "CNV flip-flop as a brain-computer interface paradigm" In J. Kern, S. Tonkovic, et al. (Eds) Proc 7th Conference of the Croatian Association of Medical Informatics, pp. 149-154, Rijeka,

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In the early days of BCI research, another substantial barrier to using EEG was that extensive training was required. For example, in experiments beginning in the mid-1990s, Niels Birbaumer at the

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Tung SW, Guan C, Ang KK, Phua KS, Wang C, Zhao L, et al. (July 2013). "Motor imagery BCI for upper limb stroke rehabilitation: An evaluation of the EEG recordings using coherence analysis".

7094:"Efficacy of Brain-Computer Interface and the Impact of Its Design Characteristics on Poststroke Upper-limb Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials" 1551:

videos, matching visual patterns to brain activity recorded when subjects watched a video. These 100 one-second video extracts were then combined into a mash-up image that resembled the video.

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BCI systems can potentially be used to encode signals from the periphery. These sensory BCI devices enable real-time, behaviorally-relevant decisions based upon closed-loop neural stimulation.

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Pfurtscheller G, Müller GR, Pfurtscheller J, Gerner HJ, Rupp R (November 2003). "'Thought'--control of functional electrical stimulation to restore hand grasp in a patient with tetraplegia".

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suggest the potential of EEG-based brain-computer interfaces to accomplish tasks close to invasive brain-computer interfaces. Using advanced functional neuroimaging including BOLD functional

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that is measured. Gert Pfurtscheller founded the BCI Lab 1991 and conducted the first online BCI based on oscillatory features and classifiers. Together with Birbaumer and Jonathan Wolpaw at

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robotic arm. Lebedev and colleagues argued that brain networks reorganize to create a new representation of the robotic appendage in addition to the representation of the animal's own limbs.

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recording. This feature profile and evidence of the high level of control with minimal training requirements shows potential for real world application for people with motor disabilities.

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In 2011 O'Doherty and colleagues showed a BCI with sensory feedback with rhesus monkeys. The monkey controlled the position of an avatar arm while receiving sensory feedback through direct

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Riccio A, Pichiorri F, Schettini F, Toppi J, Risetti M, Formisano R, et al. (2016). "Interfacing brain with computer to improve communication and rehabilitation after brain damage".

6136:"Assessment of Safety of a Fully Implanted Endovascular Brain-Computer Interface for Severe Paralysis in 4 Patients: The Stentrode With Thought-Controlled Digital Switch (SWITCH) Study" 5592:

Nolta NF, Christensen MB, Crane PD, Skousen JL, Tresco PA (1 June 2015). "BBB leakage, astrogliosis, and tissue loss correlate with silicon microelectrode array recording performance".

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Santucci DM, Kralik JD, Lebedev MA, Nicolelis MA (September 2005). "Frontal and parietal cortical ensembles predict single-trial muscle activity during reaching movements in primates".

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Wessberg J, Stambaugh CR, Kralik JD, Beck PD, Laubach M, Chapin JK, et al. (November 2000). "Real-time prediction of hand trajectory by ensembles of cortical neurons in primates".

460:. Neuron firings were recorded from watching eight short movies. Using mathematical filters, the researchers decoded the signals to reconstruct recognizable scenes and moving objects. 332:

and commanded robotic arms to perform simple tasks simply by thinking about the task and seeing the results, without motor output. In May 2008 photographs that showed a monkey at the

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The terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Neuroprosthetics and BCIs seek to achieve the same aims, such as restoring sight, hearing, movement, ability to communicate, and even

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Sabathiel N, Irimia DC, Allison BZ, Guger C, Edlinger G (17 July 2016). "Paired Associative Stimulation with Brain-Computer Interfaces: A New Paradigm for Stroke Rehabilitation".

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L. Bozinovska, S. Bozinovski, G. Stojanov, Electroexpectogram: experimental design and algorithms, In Proc IEEE International Biomedical Engineering Days, p. 55-60, Istanbul, 1992

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Kennedy and Bakay were first to install a human brain implant that produced signals of high enough quality to simulate movement. Their patient, Johnny Ray (1944–2002), developed '

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Saxena T, Karumbaiah L, Gaupp EA, Patkar R, Patil K, Betancur M, et al. (July 2013). "The impact of chronic blood-brain barrier breach on intracortical electrode function".

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BCIs focusing on motor neuroprosthetics aim to restore movement in individuals with paralysis or provide devices to assist them, such as interfaces with computers or robot arms.

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and used the devices to reproduce monkey movements in robotic arms. Monkeys' advanced reaching and grasping abilities and hand manipulation skills, made them good test subjects.

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Lin YP, Wang Y, Jung TP (2013). "A mobile SSVEP-based brain-computer interface for freely moving humans: The robustness of canonical correlation analysis to motion artifacts".

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A 2014 study reported that severely motor-impaired patients could communicate faster and more reliably with non-invasive EEG BCI than with muscle-based communication channels.

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in 1997. Ray's implant was installed in 1998 and he lived long enough to start working with the implant, eventually learning to control a computer cursor; he died in 2002 of a

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Timothy; Mathers, Susan; O'Brien, Terence J.; Mocco, J.; Grayden, David B.; Liebeskind, David S.; Opie, Nicholas L.; Oxley, Thomas J.; Campbell, Bruce C. V. (9 January 2023).

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BCIs are proposed to be applied by users without disabilities. Passive BCIs allow for assessing and interpreting changes in the user state during Human-Computer Interaction (

6789:"Negative covariation between task-related responses in alpha/beta-band activity and BOLD in human sensorimotor cortex: an EEG and fMRI study of motor imagery and movements" 1628:. This potential is a positive peak in the EEG that occurs roughly 300 ms after the appearance of a target stimulus (a stimulus for which the user is waiting or seeking) or 6083: 1828:

development, and dissemination. Ensuring equitable access to BCIs will be crucial in preventing generational inequalities that could hinder the right to human flourishing.

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Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, et al. (July 2006). "Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia".

1365:

In 2011, researchers reported a cellular based BCI that could cause phone to ring. The wearable system was composed of a four channel bio-signal acquisition/amplification

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to a phone that assessed the patients' alertness and cognitive capacity. When the subject became drowsy, the phone sent arousing feedback to the operator to rouse them.

195:

wires under the scalps of his patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patient's head by rubber bandages. Berger connected these sensors to a

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at small voltages. Due to the nature of these small signals, for BCI systems that incorporate functionality onto an integrated circuit, each electrode requires its own

3182: 854:(VA), demonstrated control of prosthetic limbs with many degrees of freedom using direct connections to arrays of neurons in the motor cortex of tetraplegia patients. 375:

arm with neural activity. Similar work in the 1970s established that monkeys could learn to control the firing rates of individual and multiple neurons in the primary

10117:

Silvoni S, Ramos-Murguialday A, Cavinato M, Volpato C, Cisotto G, Turolla A, et al. (October 2011). "Brain-computer interface in stroke: a review of progress".

947:, secondary to damage at the electrode-tissue interface, is likely responsible for electrode failure and reduced recording performance. Research has suggested that 762:. Dobelle's first prototype was implanted into "Jerry", a man blinded in adulthood, in 1978. A single-array BCI containing 68 electrodes was implanted onto Jerry's 735:

Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality for people with paralysis. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the

245:

potential as a challenge for BCI control. Vidal's 1977 experiment was the first application of BCI after his 1973 BCI challenge. It was a noninvasive EEG (actually

1842:

Various companies are developing inexpensive BCIs for research and entertainment. Toys such as the NeuroSky and Mattel MindFlex have seen some commercial success.

10313:"A review of the progression and future implications of brain-computer interface therapies for restoration of distal upper extremity motor function after stroke" 7606:

Bin G, Gao X, Yan Z, Hong B, Gao S (August 2009). "An online multi-channel SSVEP-based brain-computer interface using a canonical correlation analysis method".

4310:

Zander TO, Kothe C (April 2011). "Towards passive brain-computer interfaces: applying brain-computer interface technology to human-machine systems in general".

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Performance compared favorably with that of standard wet electrodes in terms of skin preparation, no gel requirements (dry), and higher signal-to-noise ratio.

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approach has fallen away in favor of approaches that require little or no training, are faster and more accurate, and work for a greater proportion of users.

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was successfully implanted in a pig. In 2021, Musk announced that the company had successfully enabled a monkey to play video games using Neuralink's device.

8268:

Bozinovski S (2017). "Signal Processing Robotics Using Signals Generated by a Human Head: From Pioneering Works to EEG-Based Emulation of Digital Circuits".

631:

In 2019, a study reported a BCI that had the potential to help patients with speech impairment caused by neurological disorders. Their BCI used high-density

336:

operating a robotic arm by thinking were published in multiple studies. Sheep have also been used to evaluate BCI technology including Synchron's Stentrode.

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of the brain during neurosurgery. Because they lie in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices but are prone to

8940:

Eckstein MP, Das K, Pham BT, Peterson MF, Abbey CK, Sy JL, Giesbrecht B (January 2012). "Neural decoding of collective wisdom with multi-brain computing".

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fMRI measurements of haemodynamic responses in real time have also been used to control robot arms with a seven-second delay between thought and movement.

980:

In 2010, researchers affiliated with University of Melbourne began developing a BCI that could be inserted via the vascular system. Australian neurologist

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or electrical activity of the muscles of primates are in process. Such BCIs could restore mobility in paralyzed limbs by electrically stimulating muscles.

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Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Schulzrinne, H and Wu, X: "Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy",

6201: 2506:

Levine SP, Huggins JE, BeMent SL, Kushwaha RK, Schuh LA, Rohde MM, et al. (June 2000). "A direct brain interface based on event-related potentials".

874:

A 2021 study reported that a paralyzed patient was able to communicate 15 words per minute using a brain implant that analyzed vocal tract motor neurons.

10362:"Use of Electroencephalography Brain-Computer Interface Systems as a Rehabilitative Approach for Upper Limb Function After a Stroke: A Systematic Review" 1752:

Development of the first neurochip was claimed by a Caltech team led by Jerome Pine and Michael Maher in 1997. The Caltech chip had room for 16 neurons.

