Constitution of 3 May 1791

2234: 1795: 2025: 2416: 1176: 1222: 75: 2329: 1616: 1271: 813: 2172:, defeated or fought to a draw the Russians on several occasions, but in the end, a defeat loomed inevitable. Despite Polish requests, Prussia refused to honor its alliance obligations. Stanisław August's attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile. As the front lines kept shifting to the west and in July 1792 Warsaw was threatened with siege by the Russians, the King came to believe that victory was impossible against the numerically superior enemy, and that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat. Having received assurances from the Russian ambassador 624: 1990:, which should be taken up jointly by the council of the Guardians, headed by the Queen, or in her absence by the Primate. Article X stressed the importance of education of royal children and tasked the Commission of National Education with this responsibility. The last article of the constitution, Article XI, concerned the national standing army. Said army was defined as a "defensive force" dedicated "solely to the nation's defense." The army was to be increased in strength to 100,000 men. 1578:(1573), and from the recent Permanent Council. Acts of the King required the countersignature of the pertinent minister. A minister was required to countersign a law, unless all other ministers endorsed his objection to that law. In that case, the King could withdraw the law or press the issue by presenting it to parliament. The stipulation that the King, "doing nothing of himself, ... shall be answerable for nothing to the nation," parallels the British constitutional principle that " 2156:." It asserted that "The parliament ... has broken all fundamental laws, swept away all liberties of the gentry and on the third of May 1791 turned into a revolution and a conspiracy." The Confederates declared an intention to overcome this revolution. We "can do nothing but turn trustingly to Tsarina Catherine, a distinguished and fair empress, our neighboring friend and ally", who "respects the nation's need for well-being and always offers it a helping hand", they wrote. 1117: 1069: 1645: 1258:)—which included many participants in the Great Sejm—was organised to defend the reforms already enacted and to promote further ones. It is now regarded as the first modern-style political party in Poland's history. The response to the new constitution was less enthusiastic in the provinces, where the Hetmans' Party enjoyed considerable influence. General support among the middle nobility was crucial and still very substantial; most of the provincial 1133: 199: 1101: 973: 183: 1013:)—the first ministry of education in the world. New schools were opened, uniform textbooks were printed, teachers received better education and poor students were provided with scholarships. The Commonwealth's military was to be modernized and funding to create a larger standing army was agreed. Economic and commercial reforms—including some intended to cover the increased military budget previously shunned as unimportant by the 1085: 1532:, confederations and confederated sejms, and the excessive influence of sejmiks stemming from the previously binding nature of their instructions to their Sejm deputies. The confederations were declared "contrary to the spirit of this constitution, subversive of government and destructive of society." Thus the new constitution strengthened the powers of the Sejm, moving the country towards a constitutional monarchy. 2189:. On 23 November 1793, it concluded its deliberations under duress, annulling the constitution and acceding to the Second Partition. Russia took 250,000 square kilometres (97,000 sq mi), while Prussia took 58,000 square kilometres (22,000 sq mi). The Commonwealth now comprised no more than 215,000 square kilometres (83,000 sq mi). What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small 1326:." King Stanisław August Poniatowski was reported to have said that the 3 May 1791 Constitution was "founded principally on those of England and the United States of America, but avoiding the faults and errors of both, and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country." However, Polish historians report the Constitution as having been described as "based mainly on the 786:, all vocal opponents of foreign domination and the recently proclaimed policies. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had legally and practically become a protectorate of the Russian Empire. Nonetheless, several minor beneficial reforms were adopted, political rights of the religious minorities were restored and the need for more reforms was becoming increasingly recognized. 1195:, which was formally incorporated into the final constitution. This act addressed a number of matters related to the cities, crucially expanding burghers' (i.e., townspeople's) rights, including electoral rights. While the Sejm comprised representatives of the nobility and clergy, the reformers were supported by the burghers, who in late 1789 organized in Warsaw a " 1944:. This provision was intended to reduce the destructive influence of foreign powers at each election. The royal dynasty was elective, and if one were to cease, a new family would be chosen by the nation. The king reigned by the "grace of God and the will of the Nation," and "all authority derives from the will of the Nation." The institution of 596:. Only 8 out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II (1694–1733) passed legislation. For 30 years during the reign of Augustus III, only one session was able to pass legislation. The government was near collapse, giving rise to the term "Polish anarchy", and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates. 2216:(22 April)—the Uprising was crushed when the forces of Russia, Austria and Prussia joined in a military intervention. Historians consider the Uprising's defeat to have been a foregone conclusion in face of the superiority in numbers and resources of the three invading powers. The defeat of Kościuszko's forces led in 1795 to the 1247:

