Hillforts in Britain

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increased deposition of prestige metalwork in rivers, ... and the demise of a middle Bronze Age settlement format of groups of round houses set within enclosures." They went on to note that "Accrued place-value may have been important in the establishment of the earliest hillforts. These are often in locations with conspicuous traces of previous ritual monuments. This may have been a means of validating new social practices through making links with the past". This idea was examined in more depth by ethnologist J. Forde-Johnston, who made note of how a number of Iron Age hillforts had been built close to earlier Bronze Age

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excavated from the ditch." The number of these such ramparts differs in Iron Age British hillforts; some, which are known as univallate, are single-rampart only, whilst others, known as multivallate, are multi-rampart forts. Commenting on their distribution across southern Britain, Forde-Johnston stated that "roughly one-third of the Iron Age forts in England and Wales have multivallate defences, the remaining two-thirds being univallate." It has been suggested that only the innermost rampart would be manned with the other ones serving more to make space and breakup charges.

1727: 663:, Bowden and McOmish noted that "The positioning of suggests that it was not built for defence" because "a potential assailant is enabled to observe all the dispositions of the defence", thereby leaving it particularly vulnerable to attackers. On a similar note, archaeologists Sue Hamilton and John Manley, after investigating the forts in south-east England, noted that for this region, "It is noteworthy that most of the hillforts are univallate, and lack the in-depth perimeter elaboration which elsewhere has been ascribed a defensive role." 541: 596:

extent, by natural features such as cliffs, very steep slopes, rivers etc. Where such features exist little or nothing in the way of man-made fortification is required." Hill-slope hillforts, rather than "enclosing the hilltop in the manner of contour forts, are situated on the sloping ground on one side of it, overlooked by the crest", whilst plateau forts "face level ground on all sides, regardless of their elevation above sea-level"; these final forts then are often, although by no means always, located in

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late twentieth century, various archaeologists began to challenge this assumption, claiming that there was not sufficient evidence to back it up. As Mark Bowden and Dave McOmish remarked, "there is a tendency to assume that they were all built for similar purposes and are all performing similar functions", something that they note may well not have been true. Taking a similar stance, archaeologist Niall Sharples noted that "It is clear from analysis of the sequence at

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behaviour. I believe that the bulk of the evidence for warfare in the archaeological record is created as a deterrent, or to symbolise the nature of the conflict rather than actually the physical act." In this manner, hillforts would have in many respects been symbolically defensive rather than practically so, in a period when warfare was primarily about being threatening to your enemies rather than entering into open conflict with them.

764: 715:, southern Wales, noted that although artefacts that were clearly Romano-British in nature were found at the site, they were not found in sufficient quantities to imply settlement, and that there was also no evidence of any construction going on during the first four centuries AD. They concluded therefore that under Roman rule, Dinas Powys had been effectively abandoned. 537:. Commenting on the fact that both types of monument typically were constructed in high locations, he said, "It is not surprising that the two features should coincide in several dozen cases." He added that it was possible that hillforts had been intentionally sited near barrows for defensive protection from the "...sacred associations of the burial place." 903:

Northern Britain had never been conquered by the Roman Empire, and so the Iron Age proceeded directly into the Early Medieval without imperialist intervention. According to archaeologist Leslie Alcock, "warfare" was perhaps the "principal social activity in Early Historic northern Britain", playing a

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view of hillforts within their landscapes, noting that "Hillforts provide a defined location from which to view the 'world' ... Such an experience of changing visual perspectives is largely lost in academic publication, yet it must have been a preeminent aspect of how hillfort builders and users

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is normally of timber or dry stone walling, or a combination of the two, and retains the core of earth, chalk, clay etc., derived in most cases from the outer ditch." Glacis banks on the other hand "are usually triangular in cross-section and at their simplest consist of a single dump of the material

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The Iron Age hillforts have remained dominating features in the British landscape: as ethnologist J. Forde-Johnston noted, "Of all the earthworks that are such a notable feature of the landscape in England and Wales few are more prominent or more striking than the hillforts built during the centuries

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Mark Bowden and Dave McOmish, writing in 1989, noted that "The idea that some hillforts performed ceremonial functions is not a new one but discussion has concentrated on the possible existence of shrines and temples within the defences." Instead, they proposed that "The morphology and topography of

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Iron Age hillforts made use of both natural and man-made defences, with the former including such geographical features as cliffs, steep slopes, rivers, lakes and the sea, and the latter largely consisting of banks and ditches. There were actually two forms of banks built at such sites: revetted and

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Niall Sharples, after accepting that many British hillforts were not particularly defensible, theorised that Iron Age warfare in Britain, like much warfare around the world, did not consist purely of physical violence, but instead might have primarily "...involved ritualised display and threatening

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After looking at the difference between Iron Age and Early Medieval hill forts, archaeologist Leslie Alcock thought it reasonable to infer that political and social conditions that demanded the massive pre-Roman Iron Age hillforts—and had the labour to build them—no longer existed in .

