134:, and is only then moved from the cytoplasm into the contractile vacuole for expulsion. Species that possess a contractile vacuole typically always use the organelle, even at very hypertonic (high concentration of solutes) environments, since the cell tends to adjust its cytoplasm to become even more hyperosmotic than the environment. The amount of water expelled from the cell and the rate of contraction are related to the osmolarity of the environment. In hyperosmotic environments, less water will be expelled and the contraction cycle will be longer.
20:
417:
353:
The way in which water enters the CV had been a mystery for many years, but several discoveries since the 1990s have improved understanding of this issue. Water could theoretically cross the CV membrane by osmosis, but only if the inside of the CV is hyperosmotic (higher solute concentration) to the
473:
The CV does not exist in higher organisms, but some of its unique characteristics are used by them in their osmoregulatory mechanisms. Research on the CV can therefore help us understand how osmoregulation works in all species. Many issues regarding the CV remain, as of 2010, unsolved:
299:, which has one of the most complex contractile vacuoles, the vacuole is surrounded by several canals, which absorb water by osmosis from the cytoplasm. After the canals fill with water, the water is pumped into the vacuole. When the vacuole is full, it expels the water through a
114:
The contractile vacuole, as its name suggests, expels water out of the cell by contracting. The growth (water gathering) and contraction (water expulsion) of the contractile vacuole are periodical. One cycle takes several seconds, depending on the species and the
503:. Although it is known that several proteins decorate the CV membrane (V−H+−ATPases, aquaporins), a complete list is missing. The composition of the membrane itself and its similarities to and differences from other cellular membranes are also not clear.
402:
and were shown to fuse with the vacuole when the cells were exposed to osmotic stress. Presumably the acidocalcisomes empty their ion contents into the contractile vacuole, thereby increasing the vacuole's osmolarity.
290:
possess large contractile vacuoles (average diameter of 13 and 45 μm, respectively), which are relatively comfortable to isolate, manipulate and assay. The smallest known contractile vacuoles belong to
342:
677:
Nishihara E, Yokota E, Tazaki A, Orii H, Katsuhara M, Kataoka K, Igarashi H, Moriyama Y, Shimmen T, Sonobe S (2008). "Presence of aquaporin and V-ATPase on the contractile vacuole of Amoeba proteus".
107:
causes water to accumulate in the cell from the external environment. The contractile vacuole acts as part of a protective mechanism that prevents the cell from absorbing too much water and possibly
382:. This ion flux into the CV causes an increase in CV osmolarity and as a result water enters the CV by osmosis. Water has been shown in at least some species to enter the CV through
650:
Stock C, Gronlien HK, Allen RD, Naitoh Y (2002). "Osmoregulation in
Paramecium: in situ ion gradients permit water to cascade through the cytosol to the contractile vacuole".
280:). The spongiome serves several functions in water transport into the contractile vacuole and in localization and docking of the contractile vacuole within the cell.
509:. Several studies have shown the ion concentrations inside some of the largest CVs but not in the smallest ones (such as in the important model organism
370:, whereby a proton is pumped out of the CV and a cation is pumped at the same time into the CV. In other cases, protons pumped into the CV drag
771:
260:, have many. The number of contractile vacuoles in each species is mostly constant and is therefore used for species characterization in
579:
481:. It is not completely known what causes the CV membrane to contract, and whether it is an active process which costs
460:
442:
1847:
764:
269:
427:
276:; the contractile vacuole together with the spongiome is sometimes called the "contractile vacuole complex" (
872:
531:
Brauer EB, McKanna JA (1978). "Contractile vacuoles in cells of a freshwater sponge, Spongilla
Lacustris".
757:
714:"Acidocalcisomes and the Contractile Vacuole Complex Are Involved in Osmoregulation in Trypanosoma cruzi"
1868:
264:. The contractile vacuole has several structures attached to it in most cells, such as membrane folds,
1742:
189:
also have a contractile vacuole. The contractile vacuole is predominant in species that do not have a
250:
1466:
513:). The reasons and mechanisms for ion exchange between the CV and cytoplasm are not entirely clear.