2920:

M. Lebedev, M. Nicolelis: Brain-machine interfaces: from basic science to neuroprostheses and neurorehabilitation, Physiological Review 97:737-867, 2017

2572:. St Hugh's College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom: The International Conference on Digital Image and Signal Processing (DISP'19). Archived from 1006:. This proximity enables Stentrode to measure neural activity. The procedure is most similar to how venous sinus stents are placed for the treatment of 9474: 9705: 6110: 3226: 5452:

Downey JE, Schwed N, Chase SM, Schwartz AB, Collinger JL (August 2018). "Intracortical recording stability in human brain-computer interface users".

4674:(7099). Gerhard M. Friehs, Jon A. Mukand, Maryam Saleh, Abraham H. Caplan, Almut Branner, David Chen, Richard D. Penn and John P. Donoghue: 164–171. 421:

Phillip Kennedy (Neural Signals founder (1987) and colleagues built the first intracortical brain–computer interface by implanting neurotrophic-cone

1857:

released the first affordable consumer based EEG along with the game NeuroBoy. It was the first large scale EEG device to use dry sensor technology.

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functions of the simulator. The study's focus was on understanding how the human brain performs and learns computational tasks at a cellular level.

12313: 9414: 2378: 1611:

A VEP is an electrical potential recorded after a subject is presented with a visual stimuli. The types of VEPs include SSVEPs and P300 potential.

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Non-invasive BCIs have been applied to prosthetic upper and lower extremity devices in people with paralysis. For example, Gert Pfurtscheller of

7281:

Lin CT, Ko LW, Chang CJ, Wang YT, Chung CH, Yang FS, et al. (2009), "Wearable and Wireless Brain-Computer Interface and Its Applications",

1273:

demonstrated the first single and multichannel dry active electrode arrays. The arrayed electrode was demonstrated to perform well compared to

521:

and reproduced monkey reaching and grasping movements in a robot arm. Their deeply cleft and furrowed brains made them better models for human

295:

had been implanted as neuroprosthetic devices in some 736,900 people worldwide. Other neuroprosthetic devices aim to restore vision, including

10017:"Multiple tasks and neuroimaging modalities increase the likelihood of detecting covert awareness in patients with disorders of consciousness" 3801: 2300:

and the electrodes were temporarily implanted to help his physicians localize seizure foci; the BCI researchers simply took advantage of this.

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A systematic review published in 2020 detailed multiple clinical and non-clinical studies investigating the feasibility of endovascular BCIs.

881:

In 2023 two studies used BCIs with recurrent neural network to decode speech at a record rate of 62 words per minute and 78 words per minute.

774:, but shrinking electronics and faster computers made his artificial eye more portable and now enable him to perform simple tasks unassisted. 589:. These researchers produced working BCIs using recorded signals from far fewer neurons than Nicolelis (15–30 neurons versus 50–200 neurons). 133:

can, after adaptation, be handled by the brain like natural sensor or effector channels. Following years of animal experimentation, the first

10527:"Changes in functional connectivity correlate with behavioral gains in stroke patients after therapy using a brain-computer interface device" 650:

Development and implementation of a BCI system is complex and time-consuming. In response to this problem, Gerwin Schalk has been developing

969:

the brain than fully invasive BCIs. Preclinical demonstration of intracortical BCIs from the stroke perilesional cortex has been conducted.

593:

demonstrated that a monkey could feed itself pieces of fruit and marshmallows using a robotic arm controlled by the animal's brain signals.

12183: 10581:"BCI Training Effects on Chronic Stroke Correlate with Functional Reorganization in Motor-Related Regions: A Concurrent EEG and fMRI Study" 8742: 7905: 851: 9962:

Boly M, Massimini M, Garrido MI, Gosseries O, Noirhomme Q, Laureys S, Soddu A (2012). "Brain connectivity in disorders of consciousness".

3330:

Schmidt EM, McIntosh JS, Durelli L, Bak MJ (September 1978). "Fine control of operantly conditioned firing patterns of cortical neurons".

3254: 2710:

Wolpaw JR, Birbaumer N, McFarland DJ, Pfurtscheller G, Vaughan TM (June 2002). "Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control".

1587:

Biofeedback can be used to monitor a subject's mental relaxation. In some cases, biofeedback does not match EEG, while parameters such as

1782:

and reconnected themselves to form a living neural network. The cells were arranged over a grid of 60 electrodes and used to control the

1234:

and then used the resulting virtual EEG for BCI tasks. Well-controlled studies suggested the merits of such a source analysis-based BCI.

368: 233:

hardware (filters, amplifiers, and a mixing board) to stimulate acoustic percussion instruments. Performing the piece requires producing

10262:"Immediate and long-term effects of BCI-based rehabilitation of the upper extremity after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 1240:

A 2019 study reported that the application of evolutionary algorithms could improve EEG mental state classification with a non-invasive

1159:

they focused on developing technology that would allow users to choose the brain signals they found easiest to operate a BCI, including

11620: 11280: 8865:, Stoica, Adrian, "Aggregation of bio-signals from multiple individuals to achieve a collective outcome", issued 2012-07-26 4264:

Nicolelis MA, Lebedev MA (July 2009). "Principles of neural ensemble physiology underlying the operation of brain-machine interfaces".

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prize for developing a Brain Computer Interface with electrodes located on the surface of the skull, instead of directly in the brain.

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Wang YT, Wang Y, Cheng CK, Jung TP (2013). "Developing stimulus presentation on mobile devices for a truly portable SSVEP-based BCI".

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or reached for food. The BCI operated in real time and could remotely control a separate robot. But the monkeys received no feedback (

12766: 8444: 3050: 1956:

In 2023, PiEEG released a shield that allows converting a single-board computer Raspberry Pi to a brain-computer interface for $ 350.

3373:

Georgopoulos AP, Lurito JT, Petrides M, Schwartz AB, Massey JT (January 1989). "Mental rotation of the neuronal population vector".

1890:, a game that used an EEG to steer a ball through an obstacle course. It was by far the best selling consumer based EEG at the time. 9909:

Chatelle C, Chennu S, Noirhomme Q, Cruse D, Owen AM, Laureys S (2012). "Brain-computer interfacing in disorders of consciousness".

2911:

M. Lebedev: Augmentation of sensorimotor functions with neural prostheses. Opera Medica and Physiologica. Vol. 2 (3): 211-227, 2016

2830: 1600: 934:

Illustration of invasive and partially invasive BCIs: electrocorticography (ECoG), endovascular, and intracortical microelectrode.

13244: 12836: 12794: 1053:. This research indicates that control is rapid, requires minimal training, balancing signal fidelity and level of invasiveness. 847: 333: 269: 59:'s electrical activity and an external device, most commonly a computer or robotic limb. BCIs are often directed at researching, 17: 10926:

Boppart SA, Wheeler BC, Wallace CS (January 1992). "A flexible perforated microelectrode array for extended neural recordings".

8524: 13062: 12361: 11655: 1973:

A consortium of 12 European partners completed a roadmap to support the European Commission in their funding decisions for the

1837: 1614: 1370: 758:(acquired) blindness. One of the first scientists to produce a working brain interface to restore sight was private researcher 9884:

Edlinger G, Allison BZ, Guger C (2015). "How many people could use a BCI system?". In Kansaku K, Cohen L, Birbaumer N (eds.).

8549: 1369:, a communication module, and a Bluetooth phone. The electrodes were placed to pick up steady state visual evoked potentials ( 13234: 11609: 11273: 11030: 10457: 10424: 10228: 10162:"An exploration of EEG features during recovery following stroke - implications for BCI-mediated neurorehabilitation therapy" 9893: 9868: 9004: 8285: 7574: 7450: 7298: 6446: 6009: 5428: 4920: 4584: 3687:

Serruya MD, Hatsopoulos NG, Paninski L, Fellows MR, Donoghue JP (March 2002). "Instant neural control of a movement signal".

1506: 1495: 1485: 1104: 107: 3179: 2885:

S. Bozinovski, M. Sestakov, L. Bozinovska: Using EEG alpha rhythm to control a mobile robot, In G. Harris, C. Walker (eds.)

12955: 12306: 8682:"Interfacing neurons with carbon nanotubes: electrical signal transfer and synaptic stimulation in cultured brain circuits" 6402:

Pei X (2011). "Decoding Vowels and Consonants in Spoken and Imagined Words Using Electrocorticographic Signals in Humans".

1007: 582: 221:

Although the term had not yet been coined, one of the earliest examples of a working brain-machine interface was the piece

9679: 8470: 7659:"Effects of Cable Sway, Electrode Surface Area, and Electrode Mass on Electroencephalography Signal Quality during Motion" 6984:"Motor imagery for severely motor-impaired patients: evidence for brain-computer interfacing as superior control solution" 4461:

Polikov VS, Tresco PA, Reichert WM (October 2005). "Response of brain tissue to chronically implanted neural electrodes".

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These electrodes had not been implanted in the patient with the intention of developing a BCI. The patient had had severe

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Flexible neural interfaces may minimize brain tissue trauma related to mechanical mismatch between electrode and tissue.

13151: 12814: 12734: 10777:

Radzik I, Miziak B, Dudka J, Chrościńska-Krawczyk M, Czuczwar SJ (June 2015). "Prospects of epileptogenesis prevention".

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became the first person to control an artificial hand using a BCI in 2005 as part of the first nine-month human trial of

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Warneke B, Last M, Liebowitz B, Pister KS (January 2001). "Smart Dust: communicating with a cubic-millimeter computer".

6429:

Makin JG, Moses DA, Chang EF (2021). "Speech Decoding as Machine Translation". In Guger C, Allison BZ, Gunduz A (eds.).

4623:

Kennedy PR, Bakay RA (June 1998). "Restoration of neural output from a paralyzed patient by a direct brain connection".

13264: 12341: 11138: 11123: 11108: 9523: 5942:"A systematic review of endovascular stent-electrode arrays, a minimally invasive approach to brain-machine interfaces" 2377:

Martini, Michael L.; Oermann, Eric Karl; Opie, Nicholas L.; Panov, Fedor; Oxley, Thomas; Yaeger, Kurt (February 2020).

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After initial studies in rats during the 1990s, Nicolelis and colleagues developed BCIs that decoded brain activity in

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Monge-Pereira E, Ibañez-Pereda J, Alguacil-Diego IM, Serrano JI, Spottorno-Rubio MP, Molina-Rueda F (September 2017).

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Ranganatha Sitaram, Andrea Caria, Ralf Veit, Tilman Gaber, Giuseppina Rota, Andrea Kuebler and Niels Birbaumer(2007) "

7328:

Wang YT, Wang Y, Jung TP (April 2011). "A cell-phone-based brain-computer interface for communication in daily life".