was submitted the next day by a small group of deputies, but on 5 May the matter was officially concluded and protests were invalidated by the Constitutional Deputation of the Sejm. It was the first time in the 18th century that a constitutional act had been passed in the Commonwealth without the involvement of foreign powers.

2350:—the first holiday officially introduced in the newly independent country. It was again outlawed during World War II by both the Nazi and Soviet occupiers. It was celebrated in Polish cities in May 1945, although in a mostly spontaneous manner. The 1946 anti-communist demonstrations did not endear it to the 2256:

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 has been both idealized, and criticized for either not going far enough or being too radical. As its provisions remained in force for only 18 months and 3 weeks, its influence was, in any case, limited. However, for generations, the memory of the Constitution—recognized

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The Constitution remained to the last a work in progress. The Government Act was fleshed out in a number of laws passed in May and June 1791: on sejm courts (two acts of 13 May), the Guardians of the Laws (1 June), the national police commission (a ministry, 17 June), and municipal administration (24

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were positioned about the Royal Castle, where the Sejm was gathered, to prevent opponents from disrupting the proceedings. On 3 May, the Sejm convened with only 182 members, about half its "dual" number. The bill was read and overwhelmingly adopted, to the enthusiasm of the crowds outside. A protest

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Ostatnim było Zaręczenie Wzajemne Obojga Narodów przy Konstytucji 3 Maja, stanowiące część nowych paktów konwentów – zdaniem historyka prawa Bogusława Leśnodorskiego: "zacieśniające unię, ale utrzymujące nadal federacyjny charakter Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów" The last was the Reciprocal

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An opportunity for reform occurred during the "Great Sejm"—also called the "Four-Year Sejm"—of 1788–92, which began on 6 October 1788 with 181 deputies. In accordance with the Constitution's preamble, from 1790 it met "in dual number" when 171 newly elected deputies joined the earlier-established

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that would eventually remove Poland's sovereignty shocked the Commonwealth's inhabitants and made it clear to progressive minds that the Commonwealth must either reform or perish. In the thirty years before the Constitution, there was a rising interest among progressive thinkers in constitutional

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by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The treaty divested the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of about a third of its territory and population—over 200,000 km (77,220 sq mi) and 4 million people. The three powers justified their annexation, citing anarchy in the Commonwealth and its

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Many reform leaders, believing their cause was for now lost, went into self-imposed exile. Some hoped that Stanisław August would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians, as he had done in the past. But the King had not saved the Commonwealth and neither had the Targowica

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described it as "the noblest benefit received by any nation at any time ... Stanislas II has earned a place among the greatest kings and statesmen in history." The 3 May Constitution was the first to follow the 1788 ratification of the United States Constitution. Poland and the United

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meant that many of the poorest, landless nobles—known as "clients" or "clientele" of local magnates—voted as the magnates bade them. Now right to vote was tied to a property qualification: one had to own or lease land and pay taxes, or be closely related to somebody who did, to vote. 300,000 of

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With half a million burghers in the Commonwealth now substantially enfranchised, political power became more equally distributed. Little power was given to the less politically conscious or active classes, such as Jews and peasants. Article IV placed the Commonwealth's peasantry under the

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The Commonwealth's magnates viewed reform with suspicion and neighboring powers, content with the deterioration of the Commonwealth, abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders. With the Commonwealth Army reduced to around 16,000, it was easy for its neighbors to

2001:. Its full establishment, supported by Stanisław August and Kołlątaj, was opposed by many Lithuanian deputies. As a compromise, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania received numerous privileges guaranteeing its continued existence. Related acts included the Declaration of the Assembled Estates ( 1394:

Article V stated that "all power in civil society derived from the will of the people." The constitution referred to the country's "citizens," which for the first time included townspeople and peasants. The document's preamble and 11 individual articles introduced the principle of