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The reason for why British Iron Age peoples built hillforts is still under dispute. One school of thought, dominant amongst archaeologists in much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, holds that they were primarily defensive structures built in an era of intertribal warfare. However, in the

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and John Manley believed they were a part of "...substantial landscape and social reconfigurations at the start of the first millennium ", that coincided with the change of three characteristics of British Bronze Age society: "...disappearance of an archaeologically visible burial rite, ...

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regard hillforts as symbols of wealth and power. Michael Avery has stated the traditional view of hillforts by saying, "The ultimate defensive weapon of European prehistory was the hillfort of the first millennium B.C.". By contrast, Professor Ronald Hutton wrote in the English Heritage Members

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Hill forts occupied in the Early Medieval period appear to have primarily been settlements for the social elite, the ruling classes who governed society. The northern British peoples who constructed hill forts knew of various forms of the monuments, leading Alcock to note that "the three Celtic

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noted that a fort-building hiatus in the early centuries was followed by a new wave of construction—beginning in the third century, gathering momentum in the fifth, and perhaps extending through to the eighth. Also, out of all northern forts with radiometric dates, about half were either

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remarked that " Hillforts are at once among the most impressive and informative of our prehistoric antiquities. They impress by their mere size, by the height of their ramparts, by the depth of their ditches, by the extent of the areas they enclose, and frequently by their commanding position."

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forts. Contour forts are those "...in which the defences cut off the upper portion of a hill from the ground below by following, more or less, the line of the contours encircling it." Promontory forts are typically defined by "...an area to which the approach is limited, to a greater or lesser

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and the Scottish border hills. British hillforts varied in size, with the majority covering an area of less than 1 hectare (2.5 acres), but with most others ranging from this up to around 12 hectares (30 acres) in size. In certain rare cases, they were bigger, with a few examples being over 80

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Excavations at hillforts in the first half of the 20th century focussed on the defenses, based on the assumption that hillforts were primarily developed for military purposes. The exception to this trend began in the 1930s with a series of excavations undertaken by

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There are around 3,300 structures that can be classed as hillforts or similar "defended enclosures" within Britain. Most of these are clustered in certain regions: south and south-west England, the west coast of Wales and Scotland, the

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Some forts were also settlements, while others were only occupied seasonally, or in times of strife. Archaeological excavation reveals more about the dates of occupation and modes of use. Typical features for excavation include:

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Various archaeologists operating in Britain have criticised the use of the term "hillfort" both because of its perceived connection to fortifications and warfare and because not all such sites were actually located on hills.

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that after the introduction of agriculture warfare was a constant feature of the prehistoric societies of the British Isles." It was in this context, he believed, that hillforts were constructed as defensive positions.

240:: a linear earthwork across a narrow neck of land leading to a peninsula with steep cliffs to the sea on three sides; common on indented Atlantic coasts, such as Ireland, Cornwall, Brittany and west Wales. Examples: 626:, that hillforts do not have a single function. A variety of different activities can be associated with these sites and with time the importance or perhaps the emphasis of certain activities changed dramatically." 148:, there is a wide variation in types and periods from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. Here are some considerations of general appearance and topology, which can be assessed without archaeological excavation: 342:: more than one layer of defensive earthworks, outer works might not be complete circuits, but defend the weakest approaches; typically the inner circuit is original, with outer circuits added later. Example: 908:

peoples of northern Britain were fully aware of the potential of different types of fort, and used them variously, taking account only of local terrain, building materials, and politico-military needs."

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before the Roman conquest." He continued, describing them as an "eloquent testimony of the technical ability and social organization of the Iron Age peoples." On a similar note, the English archaeologist

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There was "immense variation subsumed within the class of monuments called hillforts", and those of the British Iron Age have been characterised as belonging to four different types. The main two are

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made of earth, stone and/or wood, with an external ditch. Many small early hillforts were abandoned, with the larger and greater ones being redeveloped at a later date. Some hillforts contain houses.

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In the Early Medieval period, which began in the fifth century AD, much of southern Britain (comprising much of the area that later became the nation-state of England), adopted a variant of

370:: might indicate an enclosure, rather than a defended position; sometimes the main ramparts may turn inward or outward, and be widened and heightened to control the entrance. Example: 904:

major part in "contemporary prose and poetry", and for this reason many hill forts of this period have been commonly thought of as defensive structures designed to repel attack.

