1645:(district military replacement office), which had discretion to either approve or reject a conscientious objection, which had to consist of a detailed written statement by an applicant giving reasons as to why the applicant was conscientiously objecting. This was generally just a formality, and objections were not often rejected. In later years in particular however, with the rise of the Internet, conscientious objections fell into disrepute because of the ease of being able to simply download existing example objections. It earned some conscientious objections the suspicion of an applicant simply attempting an easy way out of military service. On the other hand, certain organizations within the German peace movement had been offering pamphlets for decades giving suggestions to applicants as to the proper wording and structure of an objection which would have the greatest chances of success.
1489:
non-military nature. Persons who declare themselves to be conscientious objectors only after a crisis has started must, however, prove their conviction before a special board. Before the new legislation, the right to conscientious objection was acknowledged only in peacetime. The changes to the service term and to the legal status of objectors during a crisis situation were made as a response to human rights concerns voiced by several international bodies, who are overseeing the implementation of human rights agreements. These organisations had demanded
Finland to take measures to improve its legislation concerning conscientious objectors, which they considered discriminatory. None of these organisations have yet raised concerns on the current legislation.
1841:
2273:
2439:. About 5,500 objectors were imprisoned, most charged with refusal to attend a medical examination as a necessary preliminary to call-up after being refused exemption, and some charged with non-compliance with the terms of conditional exemption. A further 1,000 were court-martialled by the armed forces and sent to military detention barracks or civil prisons. Unlike the First World War, most sentences were relatively short, and there was no pattern of continually repeated sentences. The social stigma attached to 'conchies' (as they were called) was considerable; regardless of the genuineness of their motives, cowardice was often imputed.
1485:
duration of the service was shortened to 13 months and the board of inspection was abolished. In 2008, the term was further shortened to 12 months to match the duration of the longest military service (that of officer trainees and technical crew). Today, a person subject to conscription may apply for civilian service at any time before or during his military service, and the application is accepted as a matter of course. A female performing voluntary military service can quit her service anytime during the first 45 days, however, if she wants to quit after those 45 days she would be treated like a male and assigned to civilian service.
2102:"the state's anti-human rights violence" and "its acts of brutality" during the 1970s that continued into the mid-1980s. This decision is significant since it is the first one recognizing the state's responsibility for deaths resulting from violence within the military. According to the commission's decision, "the beatings and acts of brutality committed against them by military officials were attempts to compel and coerce them to act against their conscience (religion) and were unconstitutional, anti-human rights acts that infringed severely upon the freedom of conscience (religion) guaranteed in the Constitution."
2415:
applicants succeeded at the
Appellate Tribunal, sometimes after a "qualifying" sentence of three-months' imprisonment for an offence deemed to have been committed on grounds of conscience. Of those directed to non-combatant military service almost 7,000 were allocated to the Non-Combatant Corps, re-activated in mid-1940; its companies worked in clothing and food stores, in transport, or any military project not requiring the handling of "material of an aggressive nature". In November 1940 it was decided to allow troops in the NCC to volunteer for work in
61:
1708:
countered by the argument that women usually gave up their careers either temporarily or permanently to raise their children. With the end of the Cold War and the German military's primary purpose of defending its home territory increasingly looking doubtful, draft also began to become more arbitrary, as only certain portions of a particular birth year were drafted (usually those in very healthy physical condition), while others were not. This was seen as a problem of
1011:
644:
8164:
1372:, Canadian conscientious objectors were given the options of noncombatant military service, serving in the medical or dental corps under military control or working in parks and on roads under civilian supervision. Over 95% chose the latter and were placed in Alternative Service camps. Initially the men worked on road building, forestry and firefighting projects. After May 1943, as the labour shortage developed within the nation and another
700:: "Article 18 of the Covenant does put some limits on the right , stating that manifestations must not infringe on public safety, order, health or morals. Some states argue that such limitations would permit them to make conscientious objection during time of war a threat to public safety, or mass conscientious objection a disruption to public order, ... even that it is a 'moral' duty to serve the state in its military."