238:
123:. The contraction of the contractile vacuole and the expulsion of water out of the cell is called
1706:
438:
362:
led to the following model: the pumping of protons either into or out of the CV causes different
1903:
1842:
1781:
1495:
1863:
1854:
1440:
434:
1566:
8:
1953:
322:
358:
in the CV membrane and the direct measurement of ion concentrations inside the CV using
1040:
749:
627:
602:
341:
244:
25:
1837:
1796:
1149:
862:
735:
694:
659:
632:
583:
548:
398:
1811:
1655:
1602:
1554:
1513:
1478:
1471:
1408:
1285:
1211:
725:
686:
622:
614:
575:
540:
367:
330:
840:
19:
1587:
819:
205:
organisms, but it still exists in the unicellular stage of several multicellular
1771:
1612:
1522:
1508:
1309:
1165:
1113:
970:
889:
393:
389:
359:
175:
145:
84:
46:
1947:
1701:
1673:
1577:
1550:
1547:
1481:
975:
949:
899:
392:
have been implied to work alongside the contractile vacuole in responding to
349:(slime mold) cell exhibiting a prominent contractile vacuole on its left side
256:
202:
182:
166:
151:
92:
1888:
1858:
1718:
1369:
1221:
1216:
1118:
1054:
923:
918:
784:
780:
739:
730:
713:
698:
663:
618:
587:
636:
300:
1918:
1893:
1881:
1696:
1650:
1451:
1418:
1398:
1319:
1232:
1103:
1071:
1009:
999:
934:
909:
857:
603:"Proton pumps populate the contractile vacuoles of Dictyostelium amoebae"
552:
355:
303:
in the cytoplasm which can be opened and closed. Other protists, such as
261:
157:
119:
of the environment. The stage in which water flows into the CV is called
54:
1932:
1927:
1908:
1898:
1876:
1532:
1456:
1276:
1247:
1175:
1154:
1025:
913:
867:
809:
690:
544:
310:
222:
218:
214:
162:
139:
116:
88:
580:
10.1002/1521-1878(200011)22:11<1035::AID-BIES10>3.0.CO;2-A
566:
Allen RD (2000). "The contractile vacuole and its membrane dynamics".
485:
or a passive collapse of the CV membrane. Evidence for involvement of
309:, have CVs that move to the surface of the cell when full and undergo
1913:
1786:
1776:
1640:
1622:
1597:
1527:
1379:
1359:
1345:
1324:
1252:
1132:
1035:
1014:
960:
852:
831:
383:
375:
326:
228:
The number of contractile vacuoles per cell varies, depending on the
198:
190:
131:
100:
42:
445:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
170:. Not all species that possess a contractile vacuole are freshwater
1806:
1801:
1713:
1678:
1607:
1592:
1582:
1461:
1384:
1335:
1299:
1266:
1180:
1092:
989:
944:
824:
804:
186:
171:
50:
1723:
1242:
1196:
835:
788:
494:
318:
229:
104:
96:
76:
137:
The best-understood contractile vacuoles belong to the protists
1645:
1503:
1206:
1082:
814:
490:
482:
305:
265:
210:
103:, lower outside than inside the cell. Under these conditions,
1617:
1185:
847:
486:
371:
206:
108:
80:
57:
179:
711:
676:
363:
779:
649:
366:
to enter the CV. For example, some proton pumps work as
130:
Water always flows first from outside the cell into the
396:. They were detected in the vicinity of the vacuole in
379:
317:
contractile vacuoles collect excretory waste, such as
201:, the contractile vacuole has typically been lost in
111:(rupturing) through excessive internal pressure.
1406:
75:The contractile vacuole is a specialized type of
1945:
600:
1367:
765:
530:
497:which are found in many cells, are ambiguous.
712:Rohloff P, Montalvetti A, Docampo R (2004).
772:
758:
209:, as well as in several types of cells in
1274:
729:
626:
461:Learn how and when to remove this message
336:
565:
340:
272:. These structures have been termed the
197:) which do possess a cell wall. Through
18:
1946:
753:
295:, with a diameter of 1.5 μm. In
410:
406:
254:have two, and giant amoeba, such as
193:, but there are exceptions (notably
16:Organelle used in regulating osmosis
13:
601:Heuser J, Zhu Q, Clarke M (1993).