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to 100,000 men, but owing to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved and soon abandoned even as a goal. The Polish King and the reformers could field only a 37,000-man army, many of them untested recruits. This army, under the command of Józef Poniatowski and

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announced that work was underway on "an economic constitution ... guaranteeing all rights of property securing protection and honor to all manner of labor ..." A third planned basic law was mentioned by Kołłątaj: a "moral constitution," most likely a Polish analog to the

1369:). Townspeople also gained the right to acquire landed property and became eligible for military officers' commissions and public offices, such as reserved seats in the Sejm and seats in the executive commissions of the Treasury, Police, and Judiciary. Membership in the nobility ( 2021:, of 22 October 1791, affirming the unity and indivisibility of Poland and Lithuania within a single state and their equal representation in state-governing bodies. The Mutual Pledge strengthened the Polish–Lithuanian union while keeping many federal aspects of the state intact. 1236:. Threatened with violence by their opponents, the advocates of the draft began the debate on the Government Act two days early, while many opposing deputies were away on Easter recess. The debate and subsequent adoption of the Government Act was executed as a quasi- 690:, Poniatowski's political position was weak from the start. He proceeded with cautious reforms, such as the establishment of fiscal and military ministries and the introduction of a national customs tariff, which was soon abandoned due to opposition from Prussia's 1483:, and divided into constitutional, civil, criminal, and those for the institution of perpetual taxes—required a simple majority, first from the lower chamber, then the upper. Specialized resolutions, including treaties of alliance, declarations of war and peace, 2417: 767:. The Cardinal Laws and the rights of "religious dissenters" passed by the Repnin Sejm were personally guaranteed by Empress Catherine. By these acts of legislation, for the first time, Russia formally intervened in the Commonwealth's constitutional affairs. 2261:, a Polish constitutional scholar, wrote a century later that "The miracle of the Constitution did not save the state but did save the nation." In Poland the Constitution is mythologized and viewed as a national symbol and as the culmination of the 1044:

of many of their legal immunities. The Code would also have improved the situation of non-nobles—townspeople and peasants. Zamoyski's progressive legal code, containing elements of constitutional reform, met with opposition from native conservative

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Guarantee of Two Nations at Constitution of 3 May, forming a part of the new pacta conventa – according to the law historian Bogusław Leśnodorski "tightening the union, but retaining the federal character of the Commonwealth of Both Nations."

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that no territorial changes will occur, the Guardians of the Laws cabinet voted 8:4 to surrender. On 24 July 1792, King Stanisław August Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation, as the Empress had demanded. The Polish Army disintegrated.

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and was backed by Russian military forces invited by the Czartoryskis. In exchange for passing decrees favorable to them, the Russians and Prussians let the confederated Convocation Sejm enact a number of reforms, including the weakening of the

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The claims of "first" and "second constitution" have been disputed. The U.S. and Polish-Lithuanian constitutions had been preceded by earlier documents that did not completely separate the executive, legislative, and judiciary powers as

2273:, it was "the last will and testament of the expiring Homeland." Since Poland's recovery of independence in 1918, the 3 May anniversary of the Constitution's adoption has been observed as the country's most important civil holiday. 2281:

States, though geographically distant from each other, showed similar approaches to the designing of political systems. The 3 May Constitution has been called the second constitution in world history. Constitutional-law expert

2204:), granting freedom to the peasants and ownership of land to all who fought in the insurrection. Revolutionary tribunals administered summary justice to those deemed traitors to the Commonwealth. After initial victories at the 762:

exclusive right to hold office and land, and landowners' power over their peasants. Thus all the privileges ("Golden Freedoms") of the nobility that had made the Commonwealth ungovernable were guaranteed as unalterable in the

320:, which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any single deputy, who could veto and thus undo all the legislation adopted by that Sejm. The Commonwealth's neighbours reacted with hostility to the adoption of the Constitution. King 2366:

Day and removal from the list of national holidays by 1951. Until 1989, 3 May was a frequent occasion for anti-government and anti-communist protests. 3 May was restored as an official Polish holiday in April 1990 after the

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refusal to cooperate with its neighbors' efforts to restore order. King Stanisław August yielded and on 19 April 1773, he called the Sejm into session. Only 102 of about 200 deputies attended what became known as the