50:, although at the same time, those areas of northern Britain that remained free from Roman occupation saw an increase in their construction. Some hillforts were reused in the 790:, typically did not build or re-use hillforts. However, in Northern and Western Britain, areas that retained a cultural link to the earlier Iron Age, hillfort use continued. 394:: multiple overlapping outer works; staggered or interleaved multivallate ramparts; zig-zag entrance way, sling platforms and well planned lines of fire. Example: 384:

with a parallel pair of straight ramparts dominating the entrance; projecting either inward, outward, or occasionally overlapped along the main rampart. Example:

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Writing in 1948, J.G.D. Clark commented that hillforts' "defensive character cannot be stressed too often." Another archaeologist to hold a similar viewpoint,

158:: the classic hillfort; an inland location with a hilltop defensive position surrounded by artificial ramparts or steep natural slopes on all sides. Examples: 818:

which has revealed significant evidence for the construction of a Sub-Roman 'Great Hall' within the enclosure, having long been associated with the mythical

1676:; Manley, John (2001). "Hillforts, Monumentality and Place: A chronological and topographic review of first millennium BC hillforts of south-east England". 638:

of the period, archaeologist Niall Sharples stated that war was such an integral part of all agricultural human societies that it was possible "to believe

200:: an inland location without special defensive advantages (except perhaps marshes), but surrounded by artificial ramparts; typical of later settled 172:: an inland defensive position on a ridge or spur with steep slopes on 2 or 3 sides, and artificial ramparts on the other level approach. Example: 222:: a semi-circular crescent of ramparts backing on to a straight sea cliff; common on rocky Atlantic coasts, such as Ireland and Wales. Examples: 79:

believed that the term "enclosed places" was more accurate, whilst J. Forde-Johnston commented on his preference for "defensive enclosures".

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Hillforts: Britain, Ireland and the Nearer Continent: Papers from the Atlas of Hillforts of Britain and Ireland Conference, June 2017

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Nonetheless, various archaeologists have called into question the defensive capacity of many hillforts. Using the case study of the

96:. From 1960 onwards, archaeologists shifted their attention to the interior of hillforts, re-examining their function. Currently, 1147: 833:

was built in the Early Medieval period, with archaeologists believing that it acted as a "stronghold for the post-Roman kings of

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Cunliffe, Barry (2007), "Understanding hillforts: have we progressed?", in Payne, Andrew; Corney, Mark; Cunliffe, Barry (eds.),

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Iron Age Communities in Britain: An account of England, Scotland and Wales from the seventh century BC until the Roman Conquest

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In the extreme southwest, however, enclosed settlements, albeit on a much smaller scale, continued to be constructed such as at

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earlier forts that had been refurbished in the later period, or were newly constructed on virgin sites in the later period.

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never occupied northern Britain (which at this time was largely the geographical equivalent to the later nation-state of

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It has been traditionally assumed that hillforts were constructed for defensive purposes in the Iron Age. Describing

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Magazine in March 2020 "It now seems that they were assembly places where farming families would meet seasonally..."

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It appears as though settlement ceased at many hill forts in Roman Britain. For instance, excavators working at the

1712:"Iron Age Hillforts in their Landscape Contexts: a Fresh Look at the Field Evidence in the Northumberland Cheviots" 1783: 825:

In other cases, defensive positions were also reoccupied, for instance, on the defensive peninsula of Tintagel in

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in England is one of the largest hill forts in Europe. Photograph taken in 1935 by Major George Allen (1891–1940).

726:' found in Cornwall—presumably reflecting a lesser degree of Roman influence, which continued through into 34:

within the island of Great Britain. Although the earliest such constructs fitting this description come from the

1053: 1617: 922: 810:, Iron Age British culture continued, largely free from the adoption of Anglo-Saxon culture. For instance, the 917: 1673: 838: 529: 249: 17: 927: 680: 109:

The spellings "hill fort", "hill-fort" and "hillfort" are all used in the archaeological literature. The

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glacis. Revetted banks present "a vertical or near-vertical outer face to the enemy. This outer face or

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culture from continental Europe, likely due to migration from that region. These Germanic peoples, the

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Similar but smaller and less defendable earthworks are found on the sides of hills. These are known as

1799: 652:, a specialist in the Iron Age, believed that hillforts from this period were defensive settlements. 640: 1726: 815: 343: 288:: very large enclosures, too extensive to defend, probably used for domesticated animals. Example: 1513: 887:, where a hillfort of c.600 BC was the location for a stone castle built in the 13th century AD. 409: 122: 35: 1515:

The Wessex Hillforts Project: Extensive Survey of Hillfort Interiors in Central Southern England

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Avery, Michael (October 1986), "'Stoning and Fire' at Hillfort Entrances of Southern Britain",

262:: smaller earthwork on gently sloping hillsides; not significant defensive position. Examples: 750:

interference. This had some bearing on the nature of hill forts in this period. Archaeologist

858: 619: 544: 445: 413: 395: 205: 93: 884: 1118: 811: 708: 564: 540: 259: 129: 8: 846: 700:, leading to the creation of a hybrid Romano-British culture within what is now known as 429: 356: 173: 55: 1697:

King, D. J. Cathcart (1974). "Two Castles in Northern Powys: Dinas Bran and Caergwrle".

1653: 525: 39: 1757: 1707: 1613: 1594: 1560: 1541: 1534: 1519: 1498: 1461: 862: 854: 845:, show signs of occupation from this period and are often associated with so-called ' 775: 746:), and as such a native British Iron Age culture was able to continue here with less 727: 712: 352: 307:: small enclosures, more likely to be individual farmsteads or animal pens. Example: 51: 46:. Some of these were apparently abandoned in the southern areas that were a part of 1685: 1645: 1143: 1124: 783: 656: 333: 299: 267: 159: 89: 43: 1649: 830: 223: 133: 1536:

Hillforts of the Iron Age in England and Wales: A Survey of the Surface Evidence

1487: 1475: 649: 572: 423: 298:: defended areas large enough to support permanent tribal settlement. Example: 263: 1793: 1574: 1458:

Kings & Warriors, Craftsmen & Priests: In Northern Britain AD 550-850

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Dinas Powys: An Iron Age, Dark Age and Early Medieval Settlement in Glamorgan

1441: 751: 701: 323: 76: 67: 47: 231: 1780:– a crowd-sourced project to map the hillforts of Britain and Ireland 1689: 866: 807: 787: 739: 723: 697: 679:

Sue Hamilton and John Manley noted that archaeologists must keep in mind a

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as the preferred term. They all refer to an elevated site with one or more

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Bowden, Mark; McOmish, Dave (1989). "Little Boxes: More About Hillforts".

54:, and in some rarer cases, into the Later Medieval period as well. By the 870: 747: 693: 385: 381: 371: 289: 213: 187: 59: 58:, these had essentially all been abandoned, with many being excavated by 895: 463: 191: 182:: a promontory above the confluence of two rivers, or in the bend of a 1657: 879: 874: 850: 660: 605: 449: 245: 163: 1777: 842: 834: 826: 743: 623: 499: 495:

Weapons: sling-shot, shields, armour, swords, axes, spears, arrows.

322:: a single circuit of ramparts for enclosure and defence. Example: 241: 31: 1460:. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph Series. 763: 687: 819: 635: 597: 534: 456: 284: 183: 771: 767: 1734:

Sharples, Niall (1991). "Warfare in the Iron Age of Wessex".

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in South Wales saw resettlement in the fifth century, as did

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British hillforts, as now recognised, first appeared in the

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the ramparts themselves may indicate ceremonial activity".

42:, British hillforts were primarily constructed during the 794:

This implies a remarkable change in social organization.

696:, southern Britain was conquered and absorbed into the 1705: 1028: 502:

bolts, ash layers, vitrified stones, burnt post holes.

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Contemporary individual burials by local inhabitants.