3583:"Cortical ensemble adaptation to represent velocity of an artificial actuator controlled by a brain-machine interface" 12638: 12628: 12163: 6373: 1756: 1437: 1257: 639:

to synthesize speech. In 2021, those researchers reported the potential of a BCI to decode words and sentences in an

5996:. SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 127–132. 4907:. SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 105–109. 237:

and thereby "playing" the various instruments via loudspeakers that are placed near or directly on the instruments.

12674: 9484: 6838:"Continuous three-dimensional control of a virtual helicopter using a motor imagery based brain-computer interface" 3199: 2898:

S. Bozinovski: Mobile robot trajectory control: From fixed rails to direct bioelectric control, In O. Kaynak (ed.)

2195: 2091: 1445: 840: 11201:

Wandelt, Sarah K.; Bjånes, David A.; Pejsa, Kelsie; Lee, Brian; Liu, Charles; Andersen, Richard A. (13 May 2024).

7484:"Current Status, Challenges, and Possible Solutions of EEG-Based Brain-Computer Interface: A Comprehensive Review" 6433:. SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 23–33. 1347: 1342:

In 2009, the NCTU Brain-Computer-Interface-headband was reported. Those researchers also engineered silicon-based

12876: 12299: 2250: 1808:

rights and values. The concerns can be broadly categorized into user-centric issues and legal and social issues.

1509:(fMRI) have both been used as non-invasive BCIs. In a widely reported experiment, fMRI allowed two users to play 1327: 1270: 1182:) when people see something they recognize and may allow BCIs to decode categories of thoughts without training. 995: 249:(VEP)) control of a cursor-like graphical object on a computer screen. The demonstration was movement in a maze. 8837: 8067: 491:

By 2000, the group succeeded in building a BCI that reproduced owl monkey movements while the monkey operated a

12938: 12916: 12727: 8303:"The Mind-Writing Pupil: A Human-Computer Interface Based on Decoding of Covert Attention through Pupillometry" 8230: 6220: 4181: 4164: 2099: 1413: 1381: 1343: 566: 7937:"Visual image reconstruction from human brain activity using a combination of multiscale local image decoders" 2567: 2325:"Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation" 1060:. Patients are required to have invasive monitoring for localization and resection of an epileptogenic focus. 180:(EEG). In 1924 Berger was the first to record human brain activity utilizing EEG. Berger was able to identify 13212: 13178: 12279: 12004: 9537: 6387:

ECoG- Based BCI has advantage in signal and durability that are absolutely necessary for clinical application

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decoded neuronal firings to reproduce images from cats. The team used an array of electrodes embedded in the

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encoded words "hola" ("hi" in Spanish) and "ciao" ("goodbye" in Italian) and were transmitted mind-to-mind.

367:

studies by Fetz et al. at the Regional Primate Research Center and Department of Physiology and Biophysics,

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serious adverse events during the first year for all four patients, who could use it to operate computers.

534: 11189: 7533: 6135: 5260:"A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve" 3581:

Lebedev MA, Carmena JM, O'Doherty JE, Zacksenhouse M, Henriquez CS, Principe JC, Nicolelis MA (May 2005).

2753:

Allison BZ, Wolpaw EW, Wolpaw JR (July 2007). "Brain-computer interface systems: progress and prospects".

13259: 12603: 12198: 11116:"Using High-Frequency Electroencephalogram in Visual and Auditory-Based Brain-Computer Interface Designs" 9584: 3738:

Taylor DM, Tillery SI, Schwartz AB (June 2002). "Direct cortical control of 3D neuroprosthetic devices".

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There exist a number of technical challenges to recording brain activity with invasive BCIs. Advances in

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that skips the intermediary of moving body parts (hands...), although they also raise the possibility of

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2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC)

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2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC)

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2013 35th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC)

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advocates using multiple electrodes spread over a greater area of the brain to obtain neuronal signals.

13183: 13119: 11725: 11648: 11437: 11340: 11255: 11013:

Rabaey JM (September 2011). "Brain-machine interfaces as the new frontier in extreme miniaturization".

10755: 7149:

Baniqued PD, Stanyer EC, Awais M, Alazmani A, Jackson AE, Mon-Williams MA, et al. (January 2021).

6740:"Mental States, EEG Manifestations, and Mentally Emulated Digital Circuits for Brain-Robot Interaction" 5992:

Opie N (2021). "The StentrodeTM Neural Interface System". In Guger C, Allison BZ, Tangermann M (eds.).

5627:

Robinson JT, Pohlmeyer E, Gather MC, Kemere C, Kitching JE, Malliaras GG, et al. (November 2019).

5505:"Neural Interfaces for Intracortical Recording: Requirements, Fabrication Methods, and Characteristics" 3825: 3527:

Carmena JM, Lebedev MA, Crist RE, O'Doherty JE, Santucci DM, Dimitrov DF, et al. (November 2003).

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applications, explored recent trends, discussed ethical issues, and evaluated directions for new BCIs.

1938: 1528: 1400: 878:

Alternatively, this limit may be intrinsic to language itself, as a modality for information transfer.

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Monkey operating a robotic arm with brain–computer interfacing (Schwartz lab, University of Pittsburgh)

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Towards Practical Brain-Computer Interfaces: Bridging the Gap from Research to Real-World Applications

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Collinger JL, Wodlinger B, Downey JE, Wang W, Tyler-Kabara EC, Weber DJ, et al. (February 2013).

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and eye-tracking. These modalities do not record brain activity and therefore do not qualify as BCIs.

1468:

EPOC to control a 5 axis robot arm. He made several demonstrations of mind controlled wheelchairs and

906:

Electronic limitations to invasive BCIs have been an active area of research in recent decades. While

13254: 13166: 13126: 12613: 12193: 12168: 12037: 9428: 9355:"The Asilomar Survey: Stakeholders' Opinions on Ethical Issues Related to Brain-Computer Interfacing" 8782: 8680:

Mazzatenta A, Giugliano M, Campidelli S, Gambazzi L, Businaro L, Markram H, et al. (June 2007).

8121:

Marshall D, Coyle D, Wilson S, Callaghan M (2013). "Games, Gameplay, and BCI: The State of the Art".

4204: 3760: 2205: 1998: 1990: 1718: 1281:

electrodes. The device consisted of four sensor sites with integrated electronics to reduce noise by

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found a mathematical relationship between the electrical responses of single motor cortex neurons in

7716:

Wang Y, Wang R, Gao X, Hong B, Gao S (June 2006). "A practical VEP-based brain-computer interface".

6923:"Motor imagery classification by means of source analysis for brain-computer interface applications" 3180:

Duke neurobiologist has developed system that allows monkeys to control robot arms via brain signals

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Wolpaw, J.R. and Wolpaw, E.W. (2012). "Brain-Computer Interfaces: Something New Under the Sun". In:

1981:

Other recent publications too have explored future BCI directions for new groups of disabled users.

1135: 13269: 12861: 12662: 12598: 12346: 12132: 12107: 12032: 11939: 11844: 11740: 9602: 7285:, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5638, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 741–748, 7043:"A Deep Evolutionary Approach to Bioinspired Classifier Optimisation for Brain-Machine Interaction" 3798: 3076: 578: 452:(which integrates the brain's sensory input). Researchers targeted 177 brain cells in the thalamus 393: 230: 11135:

eContact! 14.2 – Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique

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eContact! 14.2 – Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique

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eContact! 14.2 – Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique

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Remsik A, Young B, Vermilyea R, Kiekhoefer L, Abrams J, Evander Elmore S, et al. (May 2016).

4903:

Willett FR (2021). "A High-Performance Handwriting BCI". In Guger C, Allison BZ, Gunduz A (eds.).

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designed for application to non-hairy body sites. These electrodes were secured to the headband's

1045:. ECoG technologies were first trialled in humans in 2004 by Eric Leuthardt and Daniel Moran from 13239: 13131: 13104: 12856: 12789: 12580: 11969: 11680: 11675: 4601: 4209:"Sparse optical microstimulation in barrel cortex drives learned behaviour in freely moving mice" 3893: 2123: 2027: 1894: 1787: 1783: 1210: 1179: 999: 658: 9763: 7913: 7379:

Guger C, Allison BZ, Großwindhager B, Prückl R, Hintermüller C, Kapeller C, et al. (2012).

6529:"Brain communication in a completely locked-in patient using bedside near-infrared spectroscopy" 3630:

O'Doherty JE, Lebedev MA, Ifft PJ, Zhuang KZ, Shokur S, Bleuler H, Nicolelis MA (October 2011).

3255:"Elon Musk says his start-up Neuralink has wired up a monkey to play video games using its mind" 743:

build-up, causing the signal to weaken, or disappear, as the body reacts to the foreign object.

268:

funded BCI technology through the BRAIN initiative, which supported work out of teams including

13141: 13136: 13109: 12983: 12950: 12381: 12351: 11964: 11954: 11745: 11700: 11432: 11100: 8750: 8060:"Reconstructing visual experiences from brain activity evoked by natural movies (Project page)" 7857:

Alex Blainey controls a cheap consumer robot arm using the EPOC headset via a serial relay port

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patented a neural interface system allowing radio waves to affect signals in the neural cortex.

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demonstrated for the first time that BCI technology can restore brain-controlled walking after

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Miyawaki Y, Uchida H, Yamashita O, Sato MA, Morito Y, Tanabe HC, et al. (December 2008).

6979: 6371:

Yanagisawa T (2011). "Electrocorticographic Control of Prosthetic Arm in Paralyzed Patients".

2379:"Sensor Modalities for Brain-Computer Interface Technology: A Comprehensive Literature Review" 1025:

Human trials with Stentrode were underway as of 2021. In November 2020, two participants with

565:

Other laboratories that have developed BCIs and algorithms that decode neuron signals include

404:

Several groups have been able to capture complex brain motor cortex signals by recording from

160:(relaxed, neutral, concentrating), mental emotional states (negative, neutral, positive), and 13067: 12851: 12750: 12623: 12267: 12027: 12022: 11829: 11720: 11641: 11580: 11539: 10820:

Ritaccio A, Brunner P, Gunduz A, Hermes D, Hirsch LJ, Jacobs J, et al. (December 2014).