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sanctioned the continuation of slavery. Thus neither of the two constitutions enfranchised all its adult male population: the U.S. Constitution excluded the slaves; the Polish-Lithuanian Constitution – the

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protection of the national law—a first step toward enfranchising the country's largest and most oppressed social class. Their low status compared to other classes was not eliminated, as the constitution did not

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A new wave of reforms supported by progressive magnates such as the Czartoryski family and King Stanisław August were introduced at the Partition Sejm. The most important included the 1773 establishment of the

1550:). The ministries could not create or interpret laws, and all acts of the foreign ministry were provisional and subject to Sejm approval. The King presided over his council, which comprised the Roman Catholic 4762:

The Origin of human rights: the constitution of 3 May 1791, the French declaration of rights, the Bill of Rights : proceedings at the seminar held at the Nicolaus Copernicus University, 3 May–5, 1991

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by political scientists as a progressive document for its time—helped keep alive Polish aspirations for an independent and just society, and continued to inform the efforts of its authors' descendants.

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legislature. As stated in Article V of the 3 May 1791 Constitution, the government was to ensure that "the integrity of the states, civil liberty, and social order shall always remain in equilibrium."

1916: 7636:[Presentation on the basis of Romana Guldon's article "Relics of Constitution of 3 May kept in the collections of National Archives in Kielce] (in Polish). Almanach Historyczny, T. 4, Kielce 745:) the King accepted the five "eternal and invariable principles" which Catherine had vowed to "protect for all time to come in the name of Poland's liberties": the election of kings, the right of 359:

in 1918. Over those 123 years, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the country's sovereignty. In the words of two of its principal authors,

1475:, and bishops, as well as governments ministers without the right to vote). The king presided over the Senate and had one vote, which could be used to break ties. The king and all deputies had 1210:, Hugo Kołłątaj and others. The King is credited with writing the general provisions and Kołłątaj with giving the document its final shape. Stanisław August wanted the Commonwealth to become a 505:("free veto"), which, since 1652, had allowed any Sejm deputy to nullify all the legislation enacted by that Sejm. As a result, deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers—primarily from the 909:

in 1772 when the First Partition was already underway. Works advocating the need for reform and presenting specific solutions were published in the Commonwealth by Polish–Lithuanian thinkers:

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existed in each voivodeship and were in constant session, with judges elected by the regional sejmik assemblies. Appellate tribunals were established for the provinces, based on the reformed

1892: 1847: 1521:. Voting rights were restored to landowners in military service. They had lost these rights in 1775. Voting was limited to men aged at least 18. The eligible voters elected deputies to local 572:, tried to govern through intimidation and the use of force, which led to a series of conflicts between their supporters and opponents—including another pretender to the Polish throne, King 1403:

Sejm), executive ("the King and the Guardians," the Guardians of the Laws being the newly established top governmental entity) and judicial branches. It advanced the democratization of the

2252:, to commemorate the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Work on Temple had only begun when Poland was invaded by Russian Imperial Army. Chapel is now within Warsaw University Botanical Garden. 482:

made a solemn vow on behalf of the entire Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that he would free the Polish peasants "from the unjust burdens and oppression." As he was struggling with the

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between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia seemed to provide security against Russian intervention, and King Stanisław August drew closer to leaders of the reform-minded

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comprising five ministries with limited legislative powers, was established, giving the Commonwealth a governing body in constant session between Sejms and therefore immune to their

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to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution", elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand return of the lands that Prussia had acquired in the First Partition.

1872: 1867: 1862: 376: 1242:. No recall notices were sent to known opponents of reform, while many pro-reform deputies secretly returned early. The royal guard under the command of the King's nephew Prince 4796:Żywot Tomasza Ostrowskiego, ministra rzeczypospolitej póżniej, prezesa senatu xięstwa warszawskiego i królestwa polskiego: obejmujacy rys wypadḱow krajowych od 1765 roku do 1817 717:

Russia's Empress Catherine and Prussia's King Frederick II provoked a conflict between members of the Sejm and the King over civil rights for religious minorities, such as

380: 2105:

protectorate. "The worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw: the Polish king has become almost sovereign" was the reaction of one of Russia's chief foreign policy authors,

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to be the strongest branch of government. Kołłątaj wanted a "gentle" revolution, carried out without violence, to enfranchise other social classes in addition to the nobility.