332:: a double circuit of defensive earthworks. Example: 1367: 1365: 961: 959: 1533: 1142: 1362: 956: 505:Wartime burials: typically outside the ramparts: 1791: 688:Southern Britain in the Romano-British Iron Age 670: 622:, and by comparison with other sites, such as 1316: 1314: 976: 974: 1751: 1612:. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. 1559:. London: B.T. Batsford/Historic Scotland. 1301: 1299: 758: 511:Massed grave pits dug by a conquering army. 359:'s development from univallate to bivallate 1311: 1061:Forum on Information Standards in Heritage 115:Forum on Information Standards in Heritage 1540:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. 971: 899:Kite aerial photo of Peace Knowe Hillfort 1786:from Historic England with navigable map 1511: 1296: 1224: 1016: 894: 762: 555: 539: 418:Original depths and profiles of ditches. 351: 1752:Lock, Gary; Ralston, Ian, eds. (2019), 877:'s archaeological television programme 849:' hermitages and/or chapels such as at 774:, similar to ring-forts in Ireland and 519: 14: 1792: 1518:, English Heritage, pp. 151–162, 1701:. Vol. CXXIII. pp. 113–139. 1635: 1593:. London: Batsford/English Heritage. 1448:. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. 1152:Research records (formerly PastScape) 1040: 890: 684:described and understood hillforts." 551: 1029:Oswald, Ainsworth & Pearson 2008 733: 436:Guardhouses and defended entrances. 24: 1744: 1497:. London and New York: Routledge. 883:. A later example can be found at 797: 629: 62:in the nineteenth century onward. 38:, with a few also dating to later 25: 1816: 1771: 1608:Thompson, Michael Welman (1991). 484:Platforms and temple foundations. 82: 1805:Hill forts in the United Kingdom 1725: 1591:Tintagel: Arthur and Archaeology 144:Beyond the simple definition of 1678:European Journal of Archaeology 1428: 1413: 1401: 1389: 1377: 1350: 1338: 1326: 1284: 1272: 1260: 1248: 1236: 1212: 1200: 1188: 1176: 1164: 1136: 1111: 1099: 1087: 1075: 104: 1784:Hillforts in England Text List 1738:. Vol. 8. pp. 79–89. 1736:Scottish Archaeological Review 1668:. Vol. 6. pp. 12–16. 1666:Scottish Archaeological Review 1046: 1034: 1022: 1010: 998: 986: 944: 923:List of hill forts in Scotland 587:forts, and the lesser two are 481:Temples and peacetime burials 98:post-processual archaeologists 71:hectares (200 acres) in size. 13: 1: 1650:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979999 933: 918:List of hill forts in England 841:, as well as in neighbouring 829:, a promontory fort known as 1581:. Oxford: BAR Brit. Ser. 62. 1579:British Hill-forts: An Index 938: 839:promontory forts of Cornwall 770:hill fort near Kilmartin in 476:Coins, jewellery and hoards. 316:Ramparts, walls and ditches 250:promontory forts of Cornwall 7: 1532:Forde-Johnston, J. (1976). 1474: 928:List of hill forts in Wales 911: 671:Ceremonial and ritual usage 455:Post holes for rectangular 10: 1821: 1733: 1710:; Pearson, Trevor (2008), 1696: 1672: 1663: 1607: 1585: 1573: 1554: 1531: 1486: 1452: 1440: 1419: 1407: 1395: 1383: 1371: 1356: 1344: 1332: 1320: 1305: 1290: 1278: 1266: 1254: 1242: 1230: 1218: 1206: 1194: 1182: 1170: 1105: 1093: 1081: 1004: 992: 980: 965: 950: 612: 441:Settlement and occupation 1555:Foster, Sally M. (1996). 