227:. Of contradictory propositions about the past and present, one must be true, the other false. But when the subject is individual, and the proposition is future, this is not the case. For if so, nothing takes place by chance. For either the future proposition such as, 'A sea battle will take place,' corresponds with future reality, or its negation does, in which case the sea battle will take place with necessity, or not take place with necessity. But in reality, such an event might just as easily not happen as happen; the meaning of the word 'by chance' with regard to future events is that reality is so constituted that it may issue in either of two opposite possibilities. This is known as the
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156:. Aristotle defines words as symbols of 'affections of the soul' or mental experiences. Spoken and written symbols differ between languages, but the mental experiences are the same for all (so that the English word 'cat' and the French word 'chat' are different symbols, but the mental experience they stand forâthe concept of a catâis the same for English speakers and French speakers). Nouns and verbs on their own do not involve truth or falsity.
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221:. An affirmation is single, if it expresses a single fact. For example, 'every man is mortal'. However, if a word has two meanings, for example if the word 'garment' meant 'man and horse', then 'the garment is white' would not be a single affirmation, for it would mean 'the man and horse are white', which is equivalent to the two simple propositions 'a man is white and a horse is white'.
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243:. Some propositions appear to be simple, but are really composite. In a single proposition, the nouns referring to the subjects combine to form a unity. Thus, 'two-footed domesticated animal' applies to a 'man', and the three predicates combine to form a unity. But in the term 'a white walking man' the three predicates do not combine to form a unity of this sort.
196:. A universal term is capable of being asserted of several subjects (for example 'moon'âeven though the Earth has one moon, it may have had more, and the noun 'moon' could have been said of them in exactly the same sense). Other terms are individual. An individual or singular term ('Plato') is not predicated (in the same) sense of more than one individual.
237:. Aristotle enumerates the affirmations and denials that can be assigned when 'indefinite' terms such as 'unjust' are included. He makes a distinction that was to become important later, between the use of the verb 'is' as a mere copula or 'third element', as in the sentence 'a man is wise', and as a predicate signifying existence, as in 'a man is '.
215:. Of contradictories, one must be true, the other false. Contraries cannot both be true, although they can both be false, and hence their contradictories are both true. For example, both 'Every man is honest' and 'No man is honest' are false. But their contradictories, 'Some men are not honest' and 'Some men are honest,' are both true.
255:. The relation between such propositions. Logical consequences follow from this arrangement. For example, from the proposition 'it is possible' it follows that it is contingent, that it is not impossible, or from the proposition 'it cannot be the case' there follows 'it is necessarily not the case'.
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which by representing six values is a more potent figure because it has the power to explain more things about logic and natural language. The study of the four propositions constituting the square is found in
Chapter 7 and its appendix Chapter 8. Most important also is the immediately following
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has its origin in the four marked sentences to be employed in syllogistic reasoning: Every man is white, the universal affirmative and its negation Not every man is white (or Some men are not white), the particular negative on the one hand, Some men are white, the particular affirmative and its
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would be: that we cannot know that which has not yet come to pass. In other words: if there is a sea battle tomorrow then it is true today that tomorrow there will be a sea battle. So, only if we can know whether or not there will be a sea battle tomorrow then can we know if there will be a sea
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261:. Is there an affirmative proposition corresponding to every denial? For example, is the proposition 'every man is unjust' an affirmation (since it seems to affirm being unjust of every man) or is it merely a negative (since it denies justice)?
119:
The first five chapters deal with the terms that form propositions. Chapters 6 and 7 deal with the relationship between affirmative, negative, universal and particular propositions. These relationships are the basis of the well-known
186:. An affirmation is an assertion of something, a denial an assertion denying something of something. (For example, 'a man is an animal' asserts 'animal' of 'man'. 'A stone is not an animal' denies 'animal' of stone').
168:. A verb carries with it the notion of time. 'He was healthy' and 'he will be healthy' are tenses of a verb. An untensed verb indicates the present, the tenses of a verb indicate times outside the present.
180:. Every simple proposition contains a verb. A simple proposition indicates a single fact, and the conjunction of its parts gives a unity. A complex proposition is several propositions compounded together.
174:. The sentence is an expression whose parts have meaning. The word 'cat' signifies something, but is not a sentence. Only when words are added to it do we have affirmation and negation.
249:. This chapter considers the mutual relation of modal propositions: affirmations and denials which assert or deny possibility or contingency, impossibility or necessity.
447:
Jean-François
Monteil, 'Isidor Pollak et les deux traductions arabes diffĂ©rentes du De interpretatione d'Aristote', Revue d'Ătudes Anciennes 107: 29â46 (2005).
211:. A universal affirmative proposition ("Every man is mortal") and the non-universal denial of that proposition in a way ("Some men are not mortal") are called
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Le chapitre IX du De
Interpretatione d'Aristote â Vers une rĂ©habilitation de l'opinion comme connaissance probable des choses contingentes
417:. Greek text with translation by H. P. Cooke, Hugh Tredennick. Loeb Classical Library 325. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938.