1887: 1877: 486:, in 1661 John Casimir—whose reign saw highly destructive wars and obstructionism by the nobility—correctly predicted that the Commonwealth was in danger of a partition by 1203:. On 18 April 1791 the Sejm—fearing that the burghers' protests, if ignored, could turn violent, as they had in France not long before—adopted the Free Royal Cities Act. 1040:). It would have strengthened royal power, made all officials answerable to the Sejm, placed the clergy and their finances under state supervision, and deprived landless 445:, which had been a major European power only a century earlier and was still the largest state on the continent. In the 1590s, at the peak of the nobles' democracy, King 2488:

to support his election, Poniatowski's supporters and opponents engaged in military posturing and even minor clashes. The Russian army was deployed a few miles from the

1582:." (In both countries, the pertinent minister was responsible for the King's acts.) The ministers were responsible to the Sejm, which could dismiss them by a two-thirds 1349:, stressing that all nobles were equal and should enjoy personal security and the right to property. Article III stipulated that the earlier Free Royal Cities Act ( 2258: 2196:

For a year and a half, Polish patriots waited while planning an insurrection. On 24 March 1794 in Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko declared what has come to be known as the

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As the Sejm failed to implement sufficient reforms, the state machinery became increasingly dysfunctional. A significant cause of the Commonwealth's downfall was the

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Murphy, Curtis G. (2012). "Burghers versus Bureaucrats: Enlightened Centralism, the Royal Towns, and the Case of the Propinacja Law in Poland-Lithuania, 1776–1793".

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The constitutional formal procedures were performed for little over a year before being stopped by Russian armies allied with conservative Polish nobility in the

8221: 423:; the concept of individual liberties; and the notion that the monarch owed duties to his subjects. This system, which primarily benefited the Polish nobility ( 7528: 2144:, asked Tsarina Catherine to intervene and restore their privileges—the Cardinal Laws abolished under the new statute. To that end these magnates formed the 1882: 797:(Casimir Pulaski)—vowing to oppose Russian influence, declared Stanisław August a lackey of Russia and Catherine, and formed a confederation at the town of 310:, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the government's protection, mitigating the worst abuses of 1923: 1251: 683:, but opposition from Prussia, Russia, and the Polish nobility thwarted this ambitious program, which had proposed deciding all motions by majority vote. 521:—or deputies who believed they were living in an unprecedented "Golden Age" paralysed the Commonwealth's government for over a century. The threat of the 2056: 1980: 2036:

The manuscript in Lithuanian language of the Constitution was made and it was also later published in English-, French-, and German-language editions.

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Discussed in Article VIII, the judiciary was separated from the two other branches of the government, and was to be served by elective judges.

279:; the new constitution was intended to address political questions following a period of political agitation and gradual reform that began with the 1191:

The Sejm passed few major reforms in its first two years, but the subsequent two years brought more substantial changes. The Sejm adopted the 1791

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were established in each province to hear the cases of the peasantry. Municipal courts, described in the law on towns, complemented this system.

1721: 2450:"opartą w głównej mierze na konstytucji Stanów Zjednoczonych, lecz bez błędów w niej zawartych, zaadaptowaną do warunków panuiących w Polszcze." 2567: 2297:

that adopted it have been the subjects of a large body of works by Polish scholars, starting with the still often cited 19th-century works of

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King Stanisław August's acquiescence to the Russian intervention encountered some opposition. On 29 February 1768, several magnates—including

1956:, which had provided the two kings before Stanisław August. This provision was contingent upon Frederic Augustus' consent. He declined when 1554:—who was also president of the Education Commission—and five ministers appointed by the King: a minister of police, a minister of the seal ( 631:, principal author of the Constitution of 3 May 1791. A year later, he acquiesced in its demise; this was seen by Constitution defenders as 576:. Those conflicts often took the form of confederations—legal rebellions against the king permitted under the Golden Freedoms—including the 1587: 31: 2113:

were seen by Poland's neighbors as evidence of a revolutionary conspiracy and a threat to the absolute monarchies. The Prussian statesman