9296:"Minds, motherboards, and money: futurism and realism in the neuroethics of BCI technologies" 7151:"Brain-computer interface robotics for hand rehabilitation after stroke: a systematic review" 6678:. 2009 4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering. IEEE. pp. 451–454. 6255:

Schalk G, Miller KJ, Anderson NR, Wilson JA, Smyth MD, Ojemann JG, et al. (March 2008).

4740:

Hochberg LR, Bacher D, Jarosiewicz B, Masse NY, Simeral JD, Vogel J, et al. (May 2012).

2271: 2131: 1767: 1514: 1385: 953: 924: 319: 196: 6084:"Stentrode Device Allows Computer Control by ALS Patients with Partial Upper Limb Paralysis" 4107:

Moses DA, Metzger SL, Liu JR, Anumanchipalli GK, Makin JG, Sun PF, et al. (July 2021).

3426:"Reconstruction of natural scenes from ensemble responses in the lateral geniculate nucleus" 1490: 13114: 13077: 13057: 12896: 12777: 12560: 12485: 12475: 12248: 11999: 11839: 11810: 11705: 11400: 11365: 10882: 10160:

Leamy DJ, Kocijan J, Domijan K, Duffin J, Roche RA, Commins S, et al. (January 2014).

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Gibson RM, Fernández-Espejo D, Gonzalez-Lara LE, Kwan BY, Lee DH, Owen AM, Cruse D (2014).

9187: 8894: 8634: 8399: 8314: 7670: 7615: 7337: 7244: 6995: 6934: 6849: 6325: 6268: 5847: 5689: 5461: 5173: 5100: 5034: 4859: 4753: 4675: 4374: 4361:

Richardson AG, Ghenbot Y, Liu X, Hao H, Rinehart C, DeLuccia S, et al. (August 2019).

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Miranda RA, Casebeer WD, Hein AM, Judy JW, Krotkov EP, Laabs TL, et al. (April 2015).

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The electrode was tested on a test bench and on human subjects in four modalities, namely:

1222: 1124: 1038: 900: 864: 676: 632: 496: 364: 100: 9080:"Hacking the brain: brain-computer interfacing technology and the ethics of neurosecurity" 8090: 7263: 6895: 6035:"Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension. A Systematic Analysis of Transverse Sinus Stenting" 2162:, a system that reads unspoken verbalizations and responds with bone-conduction headphones 8: 13171: 13146: 12906: 12881: 12799: 12643: 12588: 12419: 12142: 12042: 11919: 11889: 11874: 11375: 10066:

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Researchers have built devices to interface with neural cells and entire neural networks

1625: 1568: 1175: 1071: 948: 199:, with disappointing results. However, more sophisticated measuring devices, such as the 126: 64: 11237: 11202: 11179: 10886: 9446: 9191: 9175: 8898: 8638: 8403: 8318: 7674: 7619: 7341: 7248: 6999: 6938: 6853: 6496: 6471: 6329: 6272: 6237: 5851: 5693: 5465: 5364:

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during neurosurgery. This procedure is often required for people who do not respond to

1775: 1666: 1641: 1536: 1449: 1441: 1282: 1190:

task with three disks using a CNV flip-flop. A 2015 study described EEG-emulation of a

1152: 1079:, which translated ECoG data into one of fifty sentences composed of 250 unique words. 957: 930: 807: 771: 693:). In a secondary, implicit control loop, the system adapts to its user, improving its 502: 469: 329: 307: 181: 10871:"Dissolvable films of silk fibroin for ultrathin conformal bio-integrated electronics" 9810:

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Concerns center on the safety and long-term effects on users. These include obtaining

1689:

and IINN-ELS connected the brains of two rats, allowing them to share information, in

998:, is designed to be delivered via an intravenous catheter under image-guidance to the 863:

handwriting recognition on electrical signals detected in the motor cortex, utilizing

604:, including signals created when experimental animals anticipated receiving a reward. 36:

Direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired brain and an external device

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device, enabling classification of data acquired by a consumer-grade sensing device.

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Signals can be either subdural or epidural, but are not taken from within the brain

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Mental Emotional Sentiment Classification with an EEG-based Brain-Machine Interface

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to regain basic ambulation. In 2009 independent researcher Alex Blainey used the

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system to restore upper extremity movements in a person with tetraplegia due to

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Berger analyzed the interrelation of alternations in his EEG wave diagrams with

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scale of microvolts is the fact that the electrode-tissue interface has a high

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Yang Dan and colleagues' recordings of cat vision using a BCI implanted in the

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A Study on Mental State Classification using EEG-based Brain-Machine Interface

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intervals. Home devices can allow communications when the patient is ready.

1901: 1872: 1816:

repair, and spare parts, particularly in the event of a company's bankruptcy

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In 2008 research developed in the Advanced Telecommunications Research (ATR)

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behavior, utilizing autonomous intelligence and an autonomous energy source.

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board with snap-on electrode holders. The signal processing module measured

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Human-computer interaction can exploit other recording modalities, such as

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Diagram of the BCI developed by Miguel Nicolelis and colleagues for use on

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2020 IEEE 11th Latin American Symposium on Circuits & Systems (LASCAS)

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Willett FR, Avansino DT, Hochberg LR, Henderson JM, Shenoy KV (May 2021).

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A further parameter is the method of feedback used as shown in studies of

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source imaging, They identified the co-variation and co-localization of

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conceived the idea for this BCI, called Stentrode, earning funding from

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used a 64-electrode EEG skullcap to return limited hand movements to a

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Several laboratories have managed to read signals from monkey and rat

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that can help determine whether the patient is able to communicate.

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Active Micromachined Scalp Electrode Array for Eeg Signal Recording

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used a culture of 25,000 neurons taken from a rat's brain to fly a

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A 2016 article described a new non-EEG-based HCI that required no

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Non-brain-based human–computer interface (physiological computing)

1599:(HRV) can do so. Many biofeedback systems treat disorders such as 1049:. In a later trial, the researchers enabled a teenage boy to play 665:

to control the activity of genetically defined subsets of neurons

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Anticipatory brain potentials in a Brain-Robot Interface paradigm

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National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders

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cell phone, tablet, and computer based BCIs, analyzed the power

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helicopter through an obstacle course. They also solved the EEG

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Thompson CH, Zoratti MJ, Langhals NB, Purcell EK (April 2016).

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6614:"Brain-computer interface in Europe: The thirtieth anniversary" 2798:"Brain-computer interface in Europe: The thirtieth anniversary" 2700:, Wolpaw, J.R. and Wolpaw (eds.), E.W. Oxford University Press. 2322: 1912: 1883: 1864:

developed a device for use in video games relying primarily on

1618: 1572: 1540: 1465: 1274: 1206: 927:. Optimal battery design is an active area of research in BCIs. 811: 457: 371:

showed that monkeys could learn to control the deflection of a

192: 80: 10968: 10310: 10065: 9809: 9756:"Brain-computer Interface (BCI), explore neuroscience - PiEEG" 9588: 9461: 9352: 8582:"The application of implant technology for cybernetic systems" 7656: 7481: 5310:

Obien ME, Deligkaris K, Bullmann T, Bakkum DJ, Frey U (2015).

4848:"High-performance brain-to-text communication via handwriting" 4739: 3946: 3629: 2887:

Proc. IEEE Annual Conference of Medical and Biological Society

2471:

Vidal J (1977). "Real-Time Detection of Brain Events in EEG".

1567:

involves imagining the movement of body parts, activating the

682:

BCIs led to a deeper understanding of neural networks and the

12921: 11260: 10439: 9961: 9403: 8385: 7983: 7794:

Do AH, Wang PT, King CE, Chun SN, Nenadic Z (December 2013).

6977: 6526: 5785:

Hong G, Viveros RD, Zwang TJ, Yang X, Lieber CM (July 2018).

5626: 5309: 4106: 3836: 1532: 1199: 1178:

signals. Patterns of P300 waves are generated involuntarily (

985: 265: 191:

Berger's first recording device was rudimentary. He inserted

115: 56: 11385: 9908: 9812:"BNCI Horizon 2020: towards a roadmap for the BCI community" 8120: 7148: 5591: 4796: 4558:"Dr. William Dobelle, Artificial Vision Pioneer, Dies at 62" 2094:

used to create these devices resembles those used to create

1778:. After collection, the cortical neurons were cultured in a 1677:

In the 1960s a researcher after training used EEG to create

1582: 1115:

Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces

777: 671:. In the context of a simple learning task, illumination of 172:

The history of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with

106:

Research on BCIs began in the 1970s by Jacques Vidal at the

10819: 10524: 10406: 8178:

Ang KK, Chin ZY, Wang C, Guan C, Zhang H (1 January 2012).

7934: 7796:"Brain-computer interface controlled robotic gait orthosis" 5556: 5214: 5085: 4665: 3992:"Speech synthesis from neural decoding of spoken sentences" 3989: 3472: 2505: 2067: 1847: 1771: 1510: 1421: 890: 740: 526:

to control reaching movements and simultaneously predicted

96: 11820: 11053: 6254: 4202: 2597:"Thalamocortical dysrhythmia detected by machine learning" 2126:

nerve sensors that were proposed in a 2011 paper from the

10971:"Regenerative Electrode Interfaces for Neural Prostheses" 10159: 9859:

Allison BZ, Dunne S, Leeb R, Millan J, Nijholt A (2013).

9117:

Steinert, Steffen; Friedrich, Orsolya (1 February 2020).

8838:"Experts to 'redefine the future' at Humanity+ @ CalTech" 7845:

Subject with Paraplegia Operates BCI-controlled RoGO (4x)

5735:"Next-generation interfaces for studying neural function" 5451: 4422:"Brain computer interfacing: Applications and challenges" 3329: 3200:"Monkey Uses Brain Power to Feed Itself With Robotic Arm" 1218: 1214: 988:. Preclinical studies evaluated the technology in sheep. 846:

Research teams led by the BrainGate group and another at

654:, a general-purpose system for BCI research, since 2000. 92: 84: 10579:

Yuan K, Chen C, Wang X, Chu WC, Tong RK (January 2021).

10260:

Bai Z, Fong KN, Zhang JJ, Chan J, Ting KH (April 2020).

9236: 8579: 8550:"Nervous System Hookup Leads to Telepathic Hand-Holding" 5502: 1554: 1111:(ALS) was able to restore basic ability to communicate. 1098: 643:

patient who had been unable to speak for over 15 years.