14:
1965:
415:
378:, for example), to balance the
79:that regulates the quantity of
49:. It is found predominantly in
41:) is a sub-cellular structure (
1519:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous
705:
670:
643:
594:
559:
524:
1:
1489:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid
517:
161:, and to a lesser extent the
60:. It was previously known as
354:cytoplasm. The discovery of
7:
441:the claims made and adding
70:
10:
1970:
1828:
1762:
1687:
1664:
1631:
1564:
1438:
1431:
1397:
1358:
1333:
1307:
1298:
1265:
1230:
1194:
1163:
1140:
1131:
1101:
1080:
1062:
1053:
1023:
997:
988:
958:
932:
897:
888:
881:
795:
511:Chlamydomonas rheinhardii
268:, water tracts and small
251:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
29:with contractile vacuoles
810:Mastigophora/Flagellates
493:, prominent contractile
347:Dictyostelium discoideum
239:Dictyostelium discoideum
1848:Baas-Becking hypothesis
1843:Microbial biogeography
731:10.1074/jbc.M410372200
619:10.1083/jcb.121.6.1311
350:
337:Water flow into the CV
30:
863:Fungus-like organisms
344:
22:
1578:Simple cell membrane
1514:Pseudoparenchymatous
1502:Filamentous/trichal/
1486:Colonial flagellated
1419:Collar of microvilli
658:(Pt 11): 2339–2348.
501:Membrane composition
35:contractile vacuole
1792:Contractile vacuole
1743:Meiosis in protists
1724:Mitosis in protists
1702:Multinucleate cells
924:Flagellar apparatus
873:Ambiregnal protists
815:Sarcodina/Amoeboids
724:(50): 52270–52281.
323:intracellular fluid
1623:Periplast/pellicle
1346:Periplast/pellicle
1286:Cruciform division
691:10.1042/BC20070091
545:10.1007/bf00220748
507:Contents of the CV
426:possibly contains
351:
257:Chaos carolinensis
245:Paramecium aurelia
91:environments, the
66:pulsating vacuole.
31:
26:Paramecium aurelia
1941:
1940:
1838:Microbial ecology
1824:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1797:Eyespot apparatus
1427:
1426:
1409:Choanoflagellates
1393:
1392:
1354:
1353:
1294:
1293:
1261:
1260:
1127:
1126:
1049:
1048:
984:
983:
574:(11): 1035–1042.
471:
470:
463:
428:original research
407:Unresolved issues
399:Trypanosoma cruzi
368:cation exchangers
1961:
1812:Mastigont system
1765:
1690:
1667:
1656:Gliding motility
1634:
1571:
1516:/plektenchymatic
1472:Amoeboflagellate
1445:
1436:
1435:
1412:
1404:
1403:
1373:
1365:
1364:
1339:
1313:
1305:
1304:
1279:
1272:
1271:
1236:
1200:
1169:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1107:
1086:
1065:
1060:
1059:
1029:
1003:
995:
994:
964:
938:
902:
895:
894:
886:
885:
774:
767:
760:
751:
750:
744:
743:
733:
709:
703:
702:
674:
668:
667:
647:
641:
640:
630:
613:(6): 1311–1327.
598:
592:
591:
563:
557:
556:
528:
466:
459:
455:
452:
446:
443:inline citations
419:
418:
411:
331:active transport
1969:
1968:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1830:
1816:
1763:
1758:
1688:
1683:
1665:
1660:
1632:
1627:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1442:
1439:
1423:
1407:
1389:
1368:
1350:
1334:
1329:
1308:
1290:
1275:
1257:
1231:
1226:
1195:
1190:
1166:Dinoflagellates
1164:
1159:
1141:
1123:
1102:
1097:
1081:
1076:
1063:
1045:
1024:
1019:
998:
980:
959:
954:
933:
928:
898:
877:
798:classifications
797:
791:
778:
748:
747:
710:
706:
675:
671:
648:
644:
599:
595:
564:
560:
533:Cell Tissue Res
529:
525:
520:
467:
456:
450:
447:
432:
420:
416:
409:
390:Acidocalcisomes
360:microelectrodes
339:
73:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1967:
1957:
1956:
1939:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1866:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1834:
1832:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1699:
1693:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1670:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1574:
1572:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1540:Siphonocladous
1538:
1530:
1523:Multinucleated
1520:
1517:
1511:
1509:Parenchymatous
1506:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1459:
1448:
1446:
1433:
1429:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1422:
1421:
1415:
1413:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1376:
1374:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1331:
1330:
1328:
1327:
1322:
1316:
1314:
1310:Kinetoplastids
1302:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1282:
1280:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1239:
1237:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1203:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1170:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1116:
1110:
1108:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1095:
1089:
1087:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1006:
1004:
992:
986:
985:
982:
981:
979:
978:
976:Phycobilisomes
973:
971:Pit connection
967:
965:
956:
955:
953:
952:
950:Phycobilisomes
947:
941:
939:
930:
929:
927:
926:
921:
916:
905:
903:
900:Chloroplastida
892:
890:Archaeplastida
883:
879:
878:
876:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
844:
843:
838:
829:
828:
827:
822:
812:
801:
799:
793:
792:
777:
776:
769:
762:
754:
746:
745:
704:
685:(3): 179–188.