1148:"Maiden Castle (451864)" 1054:"Monument Type Thesaurus" 1756:, Oxford: Archaeopress, 1321:Hamilton and Manley 2001 1094:Hamilton and Manley 2001 1082:Hamilton and Manley 2001 759:Early Medieval hillforts 563:, a contour hillfort at 139: 1778:Hillforts Atlas Project 1699:Archaeologia Cambrensis 1306:Bowden and McOmish 1989 1243:Bowden and McOmish 1989 1183:Bowden and McOmish 1989 462:Pits for food storage, 111:Monument Type Thesaurus 36:Neolithic British Isles 1690:10.1179/EJA.2001.4.1.7 1610:The rise of the castle 1557:Picts, Gaels and Scots 900: 816:South Cadbury Hillfort 779: 567: 548: 421:Rampart construction: 360: 30:refers to the various 898: 766: 559: 543: 498:Sieges and conquest: 355: 130:hill-slope enclosures 94:Maiden Castle, Dorset 1716:Archaeologia Aeliana 812:Dinas Powys hillfort 709:Dinas Powys hillfort 600:, hence their name. 565:Herefordshire Beacon 520:Bronze Age hillforts 487:Graves and offerings 260:Hill-slope enclosure 28:Hillforts in Britain 1482:. London: Batsford. 1480:Prehistoric England 1219:Forde-Johnston 1976 1207:Forde-Johnston 1976 1195:Forde-Johnston 1976 1106:Forde-Johnston 1976 1005:Forde-Johnston 1976 993:Forde-Johnston 1976 981:Forde-Johnston 1976 837:." Several similar 430:pfostenschlitzmauer 357:Eddisbury hill fort 56:early modern period 1708:Ainsworth, Stewart 1706:Oswald, Alastair; 901: 885:Castell Dinas Brân 859:St Michael's Mount 780: 568: 552:Iron Age hillforts 549: 444:Raised platforms, 361: 132:and may have been 40:Bronze Age Britain 1763:978-1-78969-227-3 1638:World Archaeology 1629:Academic Articles 1600:978-0-7134-6690-4 1566:978-0-7134-7486-2 1525:978-1-873592-85-4 1504:978-0-415-56292-8 1467:978-0-903903-24-0 863:Mont Saint-Michel 728:Sub-Roman Britain 713:Vale of Glamorgan 528:. Archaeologists 256:Sloping Enclosure 170:Inland Promontory 113:published by the 52:Early Middle Ages 16:(Redirected from 1812: 1800:Iron Age Britain 1766: 1739: 1730: 1729: 1723: 1702: 1693: 1669: 1660: 1623: 1604: 1582: 1570: 1551: 1539: 1528: 1508: 1494:(Fourth Edition) 1483: 1471: 1449: 1423: 1417: 1411: 1405: 1399: 1393: 1387: 1381: 1375: 1369: 1360: 1354: 1348: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1309: 1303: 1294: 1288: 1282: 1276: 1270: 1264: 1258: 1252: 1246: 1240: 1234: 1228: 1222: 1216: 1210: 1204: 1198: 1192: 1186: 1180: 1174: 1168: 1162: 1161: 1159: 1158: 1144:Historic England 1140: 1134: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1125:English Heritage 1115: 1109: 1103: 1097: 1091: 1085: 1079: 1073: 1072: 1070: 1068: 1058: 1050: 1044: 1038: 1032: 1026: 1020: 1014: 1008: 1002: 996: 990: 984: 978: 969: 963: 954: 948: 891:Northern Britain 847:Celtic Christian 734:Northern Britain 681:phenomenological 334:Battlesbury Camp 300:Scratchbury Camp 268:Plainsfield Camp 174:Lambert's Castle 90:Mortimer Wheeler 44:British Iron Age 21: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1814: 1813: 1811: 1810: 1809: 1790: 1789: 1774: 1769: 1764: 1747: 1745:Further reading 1742: 1724: 1626: 1620: 1601: 1587:Thomas, Charles 1567: 1548: 1526: 1505: 1488:Cunliffe, Barry 1468: 1431: 1426: 1418: 1414: 1406: 1402: 1394: 1390: 1382: 1378: 1370: 1363: 1355: 1351: 1343: 1339: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1312: 1304: 1297: 1289: 1285: 1277: 1273: 1265: 1261: 1253: 1249: 1241: 1237: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1213: 1209:. p. 04, 12-14. 1205: 1201: 1193: 1189: 1181: 1177: 1169: 1165: 1156: 1154: 1141: 1137: 1129: 1127: 1117: 1116: 1112: 1104: 1100: 1092: 1088: 1080: 1076: 1066: 1064: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1047: 1039: 1035: 1027: 1023: 1015: 1011: 1003: 999: 991: 987: 979: 972: 964: 957: 949: 945: 941: 936: 914: 893: 831:Tintagel Castle 800: 798:Western Britain 761: 736: 690: 673: 632: 630:Defensive usage 615: 554: 526:Late Bronze Age 522: 378:Linear holloway 156:Hilltop Contour 142: 107: 85: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 1818: 1808: 1807: 1802: 1788: 1787: 1781: 1773: 1772:External links 1770: 1768: 1767: 1762: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1740: 1731: 1703: 1694: 1670: 1661: 1644:(2): 216–230, 1632: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1624: 1618: 1605: 1599: 