17: 7634:"Prezentacja na podstawie artykułu Romany Guldon "Pamiątki Konstytucji 3 Maja przechowywane w zasobie Archiwum Państwowego w Kielcach."" 6756: 2101:

was furious over the adoption of the document, which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland. Russia had viewed Poland as a

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Finally, Article VI explicitly abolished several institutional sources of government weakness and national anarchy, including the

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in January 1792, criticized the constitution for contributing to "contagion of democratic ideas" following "the fatal examples set in

537:" or belonged to one was a contrivance prominently used by foreign interests in the 18th century to force a legislative outcome. 8063:

Collection of digitized versions of the 3 May 1791 Constitution and various related documents in the Digital National Library Polona

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The Constitution provided for potential amendments, which were to be addressed at an extraordinary Sejm to be held every 25 years.

1976: 1691: 1417:(an elected Sejm and an appointed Senate) and the king. The Sejm met every two years, and when required by national emergency. Its 401:, followed in the first half of the 16th century. By the 17th century, Poland's legal and political tradition was characterized as 694:. These measures had already been authorized by the Convocation Sejm; more legislative and executive improvements inspired by the 2233: 1341:

as the "dominant religion" but guaranteed tolerance and freedom to all religions. It was less progressive than the 16th-century

2316:("Government Act"), where "government" referred to the political system. In the Commonwealth, the term "constitution" (Polish: 120: 2276:

The 3 May Constitution was a milestone in the history of law and in the growth of democracy. The 18th-century Irish statesman

8096: 7974: 7576: 7538: 7466: 7439: 7407: 7373: 7330: 7216: 7174: 7131: 7101: 7069: 7036: 6967: 6938: 6902: 6861: 6824: 6732: 6699: 6674: 6635: 6601: 6543: 6402: 6366: 6326: 6287: 6253: 6188: 6155: 6102: 6070: 6015: 5972: 5942: 5910: 5876: 5844: 5806: 5726: 5652: 5615: 5574: 5510: 5482: 5448: 5409: 5352: 5306: 5250: 5173: 5131: 5071: 5025: 4985: 4948: 4916: 4881: 4848: 4770: 4743: 4711: 4667: 4623: 4580: 4546: 4503: 4461: 4420: 4372: 4328: 4249: 4209: 4172: 4138: 4104: 4062: 4028: 3983: 3943: 3901: 3863: 3821: 3780: 3692: 3649: 3605: 3571: 3535: 3496: 3454: 3404: 3364: 3318: 3284: 3240: 3200: 3159: 3125: 3092: 3049: 2971: 2937: 2903: 2869: 2829: 2795: 2711: 2670: 2110: 1756: 1686: 203: 53: 8052: 3766: 1331: 224: 7655: 1504:) passed on 24 March 1791. By reducing the enfranchisement of the noble classes, this law introduced major changes to the 8246: 8182: 4279:

Lukowski, Jerzy (11 February 2009). "Recasting Utopia: Montesquieu, Rousseau and the Polish constitution of 3 May 1791".

2006: 1909: 1842: 1681: 809:. It began a civil war to overthrow the King, but its irregular forces were overwhelmed by Russian intervention in 1772. 805:

focused on limiting the influence of foreigners in Commonwealth affairs, and being pro-Catholic was generally opposed to

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of 1777, both of which are well-known but lack the tripartite separation. Neither did the short-lived and little-known

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writes that the Constitution of 3 May 1791 provided "a constitutional monarchy close to the English model of the time."

2164: 1822: 1817: 1794: 442: 389:

can be traced to the 13th century, when government by consensus and representation was already well established in the

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During the 1768 Sejm, Repnin showed his disregard for local resistance by arranging the abduction and imprisonment of

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and their "liberties", and by October 1767 Russian troops had assembled outside Warsaw in support of the conservative

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to several Sejms between 1750 and 1764 and had a deeper understanding of Polish politics than previous monarchs. The

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writes that it was "Europe's first codified national constitution (and the second oldest in the world)." Historian

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similar to that of Great Britain, with a strong central government based on a strong monarch. Potocki wanted the

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of the legislation it intended to propose in advance, so deputies could prepare for the discussions. The Sejm's