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propositions, and draws a series of basic conclusions on the routine issues of classifying and defining basic linguistic forms, such as
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to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit, and formal way. The work is usually known by its
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Une exception allemande: la traduction du De
Interpretatione par le Professeur Gohlke: la note 10 sur les indéterminées d'Aristote
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17:
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553:, which contains 9th/11th century copies (some with color) of Aristotle's square of opposition on leaves 36r and 36v.
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La transmission d'Aristote par les Arabes à la chrétienté occidentale: une trouvaille relative au De
Interpretatione
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Chapter 9 dealing with the problem of future contingents. This chapter and the subsequent ones are at the origin of
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that there will be a sea-battle. Thus a sea-battle is apparently unavoidable, and thus necessary. Another
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410:. Ed. L. Minio-Paluello. Oxford University Press, 1936. ISBN 9780198145073. Greek text.
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124:. The distinction between universal and particular propositions is the basis of modern
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498:, a tutorial introduction to the discussion of the truth status of future events from
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Selected
Bibliography on the Master Argument, Diodorus Chronus, Philo the Dialectician
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Aristotle, Categories and De
Interpretatione: Translated with Notes and Glossary
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with links to video and browsable/downloadable digitized manuscript LJS 101 of
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162:. A noun signifies the subject by convention, but without reference to time.
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136:. (If it is true that there will be a sea-battle tomorrow, then it is true
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Annotated bibliography on
Aristotle's De Interpretatione (Peri Hermeneias)
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Aristotle's Theory of
Language and Its Tradition. Texts from 500 to 1750
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108:(which to Aristotle is not applicable to future tense propositionsâthe
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in 1966 and since then many scholars think that the logical square or
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with a bibliography on
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negation No man is white, the universal negative on the other.
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and is among the earliest surviving philosophical works in the
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444:, Revista Española de Filosofia Medieval 11: 181â195 (2004).
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Aristotle's De interpretatione. Contradiction and Dialectic
427:, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007, pp. 301â322.
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Square of opposition (logical square) and modal logic
290:representing four values should be replaced by the
1074:On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration
477:, (in html, epub or mobi format) as translated by
203:proposition, such as, 'Every man is mortal' and a
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104:in modern symbolic logic), investigations on the
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486:with an extensive bibliography of recent studies
454:, Revues d'Ătudes Anciennes 103: 409â427 (2001).
132:. Chapter 9 is famous for the discussion of the
100:of simple propositions (primitive roots of the
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415:Categories; On Interpretation; Prior Analytics
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332:Another translation was completed by
1128:On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias
128:. The last three chapters deal with
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396:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963.
269:The logical square, also called
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659:Correspondence theory of truth
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1005:Constitution of the Athenians
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192:. Terms. Some terms are
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1506:Neoplatonism
1232:Theophrastus
1090:Protrepticus
983:and politics
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1382:Duns Scotus
1222:Dicaearchus
1212:Aristoxenus
971:Metaphysics
964:Metaphysics
950:Progression
917:On the Soul
912:Meteorology
714:Magnanimity
680:Four causes
536:(in French)
413:Aristotle,
406:Aristotle.
297:modal logic
102:quantifiers
1571:Categories
1464:Hursthouse
1338:Maimonides
1304:Avicennism
955:Generation
927:On Animals
854:Categories
674:Eudaimonia
341: 510
259:Chapter 14
253:Chapter 13
247:Chapter 12
241:Chapter 11
235:Chapter 10
134:sea-battle
130:modalities
112:), and on
1499:Platonism
1454:MacIntyre
1316:Averroism
1294:Al-Farabi
1252:Critolaus
1196:Followers
1173:Economics
1153:Mechanics
1118:On Plants
1113:On Colors
1108:On Breath
1059:On Dreams
1049:On Memory
812:Haecceity
790:Syllogism
761:Phronesis
653:Catharsis
602:Aristotle
547:Boethius'
368:Semiotics
225:Chapter 9
219:Chapter 8
194:universal
190:Chapter 7
184:Chapter 6
178:Chapter 5
172:Chapter 4
166:Chapter 3
160:Chapter 2
154:Chapter 1
145:battle).
82:categoric
61:Aristotle
1544:Category
1469:Nussbaum
1439:Brentano
1311:Averroes
1299:Avicenna
1289:Al-Kindi
1262:Erymneus
1158:Problems
1054:On Sleep
1021:Rhetoric
1000:Politics
945:Movement
807:Quiddity
668:accident
595:Overview
519:LibriVox
472:Text of
363:Semiosis
347:See also
334:Boethius
275:Apuleius
209:contrary
149:Contents
98:quantity
94:negation
1387:Scotism
1375:Thomism
1026:Poetics
935:History
897:Physics
889:Physics
846:Organon
774: (
720:Mimesis
664:Essence
392:(ed.),
77:title.
66:Organon
1429:Newman
1422:Modern
1331:Jewish
981:Ethics
874:Topics
744:Philia
738:Mythos
612:Lyceum
343:/512.
96:, the
1494:Plato
1459:Smith
1444:Adler
940:Parts
837:Works
796:Telos
783:ousia
708:Lexis
696:Hexis
641:Arete
607:Logic
530:, in
325:" by
138:today
75:Latin
45:Greek
1449:Foot
1083:Lost
373:Sign
88:and
526:, "
63:'s
37:or
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504:9.
433:,
338:c.
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666:â
580:e
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