1583: 1571: 1565: 1552: 1546: 1529: 1524: 1509: 1503: 1484: 1472: 1466: 1454:Alcock, Leslie 1450: 1442:Alcock, Leslie 1437: 1436: 1435: 1434:Academic Books 1430: 1427: 1425: 1424: 1412: 1400: 1388: 1376: 1361: 1349: 1337: 1325: 1310: 1295: 1283: 1271: 1259: 1247: 1235: 1223: 1211: 1199: 1187: 1175: 1163: 1135: 1110: 1098: 1086: 1074: 1045: 1033: 1021: 1009: 997: 985: 970: 955: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 931: 930: 925: 920: 913: 910: 892: 889: 799: 796: 760: 757: 735: 732: 689: 686: 672: 669: 650:Barry Cunliffe 631: 628: 614: 611: 573:J. C. D. Clark 553: 550: 521: 518: 517: 516: 515: 514: 513: 512: 509: 503: 496: 490: 489: 488: 485: 479: 478: 477: 474: 471: 460: 453: 439: 438: 437: 434: 424:murus gallicus 419: 402: 401: 400: 399: 389: 375: 368:Simple opening 350: 349: 348: 347: 344:Cadbury Castle 337: 327: 314: 313: 312: 302: 293: 277: 276: 275: 264:Goosehill Camp 253: 238:Sea Promontory 235: 217: 195: 177: 167: 141: 138: 106: 103: 84: 83:Historiography 81: 60:archaeologists 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 1817: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1797: 1795: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1775: 1765: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1749: 1737: 1732: 1728: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1674:Hamilton, Sue 1671: 1667: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1633: 1628: 1627: 1621: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1549: 1547:9780853233817 1543: 1538: 1537: 1530: 1527: 1521: 1517: 1516: 1510: 1506: 1500: 1496: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1476:Clark, J.G.D. 1473: 1469: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1421: 1416: 1409: 1404: 1397: 1392: 1385: 1380: 1373: 1368: 1366: 1358: 1353: 1346: 1341: 1334: 1333:Sharples 1991 1329: 1322: 1317: 1315: 1307: 1302: 1300: 1292: 1291:Cunliffe 2005 1287: 1280: 1275: 1268: 1267:Sharples 1991 1263: 1256: 1255:Sharples 1991 1251: 1244: 1239: 1232: 1231:Thompson 1991 1227: 1220: 1215: 1208: 1203: 1196: 1191: 1184: 1179: 1172: 1167: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1139: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1120:Maiden Castle 1114: 1107: 1102: 1095: 1090: 1083: 1078: 1062: 1055: 1049: 1043:, p. 216 1042: 1037: 1030: 1025: 1019:, p. 151 1018: 1017:Cunliffe 2007 1013: 1006: 1001: 994: 989: 982: 977: 975: 967: 962: 960: 952: 947: 943: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 915: 909: 905: 897: 888: 886: 882: 881: 876: 873:excavated by 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 795: 791: 789: 785: 777: 773: 769: 765: 756: 753: 752:Leslie Alcock 749: 745: 741: 731: 729: 725: 721: 716: 714: 710: 705: 703: 702:Roman Britain 699: 695: 685: 682: 677: 668: 664: 662: 658: 653: 651: 646: 643: 642: 637: 627: 625: 621: 620:Maiden Castle 610: 607: 601: 599: 594: 590: 586: 582: 577: 574: 566: 562: 558: 546: 545:Maiden Castle 542: 538: 536: 531: 527: 510: 507: 506: 504: 501: 497: 494: 493: 491: 486: 483: 482: 480: 475: 472: 469: 465: 461: 458: 454: 451: 447: 443: 442: 440: 435: 432: 431: 426: 425: 420: 417: 416: 415: 411: 408: 407: 406: 397: 396:Maiden Castle 393: 390: 387: 383: 379: 376: 373: 369: 366: 365: 363: 362: 358: 354: 345: 341: 338: 335: 331: 328: 325: 324:Solsbury Hill 321: 318: 317: 315: 310: 306: 303: 301: 297: 294: 291: 287: 286: 281: 280: 278: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 254: 251: 247: 243: 239: 236: 233: 229: 225: 221: 218: 215: 211: 207: 206:Maiden Castle 203: 199: 196: 193: 189: 185: 181: 178: 175: 171: 168: 165: 161: 157: 154: 153: 151: 150: 149: 147: 137: 135: 131: 126: 124: 120: 116: 112: 102: 99: 95: 91: 80: 78: 77:Leslie Alcock 72: 69: 68:Welsh Marches 63: 