328:

to operate BCIs to produce movement. Monkeys have moved

11160:. Nicolelis Lab Series. Vol. 2. 2019. p. 436. 11150:. Nicolelis Lab Series. Vol. 1. 2019. p. 452. 8939: 8570:

Proceedings on Communications, 151(3), pp.185–189, 2004

8116: 8114: 8112: 6397: 6395: 6311: 6032: 5890: 4360: 3839:"Cortical control of a prosthetic arm for self-feeding" 2948: 2376: 1904:, a game designed to create the illusion of possessing 635:

to tap neural activity from a patient's brain and used

9858: 8620: 8614: 6131: 5939: 5884: 5019: 4165:"Tapping Into the Brain to Help a Paralyzed Man Speak" 3990:

Anumanchipalli GK, Chartier J, Chang EF (April 2019).

2090:; the flexibility allows the electronics to bend. The 11200: 10925: 9755: 9562: 6786: 5732: 4460: 4419: 3737: 2594: 1427: 299:. The first neuroprosthetic device, however, was the 10868: 9883: 8806:"Speculations on Robots, Cyborgs & Telepresence" 8109: 6737: 6673: 6611: 6392: 6244:. Washington University in St Louis. 9 October 2006. 5784: 5733:

Frank JA, Antonini MJ, Anikeeva P (September 2019).

2795: 148:

to statistical temporal features extracted from the

27:

For direct brain control of prosthetic devices, see

7206:

Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology

7040: 6835: 6699:"Robot Control Using Anticipatory Brain Potentials" 4962: 2752: 2692: 2690: 1984: 1420:, EEG pattern recognition based on Topomap and EEG- 544: 137:devices were implanted in humans in the mid-1990s. 10480: 9955: 8523:Selim, Jocelyn; Drinkell, Pete (1 November 2002). 7091: 6744:IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development 6312:Nicolas-Alonso LF, Gomez-Gil J (31 January 2012). 6134: 3894:"Cognitive control signals for neural prosthetics" 2997: 2698:Brain-Computer Interfaces: Principles and Practice 2566:Bird JJ, Ekart A, Buckingham CD, Faria DR (2019). 1617:(SSVEPs) use potentials generated by exciting the 1475: 1396:rhythms to function as a motor-imagery based BCI. 10710: 9294:Attiah, Mark A.; Farah, Martha J. (15 May 2014). 9116: 7556: 7199: 6674:Bozinovski, Adrijan; Bozinovska, Liljana (2009). 5833: 5675: 3132:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 3051:"Brain Chip Helps Paralyzed Man Feel His Fingers" 2900:Proc. IEEE Workshop on Intelligent Motion Control 960:of the electrode closer to that of brain tissue. 81:erasing the distinction between brain and machine 13226: 10259: 9803: 8270:Advances in Robot Design and Intelligent Control 6238:"Teenager moves video icons just by imagination" 4263: 2687: 1606: 620:parameters of limb movements, BCIs that predict 436:(top row: original image; bottom row: recording) 10578: 10210: 9888:. Tokyo: pringer Verlag Japan. pp. 33–66. 9603:"LIFESUIT Updates & News – They Shall Walk" 8488: 8177: 7715: 7238: 6738:Bozinovski, Stevo; Bozinovski, Adrijan (2015). 6469: 6428: 6199: 4420:Abdulkader SN, Atia A, Mostafa MS (July 2015). 2595:Vanneste S, Song JJ, De Ridder D (March 2018). 2508:IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering 1672: 1601:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 1494:ATR Labs' reconstruction of human vision using 118:. Vidal's 1973 paper introduced the expression 83:. BCI implementations range from non-invasive ( 10266:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation 10166:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation 9538:"Toy trains 'Star Wars' fans to use The Force" 9077: 7800:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation 7793: 7280: 7155:Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation 6377:. Vol. 71, no. 3. pp. 353–361. 6211:. Imperial College Press. pp. 1158–1196. 4184:. National Center for Adaptive Neurotechnology 4054: 3576: 3574: 3522: 3520: 2651: 2433:Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering 1755:In 2003 a team led by Theodore Berger, at the 1691:the first-ever direct brain-to-brain interface 1376:The scientists reported that a single channel 1264: 55:), is a direct communication link between the 12735: 12307: 11649: 11281: 11114:Gupta, Cota Navin and Ramaswamy Palanappian. 9587:. Neurowear. 22 November 2011. Archived from 9078:Ienca, Marcello; Haselager, Pim (June 2016). 8522: 7605: 6605: 5503:Szostak KM, Grand L, Constandinou TG (2017). 5257: 4963:Pandarinath C, Bensmaia SJ (September 2021). 4568: 4057:"Brain implants that let you speak your mind" 2998:Jacobs M, Premji A, Nelson AJ (16 May 2012). 2318: 2316: 1436:and colleagues demonstrated a BCI-controlled 713:$ 3,000, $ 2,000, and $ 1,000, respectively. 12184:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring 11295: 11157:20 Years of Brain-Machine Interface Research 11147:20 Years of Brain-Machine Interface Research 10928:IEEE Transactions on Bio-Medical Engineering 10758:. 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The advantages of such electrodes are: 835:chip-implant. Implanted in Nagle's right 188:(8–13 Hz), by analyzing EEG traces. 10919: 10862: 9555: 8880: 8740: 5363: 4943: 3074: 2540: 2466: 2464: 2422: 2420: 2130:Wireless Research Center. In one model, 2122:is millimeter-sized devices operated as 1964: 1799:publication of his patent application. 1722: 1489: 1444:. Between 2012 and 2013, researchers at 1399:In 2013, comparative tests performed on 1337: 1123:Recordings of brainwaves produced by an 1118: 929: 781:Dummy unit illustrating the design of a 776: 548: 501: 427: 354: 12837:Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor 12795:Applications of artificial intelligence 11003: 9173: 8494: 8362:"Army Developing 'synthetic telepathy'" 8229:Fairclough, Stephen H. (January 2009). 6644: 4902: 4574: 2039:In 2014, some 400,000 people underwent 2009:attention produces reliable changes in 1897:partnered with NeuroSky to release the 1681:using alpha waves. On 27 February 2013 1615:Steady-state visually evoked potentials 1033: 884: 848:University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 416: 334:University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 270:University of Pittsburgh Medical Center 14: 13227: 13063:Differential technological development 11012: 10574: 10572: 9863:. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer Verlag. 9535: 8982: 8861: 8803: 8547: 8468: 8442: 7881: 7561:. Vol. 2013. pp. 5271–5274. 7552: 7550: 7548: 7437:. 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They are often conceptualized as a 12956:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 12669: 12274: 11616: 10683: 10215:. Vol. 2013. pp. 261–264. 8495:Kennedy, Pagan (18 September 2011). 8445:"One Rat Thinks, and Another Reacts" 5991: 4055:Pandarinath C, Ali YH (April 2019). 3949:The European Journal of Neuroscience 3278: 3197: 2565: 2372: 2370: 1960: 1712: 1269:In the early 1990s Babak Taheri, at 1082: 1008:idiopathic intracranial hypertension 679:influenced decision-making in mice. 596:Andersen's group used recordings of 272:, Paradromics, Brown, and Synchron. 13152:Future-oriented technology analysis 12815:Progress in artificial intelligence 12321: 10975:Tissue Engineering. 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Neuroscience 3546:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000042 3344:10.1016/0014-4886(78)90252-2 3301:10.1126/science.163.3870.955 2134:could be distinguished from 1673:Brain-to-brain communication 1517:or brain blood flow through 1460:operated a BCI-robotic gait 1249:randomized controlled trials 1087:Human experiments have used 754:have been used to treat non- 463: 225:(1965) by American composer 122:into scientific literature. 7: 12604:Continuous Performance Task 12199:Neurodevelopmental disorder 12174:Neural network (biological) 12169:Neural network (artificial) 10838:10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.09.015 9245:. 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Archived from 8056: 8050: 8049: 8047: 8045: 8030: 8024: 8023: 8013: 7981: 7975: 7974: 7956: 7932: 7926: 7925: 7923: 7921: 7902: 7896: 7895: 7879: 7873: 7866: 7860: 7854: 7848: 7842: 7836: 7835: 7825: 7815: 7791: 7785: 7784: 7748: 7742: 7741: 7713: 7707: 7706: 7696: 7686: 7654: 7648: 7647: 7603: 7597: 7596: 7554: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7537: 7530: 7524: 7523: 7513: 7503: 7479: 7473: 7472: 7430: 7421: 7420: 7410: 7400: 7376: 7370: 7369: 7325: 7312: 7311: 7278: 7272: 7271: 7259: 7253: 7252: 7236: 7230: 7229: 7197: 7191: 7190: 7180: 7170: 7146: 7140: 7139: 7121: 7089: 7083: 7082: 7072: 7062: 7038: 7032: 7031: 7021: 7011: 6975: 6969: 6968: 6958: 6918: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6907: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6875: 6865: 6833: 6827: 6826: 6816: 6799:(3): 2596–2606. 6784: 6778: 6777: 6759: 6735: 6729: 6728: 6718: 6694: 6688: 6687: 6671: 6665: 6661: 6655: 6654: 6651:Psychology Today 6642: 6636: 6635: 6633: 6609: 6603: 6600: 6594: 6591: 6585: 6582: 6576: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6556: 6524: 6518: 6517: 6499: 6467: 6461: 6460: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6399: 6390: 6389: 6368: 6362: 6361: 6351: 6341: 6324:(2): 1211–1279. 6309: 6303: 6302: 6292: 6252: 6246: 6245: 6234: 6228: 6227: 6226:on 4 April 2005. 6225: 6219:. Archived from 6206: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6172: 6138: 6129: 6123: 6122: 6120: 6118: 6098: 6092: 6091: 6079: 6073: 6072: 6062: 6030: 6024: 6023: 5989: 5980: 5979: 5961: 5937: 5931: 5930: 5920: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5871: 5846:(6): 4180–4187. 5831: 5825: 5824: 5814: 5782: 5773: 5772: 5762: 5745:(9): 1013–1023. 5730: 5724: 5723: 5713: 5682:Science Advances 5673: 5667: 5666: 5656: 5624: 5618: 5617: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5554: 5545: 5544: 5534: 5524: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5449: 5443: 5442: 5415:. pp. 1–4. 5404: 5398: 5397: 5372:(7): 1203–1216. 5361: 5352: 5351: 5341: 5331: 5307: 5298: 5297: 5287: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5132: 5083: 5077: 5076: 5066: 5017: 5011: 5010: 4992: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4900: 4894: 4893: 4883: 4843: 4837: 4836: 4826: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4777: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4728: 4726: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4663: 4657: 4656: 4631:(8): 1707–1711. 4620: 4614: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4519: 4513: 4501: 4495: 4494: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4441: 4417: 4411: 4410: 4400: 4390: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4307: 4298: 4297: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4244: 4207:(January 2008). 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4178: 4172: 4161: 4155: 4154: 4136: 4104: 4095: 4094: 4084: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4027: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3955:(6): 1529–1540. 3944: 3938: 3937: 3889: 3883: 3882: 3834: 3828: 3819: 3813: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3763: 3761:10.1.1.1027.4335 3735: 3729: 3728: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3667: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3610: 3578: 3569: 3568: 3558: 3548: 3524: 3515: 3514: 3495:10.1038/35042582 3470: 3464: 3463: 3453: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3195: 3189: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3141: 3139: 3124: 3118: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3107:Brown University 3098: 3092: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3046: 3040: 3039: 3029: 3019: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2970: 2946: 2940: 2937: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2912: 2909: 2903: 2896: 2890: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2866: 2860:. Archived from 2835: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2817: 2793: 2787: 2786: 2750: 2744: 2743: 2707: 2701: 2694: 2685: 2684: 2649: 2643: 2642: 2632: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2503: 2497: 2496: 2468: 2459: 2458: 2448: 2424: 2415: 2414: 2389:(2): E108–E117. 2374: 2365: 2364: 2354: 2344: 2320: 2301: 2294: 2266:Wetware computer 2226:Neurostimulation 2136:action potential 2055:Flexible devices 1995:vegetative state 1866:electromyography 1832:Low-cost systems 1813:informed consent 1683:Miguel Nicolelis 1589:electromyography 1531:Laboratories in 1456:, a person with 1405:spectrum density 1310:spontaneous EEG, 1209:and his team at 994:is a monolithic 940:material science 896:action potential 837:precentral gyrus 663:channelrhodopsin 583:Richard Andersen 575:Brown University 559:Brown University 479:Miguel Nicolelis 406:neural ensembles 330:computer cursors 297:retinal implants 282:Neuroprosthetics 276:Neuroprosthetics 146:machine learning 29:Neuroprosthetics 21: 13285: 13284: 13280: 13279: 13278: 13276: 13275: 13274: 13270:Virtual reality 13225: 13224: 13223: 13218: 13198: 13037: 13033:Neurotechnology 13021:Retinal implant 12960: 12771: 12768: 12767:Information and 12753: 12748: 12718: 12713: 12702: 12700: 12688: 12686: 12648: 12575: 12551:Karl H. Pribram 12541:Alexander Luria 12516:Kenneth Heilman 12486:António Damásio 12464: 12455:Problem solving 12415:Decision making 12392:Brain functions 12386: 12372:Neurophysiology 12325: 12323:Neuropsychology 12320: 12290: 12285: 12253: 12239:Neurotechnology 12234:Neuroplasticity 12229:Neuromodulation 12224:Neuromanagement 12147: 12118:Neurophilosophy 12015: 12009: 11995:Neuropsychology 11956: 11949: 11910:Neuropsychiatry 11870:Neuroimmunology 11855:Neurocardiology 11831: 11824: 11815: 11806:Neurophysiology 11796:Neuromorphology 11751:Neural decoding 11692: 11685: 11667: 11662: 11632: 11627: 11595: 11559: 11483: 11457: 11416: 11412:Neuroplasticity 11407:Neural ensemble 11389: 11380: 11356:Neurotechnology 11311:Biomechatronics 11299: 11294: 11197: 11196: 11195: 11177: 11173: 11168: 11154: 11144: 11096: 11094:Further reading 11091: 11052: 11048: 11033: 11011: 11004: 10967: 10963: 10924: 10920: 10867: 10863: 10818: 10814: 10775: 10771: 10761: 10759: 10754: 10753: 10749: 10709: 10705: 10695: 10693: 10682: 10678: 10628: 10624: 10577: 10570: 10523: 10519: 10479: 10475: 10460: 10438: 10434: 10427: 10405: 10401: 10358: 10354: 10309: 10305: 10258: 10254: 10231: 10209: 10205: 10158: 10154: 10115: 10111: 10064: 10060: 10013: 10009: 9960: 9956: 9907: 9903: 9896: 9882: 9878: 9871: 9857: 9853: 9808: 9804: 9794: 9792: 9784: 9783: 9779: 9769: 9767: 9754: 9753: 9749: 9739: 9737: 9729: 9728: 9724: 9714: 9712: 9702: 9698: 9688: 9686: 9676: 9672: 9662: 9660: 9650: 9649: 9645: 9635: 9633: 9625:"SmartphoneBCI" 9623: 9622: 9618: 9608: 9606: 9601: 9600: 9596: 9583: 9582: 9578: 9568: 9566: 9561: 9560: 9556: 9546: 9544: 9534: 9530: 9522: 9518: 9508: 9506: 9496: 9492: 9471: 9462: 9452: 9450: 9445: 9444: 9440: 9427: 9426: 9422: 9409: 9408: 9404: 9351: 9347: 9292: 9288: 9243:Neural Networks 9235: 9231: 9172: 9168: 9115: 9111: 9076: 9072: 9062: 9060: 9052: 9051: 9047: 9037: 9035: 9027: 9026: 9022: 9007: 8981: 8977: 8938: 8934: 8879: 8875: 8868: 8860: 8856: 8846: 8844: 8836: 8835: 8831: 8821: 8819: 8802: 8798: 8788: 8786: 8781: 8780: 8776: 8763: 8762: 8758: 8739: 8735: 8727: 8723: 8678: 8674: 8619: 8615: 8578: 8574: 8565: 8561: 8546: 8542: 8521: 8517: 8507: 8505: 8493: 8489: 8479: 8477: 8467: 8463: 8453: 8451: 8441: 8437: 8384: 8380: 8370: 8368: 8358: 8354: 8313:(2): e0148805. 