2410:, there were nearly 60,000 registered Conscientious Objectors. Testing by tribunals resumed, this time by special Conscientious Objection Tribunals chaired by a judge, and the effects were much less harsh. If objectors were not a member of the Quakers or some similar pacifist organisation, it was generally enough to say that they objected to "warfare as a means of settling international disputes", a phrase from the
1266:(CoE) regard and promote conscientious objection as a human right, as of 2004, it still does not have a legal basis in most countries. Among the roughly one-hundred countries that have conscription, only thirty countries have some legal provisions, 25 of them in Europe. In Europe, most countries with conscription more or less fulfill international guidelines on conscientious objection legislation (except for
3266:"Selective Conscientious Objection; Editor Note: An address given at Western Maryland College, June 4, 1967. First published as pamphlet entitled "Selective Conscientious Objection" by Our Sunday Visitor (Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, Inc.). Republished as "War and Conscience" in A Conflict of Loyalties: The Case for Selective Conscientious Objected, 19–30, ed. by James Finn, (New York: Gegasus, 1968)"
541:
1236:. Alternatives to military or civilian service include serving an imprisonment or other punishment for refusing conscription, falsely claiming unfitness for duty by feigning an allergy or a heart condition, delaying conscription until the maximum drafting age, or seeking refuge in a country which does not extradite those wanted for military conscription. Avoiding military service is sometimes labeled
1259:) such as hospital work, farming, forestry, road construction and similar occupations. Their objection is in being part in any military capacity whether noncombatant or regular service. During World War II and the Korean, Vietnam war eras they served in many such capacities in alternative I-W service programs initially through the Mennonite Central Committee and now through their own alternatives.
1501:
998:, participating in research to help others. The Church preferred to call them "conscientious participants", because they were willing to risk their lives as test subjects in potentially life-threatening research. Over 2,200 Seventh-day Adventists volunteered in experiments involving various infectious agents during the 1950s through the 1970s in Fort Detrick, MD." Earlier, a
3910:: Das Verhältnis der Partei- und Staatsführung der DDR zu den Bausoldaten a) die agitatorische Diskriminierung der Bausoldaten b) die substantielle Diskriminierung der Bausoldaten. pp. 115–125. in: Kriegsdienstverweigerung in der DDR – ein Friedensdienst? Genesis, Befragung, Analyse, Dokumente. 190 Seiten + Anhang. Hrsg. Haag + Herchen, Frankfurt 1978.
2116:
objections other than religious reasons. Since 1950, there have been more than 16,000 Jehovah's
Witnesses sentenced to a combined total of 31,256 years for refusing to perform military service. If alternative service is not provided, some 500 to 900 young men will continue to be added each year to the list of conscientious objectors criminalized in Korea.
1649:
objector's application, he could be summoned to appear before a panel at the
Kreiswehrersatzamt to explain his reasons in person. An approved conscientious objection in any case then meant that an applicant was required by law to perform Wehrersatzdienst. Complete objection both to military and replacement service was known as
2352:, were taken to France as conscripts and given military orders, the disobedience of which would warrant a death sentence. These men, known as "The Frenchmen", refused; the four ringleaders were formally sentenced to death by court-martial but immediately reprieved, with commutation to ten-years' penal servitude.
2359:, acting as nursing/paramedic assistants, the majority of non-combatants served in the Non-Combatant Corps on non-lethal stores, road and railway building and general labouring in the UK and France. Conscientious objectors who were deemed not to have made any useful contribution to the state were formally
2497:
As of 2005, conscientious objectors in several countries may serve as field paramedics in the army (although some do not consider this a genuine alternative, as they feel it merely helps to make war more humane instead of preventing it). Alternatively, they may serve without arms, although this, too,
2414:
of 1928. The tribunals could grant full exemption, exemption conditional on alternative service, exemption only from combatant duties, or dismiss the application. Of the 61,000 who were registered, 3,000 were given complete exemption; 18,000 applications were initially dismissed, but a number of such
2081:
South Korea's stance has drawn criticism from The U.N. Human Rights
Committee, which argues that South Korea is violating article 18 of the ICCPR, which guarantees freedom of thought and conscience. In 2006, 2010, and again in 2011 the U.N. Human Rights Committee, after reviewing petitions from South
1967:
units in South Russia in lieu of their military obligation. The program was under church control from 1881 through 1918, reaching a peak of seven thousand conscientious objectors during World War I. An additional five thousand
Mennonites formed complete hospital units and transported wounded from the
1053:
was developed in order to reconcile warfare with
Christian belief. After Theodosius I made Christianity an official religion of the Empire, this position slowly developed into the official position of the Western Church. In the 11th century, there was a further shift of opinion in the Latin-Christian