61: 57: 53: 49: 48:Roman Britain 45: 41: 37: 33: 29: 19: 1753: 1735: 1719: 1715: 1698: 1681: 1677: 1665: 1641: 1637: 1609: 1590: 1578: 1575:Hogg, A.H.A. 1556: 1535: 1514: 1495: 1491: 1479: 1457: 1445: 1429:Bibliography 1415: 1403: 1391: 1379: 1352: 1340: 1328: 1286: 1274: 1262: 1250: 1238: 1226: 1214: 1202: 1190: 1178: 1166: 1155:. Retrieved 1151: 1138: 1128:, retrieved 1119: 1113: 1101: 1089: 1077: 1065:. Retrieved 1060: 1048: 1036: 1031:, p. 16 1024: 1012: 1000: 988: 946: 906: 902: 878: 867:Burgh Island 824: 808:West Country 801: 792: 788:Anglo-Saxons 781: 740:Roman Empire 737: 717: 706: 698:Roman Empire 691: 678: 674: 665: 659:hillfort in 654: 647: 639: 633: 616: 602: 592: 588: 584: 580: 578: 569: 561:British Camp 530:Sue Hamilton 523: 428: 422: 403: 391: 377: 367: 340:Multivallate 339: 329: 319: 309:Trendle Ring 304: 295: 282: 272:Trendle Ring 255: 237: 228:Dinas Dinlle 224:Daw's Castle 219: 210:Old Oswestry 204:. Examples: 201: 197: 186:. Examples: 180:Interfluvial 179: 169: 155: 145: 143: 127: 118: 110: 108: 105:Nomenclature 86: 73: 64: 27: 26: 18:Contour fort 1684:(1): 7–42. 1420:Alcock 2003 1408:Alcock 2003 1398:pp.113-132. 1384:Thomas 1993 1372:Alcock 1963 1359:p. 179-180. 1357:Alcock 2003 1345:Alcock 1963 1279:Clarke 1948 1221:. p. 08-11. 1197:. p. 05-08. 1171:Clarke 1948 966:Alcock 2003 871:Looe Island 694:1st century 657:Scratchbury 464:souterrains 446:roundhouses 386:Norton Camp 382:sunken lane 372:Dowsborough 290:Bindon Hill 214:Stonea Camp 160:Brent Knoll 134:animal pens 1794:Categories 1619:0521375444 1157:2009-05-27 1130:2009-05-31 1041:Avery 1986 934:References 720:Chysauster 589:hill-slope 585:promontory 450:longhouses 364:Entrances 330:Bivallate 320:Univallate 248:and other 232:Dún Aengus 192:Miholjanec 1718:, fifth, 1396:King 1974 1347:p. 22-25. 1293:. p. 347. 1233:. p. 117. 1108:. p. 103. 951:Hogg 1979 939:Footnotes 880:Time Team 875:Channel 4 851:Rame Head 661:Wiltshire 606:revetment 305:< 1 ha 246:The Rumps 220:Sea Cliff 164:Mount Ipf 152:Location 32:hillforts 1589:(1993). 1577:(1979). 1490:(2005). 1478:(1948). 1456:(2003). 1444:(1963). 1386:. p. 87. 1335:. p. 88. 1323:. p. 34. 1308:. p. 13. 1281:. p. 04. 1269:. p. 80. 1257:. p. 83. 1245:. p. 12. 1173:. p. 80. 1096:. p. 11. 1084:. p. 07. 1067:29 March 1007:. p. 03. 995:. p. 04. 983:. p. 01. 912:See also 843:Brittany 835:Dumnonia 827:Cornwall 806:and the 784:Germanic 748:imperial 744:Scotland 722:or the ' 641:a priori 624:Danebury 598:plateaus 500:ballista 492:Warfare 410:Ramparts 283:> 20 242:Huelgoat 146:hillfort 123:ramparts 119:hillfort 1422:p. 190. 1410:p. 205. 1185:. p.12. 968:p. 179. 855:St Ives 820:Camelot 778:castros 776:Iberian 711:in the 692:In the 636:warfare 613:Purpose 593:plateau 581:contour 535:barrows 473:Pottery 457:granary 414:ditches 392:Complex 296:1–20 ha 198:Lowland 188:Kelheim 184:meander 1760: 1722:: 1–45 1658:124616 1656: 1616: 1597: 1563: 1544: 1522: 1501: 1464: 1374:p. 66. 1063:. 2021 772:Argyll 768:Dunadd 724:Rounds 468:fogous 202:oppida 117:lists 1654:JSTOR 1057:(PDF) 804:Wales 459:huts. 279:Area 140:Types 1758:ISBN 1614:ISBN 1595:ISBN 1561:ISBN 1542:ISBN 1520:ISBN 1499:ISBN 1462:ISBN 1069:2022 869:and 738:The 591:and 583:and 412:and 1686:doi 1646:doi 802:In 258:or 92:at 1796:: 1720:36 1714:, 1680:. 1652:, 1642:18 1640:, 1364:^ 1313:^ 1298:^ 1150:. 1146:. 1123:, 1059:. 973:^ 958:^ 865:, 861:, 857:, 853:, 822:. 730:. 704:. 466:, 448:, 427:, 380:: 285:ha 270:, 266:, 244:; 230:, 226:, 212:, 208:, 190:, 162:, 136:. 1692:. 1688:: 1682:4 1648:: 1622:. 1603:. 1569:. 1550:. 1507:. 1470:. 1160:. 1071:. 953:. 470:. 452:. 433:. 398:. 388:. 374:. 346:. 336:. 326:. 311:. 292:. 274:. 252:. 234:. 216:. 194:. 176:. 166:. 20:)

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