8299: 8295: 8288: 8266: 8262: 8227: 8223: 8176: 8172: 8162: 8160: 8155: 8154: 8150: 8119: 8110: 8100: 8098: 8087: 8083: 8073: 8071: 8058: 8057: 8053: 8043: 8041: 8031: 8027: 7990:Current Biology 7982: 7978: 7933: 7929: 7919: 7917: 7916:on 23 June 2017 7904: 7903: 7899: 7880: 7876: 7867: 7863: 7855: 7851: 7843: 7839: 7792: 7788: 7749: 7745: 7714: 7710: 7655: 7651: 7604: 7600: 7577: 7555: 7546: 7539: 7532: 7531: 7527: 7480: 7476: 7453: 7431: 7424: 7377: 7373: 7326: 7315: 7301: 7279: 7275: 7260: 7256: 7237: 7233: 7198: 7194: 7147: 7143: 7090: 7086: 7039: 7035: 6976: 6972: 6919: 6915: 6905: 6903: 6894: 6893: 6889: 6834: 6830: 6785: 6781: 6736: 6732: 6695: 6691: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6658: 6643: 6639: 6610: 6606: 6601: 6597: 6592: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6574: 6570: 6525: 6521: 6468: 6464: 6449: 6427: 6423: 6400: 6393: 6369: 6365: 6310: 6306: 6253: 6249: 6236: 6235: 6231: 6223: 6204: 6198: 6194: 6130: 6126: 6116: 6114: 6107:livescience.com 6099: 6095: 6080: 6076: 6031: 6027: 6012: 5990: 5983: 5938: 5934: 5889: 5885: 5832: 5828: 5783: 5776: 5731: 5727: 5688:(2): e1601966. 5674: 5670: 5625: 5621: 5590: 5586: 5555: 5548: 5501: 5497: 5450: 5446: 5431: 5405: 5401: 5362: 5355: 5308: 5301: 5256: 5252: 5213: 5209: 5158: 5154: 5084: 5080: 5018: 5014: 4961: 4957: 4942: 4938: 4923: 4901: 4897: 4844: 4840: 4795: 4791: 4738: 4734: 4724: 4722: 4717:Martins Iduwe. 4715: 4711: 4664: 4660: 4621: 4617: 4607: 4605: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4573: 4569: 4554: 4550: 4540: 4538: 4520: 4516: 4502: 4498: 4459: 4455: 4418: 4414: 4359: 4355: 4308: 4301: 4278:10.1038/nrn2653 4262: 4258: 4219:(7174): 61–64. 4201: 4197: 4187: 4185: 4180: 4179: 4175: 4162: 4158: 4105: 4098: 4053: 4049: 3988: 3984: 3945: 3941: 3890: 3886: 3835: 3831: 3820: 3816: 3806:Wayback Machine 3797: 3793: 3736: 3732: 3709:10.1038/416141a 3685: 3681: 3628: 3624: 3579: 3572: 3525: 3518: 3471: 3467: 3422: 3418: 3371: 3367: 3328: 3324: 3277: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3251: 3247: 3237: 3235: 3223: 3219: 3209: 3207: 3196: 3192: 3187:Wayback Machine 3177: 3173: 3163: 3161: 3160:. February 2016 3152: 3151: 3147: 3137: 3135: 3126: 3125: 3121: 3111: 3109: 3099: 3095: 3085: 3083: 3073: 3069: 3059: 3057: 3047: 3043: 2996: 2992: 2947: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2897: 2893: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2868: 2867:on 19 July 2015 2864: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2794: 2790: 2751: 2747: 2708: 2704: 2695: 2688: 2661:Organised Sound 2650: 2646: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2577: 2564: 2560: 2550: 2548: 2539: 2535: 2504: 2500: 2469: 2462: 2425: 2418: 2375: 2368: 2321: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2304: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2144: 2117: 2111: 2086:) printed with 2057: 2037: 2019: 1987: 1963: 1840: 1834: 1805: 1796: 1731:, developed by 1721: 1715: 1687:Duke University 1675: 1663:visual fixation 1659: 1650: 1638: 1630:oddball stimuli 1609: 1585: 1562: 1557: 1488: 1480:Main articles: 1478: 1470:home automation 1430: 1340: 1279:silver chloride 1267: 1232:inverse problem 1192:Schmitt trigger 1117: 1101: 1085: 1036: 975: 966: 958:Young's modulus 887: 860: 801: 760:William Dobelle 733: 724: 719: 706: 610: 547: 523:neurophysiology 475:Duke University 472: 466: 419: 414: 353: 322: 316: 314:Animal research 284: 278: 170: 135:neuroprosthetic 37: 32: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13283: 13273: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13240:DARPA projects 13237: 13220: 13219: 13217: 13216: 13203: 13200: 13199: 13197: 13196: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13175: 13174: 13169: 13164: 13159: 13154: 13149: 13139: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13123: 13122: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13101: 13100: 13095: 13090: 13085: 13075: 13070: 13065: 13060: 13055: 13049: 13047: 13043: 13042: 13039: 13038: 13036: 13035: 13030: 13029: 13028: 13023: 13018: 13013: 13003: 13002: 13001: 12996: 12989:Mind uploading 12986: 12981: 12976: 12970: 12968: 12962: 12961: 12959: 12958: 12953: 12948: 12947: 12946: 12936: 12931: 12930: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12914: 12909: 12904: 12899: 12894: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12871: 12866: 12865: 12864: 12859: 12849: 12844: 12839: 12834: 12829: 12828: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12807: 12805:Machine vision 12802: 12797: 12787: 12786: 12785: 12774: 12772: 12769:communications 12765: 12759: 12755: 12754: 12747: 12746: 12739: 12732: 12724: 12715: 12714: 12712: 12711: 12697: 12678: 12666: 12653: 12650: 12649: 12647: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12606: 12601: 12596: 12591: 12585: 12583: 12577: 12576: 12574: 12573: 12568: 12563: 12558: 12553: 12548: 12543: 12538: 12536:Rodolfo Llinás 12533: 12531:Benjamin Libet 12528: 12523: 12518: 12513: 12511:Donald O. Hebb 12508: 12506:Kurt Goldstein 12503: 12498: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12472: 12470: 12466: 12465: 12463: 12462: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12402: 12396: 12394: 12388: 12387: 12385: 12384: 12379: 12374: 12369: 12364: 12362:Misconceptions 12359: 12354: 12349: 12344: 12339: 12333: 12331: 12327: 12326: 12319: 12318: 12311: 12304: 12296: 12287: 12286: 12284: 12283: 12271: 12258: 12255: 12254: 12252: 12251: 12249:Self-awareness 12246: 12241: 12236: 12231: 12226: 12221: 12216: 12211: 12206: 12204:Neurodiversity 12201: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12176: 12171: 12166: 12161: 12155: 12153: 12149: 12148: 12146: 12145: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12105: 12103:Neuromarketing 12100: 12095: 12090: 12085: 12080: 12078:Neuroesthetics 12075: 12070: 12068:Neuroeconomics 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12019: 12017: 12011: 12010: 12008: 12007: 12002: 11997: 11992: 11987: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11961: 11959: 11951: 11950: 11948: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11915:Neuroradiology 11912: 11907: 11902: 11897: 11895:Neuropathology 11892: 11887: 11885:Neuro-oncology 11882: 11877: 11872: 11867: 11862: 11857: 11852: 11847: 11842: 11836: 11834: 11826: 11825: 11818: 11816: 11814: 11813: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11788: 11783: 11778: 11773: 11771:Neurochemistry 11768: 11763: 11758: 11753: 11748: 11743: 11738: 11733: 11728: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11697: 11695: 11687: 11686: 11684: 11683: 11678: 11672: 11669: 11668: 11661: 11660: 11653: 11646: 11638: 11629: 11628: 11626: 11625: 11613: 11600: 11597: 11596: 11594: 11593: 11588: 11583: 11578: 11573: 11567: 11565: 11561: 11560: 11558: 11557: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11532: 11527: 11522: 11517: 11512: 11507: 11502: 11497: 11495:Charles Stross 11491: 11489: 11485: 11484: 11482: 11481: 11479:Mind uploading 11476: 11471: 11465: 11463: 11459: 11458: 11456: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11435: 11430: 11424: 11422: 11418: 11417: 11415: 11414: 11409: 11404: 11397: 11395: 11391: 11390: 11383: 11381: 11379: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11346:Isolated brain 11343: 11338: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11307: 11305: 11301: 11300: 11293: 11292: 11285: 11278: 11270: 11264: 11263: 11258: 11252: 11251: 11178: 11171: 11170: 11169: 11167: 11166:External links 11164: 11163: 11162: 11152: 11142: 11127: 11112: 11095: 11092: 11090: 11089: 11046: 11031: 11002: 10981:(2): 125–135. 10961: 10918: 10881:(6): 511–517. 10861: 10812: 10785:(3): 663–668. 10769: 10747: 10720:(3): 320–327. 10703: 10676: 10633:Brain Research 10622: 10585:Brain Sciences 10568: 10517: 10473: 10458: 10432: 10425: 10399: 10372:(9): 918–932. 10352: 10323:(5): 445–454. 10303: 10252: 10229: 10203: 10152: 10125:(4): 245–252. 10109: 10058: 10007: 9954: 9901: 9894: 9876: 9869: 9851: 9802: 9777: 9747: 9722: 9696: 9670: 9643: 9616: 9594: 9576: 9554: 9528: 9516: 9490: 9460: 9438: 9420: 9402: 9365:(3): 541–578. 9345: 9286: 9229: 9166: 9129:(1): 351–367. 9109: 9090:(2): 117–129. 9070: 9045: 9020: 9005: 8975: 8932: 8873: 8863:WO2012100081A2 8854: 8829: 8796: 8774: 8756: 8733: 8721: 8672: 8633:(8): e105225. 8613: 8572: 8559: 8540: 8515: 8487: 8461: 8435: 8378: 8366:Discovery News 8352: 8293: 8286: 8260: 8221: 8170: 8148: 8108: 8081: 8051: 8025: 7976: 7947:(5): 915–929. 7927: 7897: 7874: 7861: 7859:at YouTube.com 7849: 7847:at YouTube.com 7837: 7786: 7743: 7724:(2): 234–239. 7708: 7649: 7598: 7575: 7544: 7534:US 20130127708 7525: 7474: 7451: 7422: 7371: 7313: 7299: 7273: 7254: 7231: 7212:(5): 376–383. 7192: 7141: 7084: 7033: 6994:(8): e104854. 6970: 6933:(3): 135–141. 6913: 6887: 6848:(10): e26322. 6828: 6779: 6730: 6689: 6666: 6656: 6637: 6604: 6595: 6586: 6577: 6568: 6519: 6482:(4): 575–582. 6462: 6447: 6421: 6391: 6363: 6304: 6247: 6229: 6192: 6147:(3): 270–278. 6141:JAMA Neurology 6124: 6093: 6088:ALS News Today 6074: 6045:(3): 132–143. 6025: 6010: 5981: 5932: 5883: 5826: 5774: 5725: 5668: 5619: 5584: 5546: 5495: 5444: 5429: 5399: 5353: 5299: 5270:(4): 500–544. 5250: 5223:(4): 191–200. 5207: 5152: 5078: 5012: 4975:(2): 551–604. 4955: 4936: 4921: 4895: 4838: 4789: 4732: 4721:. Academia.edu 4709: 4658: 4615: 4592: 4585: 4567: 4548: 4524:"Vision Quest" 4514: 4504:"Vision quest" 4496: 4453: 4432:(2): 213–230. 4412: 4353: 4299: 4272:(7): 530–540. 4256: 4195: 4173: 4156: 4119:(3): 217–227. 4096: 4047: 3982: 3939: 3884: 3829: 3814: 3791: 3730: 3679: 3622: 3570: 3516: 3465: 3416: 3365: 3338:(2): 349–369. 3322: 3271: 3245: 3217: 3190: 3171: 3145: 3119: 3093: 3067: 3041: 2990: 2941: 2932: 2922: 2913: 2904: 2891: 2878: 2844:(5): 633–641. 2821: 2788: 2761:(4): 463–474. 2745: 2718:(6): 767–791. 2702: 2686: 2644: 2587: 2558: 2533: 2514:(2): 180–185. 2498: 2479:(5): 633–641. 2460: 2439:(1): 157–180. 2416: 2366: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2302: 2288: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2263: 2258: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2241:Project Cyborg 2238: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2113:Main article: 2110: 2107: 2056: 2053: 2036: 2033: 2018: 2017:Motor recovery 2015: 1986: 1983: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1954: 1946: 1934: 1930: 1917: 1909: 1891: 1880: 1869: 1862:OCZ Technology 1858: 1851: 1836:Main article: 1833: 1830: 1804: 1801: 1795: 1792: 1717:Main article: 1714: 1711: 1674: 1671: 1658: 1655: 1649: 1646: 1637: 1634: 1626:P300 potential 1608: 1605: 1584: 1581: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1477: 1474: 1429: 1426: 1348:dry electrodes 1339: 1336: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1300: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1290: 1266: 1263: 1188:Tower of Hanoi 1116: 1113: 1100: 1097: 1084: 1081: 1077:neural network 1051:Space Invaders 1035: 1032: 974: 971: 965: 962: 945:glial scarring 886: 883: 859: 856: 816:brain aneurysm 800: 797: 752:brain implants 748:vision science 732: 729: 723: 720: 718: 717:Human research 715: 705: 702: 609: 608:Other research 606: 546: 543: 539:sensory cortex 528:gripping force 515:rhesus monkeys 508:rhesus monkeys 465: 462: 418: 415: 413: 410: 352: 349: 315: 312: 280:Main article: 277: 274: 216:brain diseases 184:, such as the 169: 166: 35: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13282: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13232: 13230: 13215: 13214: 13205: 13204: 13201: 13195: 13194:Transhumanism 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13173: 13170: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13158: 13155: 13153: 13150: 13148: 13145: 13144: 13143: 13140: 13138: 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13121: 13118: 13117: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13081: 13080: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13059: 13056: 13054: 13051: 13050: 13048: 13044: 