669:
642:
593:
558:
539:(2): 309–317.
522:
521:
519:
516:
515:
514:
504:
498:
469:
468:
423:
421:
414:
408:
405:
394:osmotic stress
338:
335:
183:microorganisms
72:
69:
47:osmoregulation
45:) involved in
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1966:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1869:Fertilization
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1827:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1761:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1737:Pleuromitosis
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1674:Hydrogenosome
1672:
1671:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1563:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1548:Multicellular
1546:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1370:Dictyostelids
1366:
1363:
1361:
1357:
1347:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1233:Apicomplexans
1229:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1055:Stramenopiles
1052:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1005:
1001:
996:
993:
991:
987:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
966:
962:
957:
951:
948:
946:
943:
942:
940:
936:
931:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
911:
907:
906:
904:
901:
896:
893:
891:
887:
884:
880:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
842:
839:
837:
833:
830:
826:
823:
821:
818:
817:
816:
813:
811:
808:
807:
806:
803:
802:
800:
794:
790:
786:
782:
775:
770:
768:
763:
761:
756:
755:
752:
741:
737:
732:
727:
723:
719:
715:
708:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
673:
665:
661:
657:
653:
646:
638:
634:
629:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
597:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
562:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
527:
523:
512:
508:
505:
502:
499:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
477:
476:
475:
465:
462:
454:
444:
440:
436:
430:
429:
424:This section
422:
413:
412:
404:
401:
400:
395:
391:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
348:
343:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
307:
302:
298:
294:
293:Chlamydomonas
289:
285:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:
253:
252:
247:
246:
241:
240:
235:
231:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:multicellular
200:
196:
195:Chlamydomonas
192:
188:
184:
181:
177:
173:
169:
168:
167:Chlamydomonas
164:
160:
159:
154:
153:
152:Dictyostelium
148:
147:
142:
141:
135:
133:
128:
126:
122:
118:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
93:concentration
90:
86:
82:
78:
68:
67:
63:
59:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
28:
27:
21:
1889:Heterotrophy
1859:Reproduction
1791:
1734:Orthomitosis
1719:Heterokaryon
1666:Mitochondria
1567:Cell surface
1443:organization
1399:Opisthokonta
1222:Micronucleus
1217:Macronucleus
1119:Pneumatocyst
935:Glaucophytes
919:Phragmoplast
858:Thallophytes
785:Protistology
781:Microbiology
721:
717:
707:
682:
678:
672:
655:
651:
645:
610:
606:
596:
571:
567:
561:
536:
532:
526:
510:
506:
500:
478:
472:
457:
448:
425:
397:
388:
356:proton pumps
352:
346:
314:
304:
296:
292:
287:
283:
282:
277:
273:
255:
249:
243:
237:
233:
227:
194:
165:
156:
150:
144:
138:
136:
129:
124:
120:
113:
74:
65:
61:
38:
34:
32:
24:
1919:Necrotrophy
1904:Saprotrophy
1894:Phagotrophy
1882:Phototrophy
1875:Nutrition:
1864:Life cycles
1855:Development
1829:Ecology and
1697:Nucleomorph
1651:Pseudopodia
1452:Unicellular
1336:Euglenoidea
1320:Kinetoplast
1104:Brown algae
1072:Mastigoneme
1010:Mastigoneme
1000:Cryptophyta
910:green algae
868:Slime molds
718:J Biol Chem
607:J Cell Biol
479:Contraction
374:with them (
321:, from the
262:systematics
223:choanocytes
219:pinacocytes
215:amoebocytes
158:Trypanosoma
55:unicellular
1954:Organelles
1933:Auxotrophy
1928:Mixotrophy
1909:Parasitism
1899:Osmotrophy
1877:Autotrophy
1831:physiology
1707:Plasmodium
1633:Locomotion
1569:structures
1533:Coenocytic
1277:Phytomyxea
1248:Apicoplast
1176:Dinokaryon
1155:Trichocyst
1026:Haptophyte
914:Phycoplast
882:Morphology
853:Cryptogams
652:J Cell Sci
518:References
435:improve it
384:aquaporins
311:exocytosis
297:Paramecium
284:Paramecium
236:have one,
163:green alga
140:Paramecium
117:osmolarity
89:freshwater
1914:Biotrophy
1787:Extrusome
1777:Cytostome
1641:Flagellum
1598:Cell wall
1557:/histonal
1537:Siphonous
1528:Syncytial
1496:Coenobial
1492:Sarcinoid
1441:Levels of
1380:Macrocyst
1360:Amoebozoa
1325:Glycosome
1253:Microneme
1133:Alveolata
1041:Haptonema
1036:Coccolith
1015:Periplast
961:Red algae
945:Cyanelles
832:Infusoria
679:Biol Cell
568:BioEssays
451:July 2010
439:verifying
376:carbonate
327:diffusion
274:spongiome
199:evolution
191:cell wall
187:parasites
172:organisms
132:cytoplasm
101:hypotonic
83:inside a
62:pulsatile
43:organelle
1948:Category
1807:Axostyle
1802:Pyrenoid
1782:Fimbriae
1714:Dikaryon
1679:Mitosome
1608:Skeleton
1593:Frustule
1583:Mucilage
1555:tissular
1479:Colonial
1462:Amoeboid
1457:Monadoid
1385:Sorocarp
1300:Excavate
1267:Rhizaria
1197:Ciliates
1181:Dinocyst
1142:General:
1093:Frustule
1064:General:
990:Hacrobia
841:Sporozoa
836:Ciliates
825:Heliozoa
805:Protozoa
789:Protists
740:15466463
699:18004980
664:12006618
588:11056480
495:proteins
325:by both
270:vesicles
121:diastole
71:Overview
51:protists
23:Protist
1750:Zygotic
1747:Gametic
1689:Nucleus
1467:Coccoid
1432:General
1243:Rhoptry
1150:Alveoli
1083:Diatoms
820:Testate
637:8509452
628:2119701
433:Please
319:ammonia
266:tubules
230:species
211:sponges
174:; some
125:systole
105:osmosis
97:solutes
77:vacuole
53:and in
1753:Sporic
1731:Closed
1646:Cilium
1603:Lorica
1504:hyphal
1212:Cirrus
1207:Cilium
1114:Lamina
796:Former
738:
697:
662:
635:
625:
586:
553:699019
551:
491:myosin
483:energy
372:anions
315:Amoeba
306:Amoeba
288:Amoeba
234:Amoeba
221:, and
176:marine
146:Amoeba
109:lysing
1764:Other
1618:Theca
1588:Scale
1186:Theca
848:Algae
487:actin
313:. In
207:fungi
87:. In
81:water
58:algae
1772:Cyst
1728:Open
1613:Test
1551:s.s.
1482:s.s.
736:PMID
695:PMID
660:PMID
633:PMID
584:PMID
549:PMID
489:and
364:ions
329:and
301:pore
286:and
248:and
185:and
180:soil
155:and
85:cell
912:":
726:doi
722:279
687:doi
683:100
656:115
623:PMC
615:doi
611:121
576:doi
541:doi
537:192
437:by
278:CVC
225:).
99:is
95:of
64:or
1950::
787::
783::
734:.
720:.
716:.
693:.
681:.
654:.
631:.
621:.
609:.
605:.
582:.
572:22
570:.
547:.
535:.
386:.
380:pH
345:A
333:.
242:,
232:.
217:,
178:,
149:,
143:,
127:.
39:CV
33:A
1857:/
1553:/
1411::
1372::
1338::
1312::
1235::
1199::
1168::
1106::
1085::
1028::
1002::
963::
937::
908:"
834:/
773:e
766:t
759:v
742:.
728::
701:.
689::
666:.
639:.
617::
590:.
578::
555:.
543::
464:)
458:(
453:)
449:(
431:.
213:(
37:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