773:
At least two state constitutions have recognized an individual right not to bear arms. Pennsylvania's
Constitution of 1790 states "Those who conscientiously scruple to bear arms, shall not be compelled to do so; but shall pay an equivalent for personal service." New Hampshire's Constitution of 1784
722:
In 1998, the Human Rights
Commission reiterated previous statements and added "states should ... refrain from subjecting conscientious objectors ... to repeated punishment for failure to perform military service". It also encouraged states "to consider granting asylum to those conscientious objectors
2518:
is one and one-half times longer than military service. In 2005, the Swiss parliament considered whether willingness to serve one and a half times longer than an army recruit was sufficient proof of sincerity, citing that the cost of judging the state of conscience of a few thousand men per year was
2122:
In June 2018, the
Constitutional Court ruled 6–3 that Article 5 of the country's Military Service Act is unconstitutional because it fails to provide an alternative civilian national service for conscientious objectors. As of 2018, 19,300 South Korean conscientious objectors had gone to prison since
1707:
Military service and draft were controversial during much of their existence. Reasons included the consideration that Germans could be made to fight against their fellow Germans in East Germany. Moreover, draft only applied to men, which was seen as gender based discrimination by some, but was often
1227:
Some conscientious objectors are unwilling to serve the military in any capacity, while others accept noncombatant roles. While conscientious objection is usually the refusal to collaborate with military organizations, as a combatant in war or in any supportive role, some advocate compromising forms
1089:
Regardless of nationality, all men are brothers. God is "our Father who art in heaven". The commandment "Thou shalt not kill" is unconditional and inexorable. ... The lowly Nazarene taught us the doctrine of non-resistance, and so convinced was he of the soundness of that doctrine that he sealed his
964:
Militarism is contrary to the spirit of the New Testament and the teachings of Jesus Christ. Even from humanitarian principles alone, it is utterly indefensible. It is our profound and God-given conviction that none of our people be required to participate in war of any form and that these God-given
561:
Many conscientious objectors have been executed, imprisoned, or otherwise penalized when their beliefs led to actions conflicting with their society's legal system or government. The legal definition and status of conscientious objection has varied over the years and from nation to nation. Religious
2101:
On 15 January 2009 the Korean Presidential Commission on Suspicious Deaths in the Military released its decision acknowledging that the government was responsible for the deaths of five young men, who were Jehovah's Witnesses and had forcibly been conscripted into the army. The deaths resulted from
2097:
The government argues that introducing an alternative service would jeopardize national security and undermine social equality and cohesion. This is amid an increasing number of countries which retain compulsory service have introduced alternatives. In addition, some countries, including those with
2073:
The terminology conscientious objector technically has not existed in Korean dictionary until recently. In fact, significant majority of Korean citizens simply associate conscientious objectors with draft dodging, and are unaware of the fact that conscientious objector draftees in other westernized
1719:
said in a 1994 speech (which was frequently cited as an argument for draft abolition) that only the necessity for national defense, not any other arguments can justify draft. On the other hand, this logic tended to not be extended to men serving Wehrersatzdienst, as they usually worked in fields of
1699:
Wehrersatzdienst was for a long time considerably longer than military service, by up to a third, even when the duration of service was gradually reduced following reunification and the end of the Cold War. This was held by some as a violation of constitutional principles, but was upheld in several
1535:
considerably improved this status, simplifying the conditions under which the status would be granted. Conscientious objectors were then free to choose an activity in the social realm where they would spend their civil service time. However, in order to avoid too many applications for civil service
2335:
Around 16,000 men were recorded as conscientious objectors, with Quakers, traditionally pacifist, forming a large proportion: 4,500 objectors were exempted on condition of doing civilian "work of national importance", such as farming, forestry or social service; and 7,000 were conscripted into the
2024:
Serbia introduced civil service for Conscientious objectors in 2009. the service lasted 9 months and people serving were task to help out in government facilities such as post offices, kindergartens, hospitals etc. In 2020 during covid-19 they were called to help prepare military hospitals for the
1778:
students should be exempt from military service. This derives from the Jewish tradition that if a man wants to dedicate his life to religious study, society must allow him to do so. The request of orthodox political parties to "prevent neglect of studying the Torah" was granted by the authorities.