13034: 13031: 13027: 13024: 13022: 13019: 13017: 13014: 13012: 13011:Brain implant 13009: 13008: 13007: 13004: 13000: 12997: 12995: 12994:Brain-reading 12992: 12991: 12990: 12987: 12985: 12982: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12971: 12969: 12967: 12963: 12957: 12954: 12952: 12949: 12945: 12944:Chipless RFID 12942: 12941: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12874: 12872: 12870: 12867: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12854: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12843: 12840: 12838: 12835: 12833: 12830: 12826: 12823: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12792: 12791: 12788: 12784: 12781: 12780: 12779: 12776: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12763: 12760: 12756: 12752: 12745: 12740: 12738: 12733: 12731: 12726: 12725: 12722: 12710: 12709: 12698: 12696: 12695: 12683: 12679: 12677: 12676: 12667: 12665: 12664: 12655: 12654: 12651: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12635: 12634:Stroop effect 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12619:Johari window 12617: 12615: 12612: 12610: 12607: 12605: 12602: 12600: 12597: 12595: 12592: 12590: 12587: 12586: 12584: 12582: 12578: 12572: 12569: 12567: 12564: 12562: 12559: 12557: 12554: 12552: 12549: 12547: 12546:Brenda Milner 12544: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12534: 12532: 12529: 12527: 12524: 12522: 12519: 12517: 12514: 12512: 12509: 12507: 12504: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12473: 12471: 12467: 12461: 12458: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12410:Consciousness 12408: 12406: 12403: 12401: 12398: 12397: 12395: 12393: 12389: 12383: 12380: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12353: 12350: 12348: 12345: 12343: 12342:Brain regions 12340: 12338: 12335: 12334: 12332: 12328: 12324: 12317: 12312: 12310: 12305: 12303: 12298: 12297: 12294: 12282: 12281: 12272: 12270: 12269: 12260: 12259: 12256: 12250: 12247: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12180: 12177: 12175: 12172: 12170: 12167: 12165: 12162: 12160: 12157: 12156: 12154: 12150: 12144: 12141: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12133:Neurotheology 12131: 12129: 12128:Neurorobotics 12126: 12124: 12123:Neuropolitics 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12091: 12089: 12088:Neuroethology 12086: 12084: 12081: 12079: 12076: 12074: 12071: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12056: 12054: 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12020: 12018: 12012: 12006: 12003: 12001: 11998: 11996: 11993: 11991: 11988: 11986: 11985:Motor control 11983: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11975:Chronobiology 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11962: 11960: 11958: 11952: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11935:Neurovirology 11933: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11908: 11906: 11903: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11893: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11841: 11838: 11837: 11835: 11833: 11827: 11822: 11812: 11809: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11792: 11789: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11781:Neurogenetics 11779: 11777: 11774: 11772: 11769: 11767: 11764: 11762: 11759: 11757: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11747: 11744: 11742: 11739: 11737: 11734: 11732: 11729: 11727: 11724: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11716:Brain-reading 11714: 11712: 11711:Brain mapping 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11698: 11696: 11694: 11688: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11673: 11670: 11666: 11659: 11654: 11652: 11647: 11645: 11640: 11639: 11636: 11624: 11623: 11614: 11612: 11611: 11602: 11601: 11598: 11592: 11589: 11587: 11586:Transhumanism 11584: 11582: 11579: 11577: 11574: 11572: 11569: 11568: 11566: 11562: 11556: 11555:Edward Boyden 11553: 11551: 11550:Yoky Matsuoka 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11525:Merlin Donald 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11515:Kevin Warwick 11513: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11496: 11493: 11492: 11490: 11486: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11472: 11470: 11467: 11466: 11464: 11460: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11436: 11434: 11431: 11429: 11426: 11425: 11423: 11419: 11413: 11410: 11408: 11405: 11402: 11399: 11398: 11396: 11392: 11387: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11316:Brain implant 11314: 11312: 11309: 11308: 11306: 11302: 11298: 11291: 11286: 11284: 11279: 11277: 11272: 11271: 11268: 11262: 11259: 11257: 11254: 11253: 11248: 11244: 11239: 11234: 11230: 11226: 11221: 11216: 11212: 11208: 11204: 11199: 11198: 11193: 11192: 11191: 11185: 11181: 11159: 11158: 11153: 11149: 11148: 11143: 11140: 11136: 11132: 11128: 11125: 11121: 11117: 11113: 11110: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11097: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11050: 11042: 11038: 11034: 11028: 11024: 11020: 11016: 11009: 11007: 10998: 10994: 10989: 10984: 10980: 10976: 10972: 10965: 10957: 10953: 10949: 10945: 10941: 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10207: 10199: 10195: 10190: 10185: 10180: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10156: 10148: 10144: 10140: 10136: 10132: 10128: 10124: 10120: 10113: 10105: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10086: 10081: 10077: 10073: 10069: 10062: 10054: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10026: 10022: 10018: 10011: 10003: 9999: 9995: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9977: 9973: 9969: 9965: 9958: 9950: 9946: 9942: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9924: 9920: 9916: 9912: 9905: 9897: 9891: 9887: 9880: 9872: 9866: 9862: 9855: 9847: 9843: 9838: 9833: 9829: 9825: 9821: 9817: 9813: 9806: 9791: 9787: 9781: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9751: 9736: 9732: 9726: 9711: 9707: 9700: 9685: 9681: 9674: 9659: 9658: 9653: 9647: 9632: 9631: 9626: 9620: 9604: 9598: 9590: 9586: 9580: 9564: 9558: 9543: 9539: 9532: 9525: 9520: 9505: 9501: 9494: 9486: 9482: 9481: 9476: 9469: 9467: 9465: 9448: 9442: 9434: 9433:The Economist 9430: 9424: 9416: 9412: 9406: 9398: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9380: 9376: 9372: 9368: 9364: 9360: 9356: 9349: 9341: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9323: 9319: 9314: 9309: 9305: 9301: 9297: 9290: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9270: 9265: 9260: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9244: 9240: 9233: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9170: 9162: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9113: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9081: 9074: 9059: 9055: 9049: 9034: 9030: 9024: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8979: 8971: 8967: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8951: 8948:(1): 94–108. 8947: 8943: 8936: 8928: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8900: 8896: 8893:(5): e20422. 8892: 8888: 8884: 8877: 8864: 8858: 8843: 8839: 8833: 8817: 8813: 8812: 8807: 8800: 8784: 8778: 8770: 8766: 8760: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8737: 8730: 8725: 8717: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8676: 8668: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8617: 8609: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8576: 8569: 8563: 8555: 8554:Atlas Obscura 8551: 8544: 8536: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8519: 8504: 8503: 8498: 8491: 8476: 8472: 8465: 8450: 8446: 8439: 8431: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8382: 8367: 8363: 8356: 8348: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8320: 8316: 8312: 8308: 8304: 8297: 8289: 8283: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8264: 8256: 8252: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8225: 8217: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8181: 8174: 8158: 8152: 8144: 8140: 8136: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8117: 8115: 8113: 8096: 8092: 8085: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8055: 8040: 8036: 8029: 8021: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8003: 7999: 7995: 7991: 7987: 7980: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7931: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7901: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7878: 7871: 7865: 7858: 7853: 7846: 7841: 7833: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7790: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7770: 7766: 7762: 7758: 7754: 7747: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7712: 7704: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7660: 7653: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7614:(4): 046002. 7613: 7609: 7602: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7560: 7553: 7551: 7549: 7535: 7529: 7521: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7478: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7429: 7427: 7418: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7375: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7336:(2): 025018. 7335: 7331: 7324: 7322: 7320: 7318: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7277: 7269: 7265: 7258: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7235: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7203: 7196: 7188: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7152: 7145: 7137: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7088: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6974: 6966: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6917: 6902:. 5 June 2013 6901: 6897: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6832: 6824: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6783: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6693: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6670: 6660: 6652: 6648: 6641: 6632: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6599: 6590: 6581: 6572: 6564: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6523: 6515: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6466: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6418: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6398: 6396: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6375: 6367: 6359: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6308: 6300: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6242:Press release 6239: 6233: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6210: 6203: 6196: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6137: 6128: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6078: 6070: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5988: 5986: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5936: 5928: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 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In their 1227:hemodynamic 913:capacitance 822:Tetraplegic 741:scar-tissue 737:grey matter 673:transfected 486:owl monkeys 373:biofeedback 235:alpha waves 174:Hans Berger 140:Studies in 125:Due to the 13229:Categories 13053:Automation 12481:David Bohm 12445:Perception 12377:Phrenology 12244:Neurotoxin 11945:Psychiatry 11540:Steve Mann 11520:Matt Nagle 10762:5 December 10696:5 December 10639:: 91–100. 9710:TechCrunch 9453:30 January 9264:2066/77533 9063:8 December 9038:8 December 8942:NeuroImage 8747:Wired News 8508:28 January 8371:13 October 7806:(1): 111. 7060:1908.04784 7047:Complexity 6793:NeuroImage 6703:Automatika 6618:Automatika 6575:Vidal 1977 4725:5 December 4522:Kotler S. 4188:5 December 3539:(2): E42. 3010:: 350574. 2871:4 November 2802:Automatika 2653:Straebel V 2580:3 December 2551:3 December 2308:References 2045:medication 1875:developer 1780:petri dish 1747:neurochips 1679:Morse code 1547:of random 1537:resolution 1505:(MEG) and 1458:paraplegia 1145:epileptics 1058:parenchyma 1043:dura mater 1012:craniotomy 825:Matt Nagle 768:phosphenes 756:congenital 477:professor 468:See also: 444:et al. at 423:electrodes 383:Algorithms 351:Early work 318:See also: 186:alpha wave 131:prostheses 65:augmenting 13083:Bioethics 13016:Exocortex 12892:Millipede 12405:Attention 12189:Neurochip 11955:Cognitive 11880:Neurology 11505:Hugh Herr 11371:Stentrode 11336:Exocortex 11331:Cyberware 11326:Brainport 11321:BrainGate 11229:2397-3374 11076:0018-9162 10742:205282364 10591:(1): 56. 10272:(1): 57. 9770:15 August 9542:USA Today 9379:1874-5490 9322:1662-5137 9273:0893-6080 9224:205043226 9208:0028-0836 9143:1471-5546 8143:206636315 8129:(2): 83. 7161:(1): 15. 7136:233446181 7079:1076-2787 6980:Müller KR 6766:1943-0604 6533:Neurology 6514:214704481 6457:239756345 6187:255545643 6161:2168-6149 6020:234102889 5976:220308983 5952:(1): E3. 5439:215817530 5386:1558-2256 5245:216508360 5237:2520-1131 5202:261099321 5147:261098775 5121:1476-4687 5055:1476-4687 5007:237574228 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