977: 628: 288: 216: 138: 8231: 2380: 2346:) on 5 May 1791. The holiday was banned during the partitions of Poland but reinstated in April 1919 under the 2160: 2086: 2080: 2024: 2014: 1949: 1852: 1380: 647:

greatly affected the thinking of influential Commonwealth circles during the reign (1764–95) of its last king,

337: 272: 8047: 2141: 8271: 8251: 7606: 2635: 2355: 57: 7633: 2320:) had previously denoted all the legislation, of whatever character, that had been passed by a given Sejm. 2052: 1832: 1711: 1165: 593: 8149: 7955: – compilation of facsimile reprints of 1791 legislation pertinent to the Constitution of 3 May 1791. 8113: 7869:

Lukowski, Jerzy (2004). "Political Ideas among the Polish Nobility in the Eighteenth Century (To 1788)".

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century

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To further enhance the Commonwealth's integration and security, the Constitution abolished the erstwhile

1701: 1612:. The royal council's decisions were implemented by commissions, whose members were elected by the Sejm. 1311: 918: 612: 577: 2302: 2249: 1388: 1221: 1175: 950: 600: 456:—had condemned the weaknesses of the Commonwealth. In the same period, writers and philosophers such as 7808:

Hoskins, Janina W. (1976). "'A Lesson Which All Our Countrymen Should Study': Jefferson Views Poland".

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for their suggestions on a new constitution for a reformed Poland. Mably submitted his recommendations

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Bardach, Juliusz (1992). "The Constitution of May Third and the mutual assurance of the Two Nations".

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Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945): texts and commentaries

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Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945): texts and commentaries

6418: 2597: 2376: 2363: 2306: 2217: 2137: 1897: 1538:, according to Article V and Article VII, was in the hands of "the King in his council," a 850: 825: 549: 352: 284: 74: 1574:, and two secretaries. This royal council descended from similar councils that had functioned since 1487:

and increases in national debt, needed a majority of both chambers voting jointly. The Senate had a

1345:, and placed Poland clearly within the Catholic sphere of influence. Article II confirmed many 7316: 2593: 2018: 1575: 1440: 581: 457: 276: 8081: 4570: 2995: 2328: 1310:

writes that the liberality of the 3 May 1791 Constitution's provisions "fell somewhere below the

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about the 3 May 1791 Constitution, includes a partial English translation by Christopher Kasparek

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was preserved. On Stanisław August's death the Polish throne would become hereditary and pass to

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The 1791 Constitution was in force for less than 19 months. It was declared null and void by the

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Blackburn, Edwin C. (1991). "Stanislaus Leszczynski and the Polish Constitution of 3 May 1791".

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Trade and urban development in Poland: an economic geography of Cracow, from its origins to 1795

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The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the XVIIIth Century: From Anarchy to Well-Organised State

6353:

Kings, nobles and commoners: states and societies in early modern Europe, a revisionist history

3084: 2347: 2337: 2209: 1736: 1615: 1491:

over laws that the Sejm passed, valid until the next Sejm session, when it could be overruled.

1476: 1184: 981: 934: 737:. The King and his adherents had little choice but to acquiesce to Russian demands. During the 557: 553: 544:

controlled the state, ensuring that no reforms that might weaken their privileged status (the "

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Isaac Kramnick (1987). "Introduction". In James Madison; Alexander Hamilton; John Jay (eds.).

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The right of conquest: the acquisition of territory by force in international law and practice

3682: 3308: 3149: 2961: 2927: 2205: 2197: 1975:. The Sejm elected from its deputies the judges for the Sejm Court, a precursor to the modern 1857: 7456: 7365: 7287: 7166: 7121: 6760: 6625: 6591: 6277: 4794: 4052: 4018: 3975: 3770: 3639: 3525: 2893: 2819: 2601: 2578:

of the expression. In this particular context, "Homeland" may be the most natural rendering.

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institutions and a system of checks and balances on state power, which was itself limited by

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by limiting the excessive legal immunities and political prerogatives of landless nobility.

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of 1573, had worsened considerably. Catherine and Frederick declared their support for the

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The price of freedom: a history of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the present

3310:

The price of freedom: a history of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the present

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The price of freedom: a history of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the present

1399:

applied to the nobility and townspeople, and the separation of powers into legislative (a

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