1648:
Following a 1985 Federal Constitution Court decision, Wehrersatzdienst could be no simple choice of convenience for an applicant, but he had to cite veritable conflict of conscience which made him unable to perform any kind of military service at all. If there was doubt about the true nature of an
1327:
males until 1994, when it was suspended. Civilian service was possible since 1963. Objectors could apply for the status of conscience objector. When granted, they did an alternative service with the civil service or with a socio-cultural organisation. The former would last 1.5 times as long as the
707:
general comment 22, Paragraph 11: "The Covenant does not explicitly refer to a right to conscientious objection, but the Committee believes that such a right can be derived from article 18, inasmuch as the obligation to use lethal force may seriously conflict with the freedom of conscience and the
1814:
and tried by a military tribunal; after 1972, objectors could choose an alternative civilian service, which was eight months longer than standard military service (fifteen months, then twelve, as for Army and Air Force, 24 months, then eighteen, then twelve as for the Navy). Since such length was
1731:
now solely relies on service members who deliberately choose it as a career path. Neither Article 12a (establishing the possibility of draft) nor Article 4 (3) (permitting conscientious objection) have been removed from the German Constitution. In theory, this makes a full reversion to draft (and
3987:
entry: "from 800 men in 1968 to 41,450 in 2005 compared to 7 million for the entire population of Israel. In percentage terms, 2.4% of the soldiers enlisting to the army in 1974 were benefiting from Torato Omanuto compared to 9.2% in 1999, when it was projected that the number would reach 15% by
2449:
until the last call-up in 1960 and the last discharge in 1963. The use of all volunteer soldiers was hoped to remove the need to consider conscientious objectors. Ever since the First World War, there have been volunteer members of the armed forces who have developed a conscientious objection to
2105:
The records of conscientious objectors to military service are kept by a governmental investigative body as criminal files for five years. As a consequence, conscientious objectors are not allowed to enter a government office and apply for any type of national certification exam. It is also very
2093:
In September 2007, the government announced a program to give conscientious objectors an opportunity to participate in alternative civilian service. The program stipulates three years of civilian service that is not connected with the military in any way. However, that program has been postponed
1036:
In as much as they ruled out as illicit all use of violence and injury against others, clearly implied the illegitimacy of participation in war ... The early Christians took Jesus at his word, and understood his inculcations of gentleness and non-resistance in their literal sense. They closely
2250:
announced a draft proposal to legalise conscientious objection in Turkey and that it was to take effect two weeks after approval by the President to the change. This decision to legalize by the Turkish government was because of pressure from the European Court of Human Rights. The ECHR gave the
1836:
Conscription was mandatory to all able-bodied Dutch males until 1 May 1997, when it was suspended. The Law on conscientious objections military services is active since 27 September 1962. Objectors have to work a third time longer in civil service than is normal for military service. The civil
1484:
After the war, a conscientious objector's civilian service lasted 16 months, whereas military service was 8 months at its shortest. To qualify for civilian service, an objector had to explain his conviction before a board of inspection that included military officers and clergymen. In 1987, the
993:
The varied experiences of non-combatants are illustrated by those of Seventh-day Adventists when there was mandatory military service: "Many Seventh-day Adventists refuse to enter the army as combatants, but participate as medics, ambulance drivers, etc. During World War II in Germany, many SDA
2344:
was called up in 1916: he and many other Quaker activists took the unconditionalist stand, refusing both military and alternative service, and on enforced enlistment were court-martialled and imprisoned for disobedience. Conscientious objectors formed only a tiny proportion of Military Service
1897:
During World War Two, conscription was re-introduced in 1940 and 5000 men applied for an exemption on the grounds of conscientious objection. Of these, 800 were imprisoned for the length of the war, and were barred from voting for ten years when they were released following the end of the war.
1673:
status was usually only granted if a person had physical or mental disabilities or was otherwise significantly impaired, such as due to very poor eyesight or debilitating chronic illnesses. However, in the last years of the draft, T5 was increasingly given to potential recruits with only minor
2115:
From 2000 to 2008, Korean Military Manpower Administration said that at least 4,958 men have objected to service in the military because of religious beliefs. Among those, 4,925 were Jehovah's Witnesses, 3 were Buddhists, and the other 30 refused the mandatory service because of conscientious
1488:
Persons who have completed their civilian service during peacetime have, according to the legislation enacted in 2008, the right to serve in non-military duties also during a crisis situation. They may be called to serve in various duties with the rescue services or other necessary work of a
1656:
Nearly the only legal way to get both out of military service and replacement service was to be deemed physically unfit for military service. Both men who entered military service and those who wanted to go into replacement service had to pass a military physical examination at the military
3840:
Jean-Paul Cahn, Françoise Knopper, Anne-Marie Saint-Gille, De la Guerre juste à la paix juste: Aspects confessionnels de la construction de la paix dans l'espace franco-allemand (XVIe-XXe siècle), Collection Histoire et civilisations, Presses Universitaires Septentrion, 2008, 313 pages,
1704:, while somebody who had served out his replacement service could not. Moreover, work conditions under military service typically involved more hardship and inconvenience than Wehrersatzdienst. In 2004, military service and Wehrersatzdienst were then made to last equal lengths of time.
754:
or draft-evasion. It is not enough for a person to be in disagreement with his government regarding the political justification for a particular military action. Where, however, the type of military action, with which an individual does not wish to be associated, is condemned by the
1596:, there was no official right to conscientious objection. Nevertheless, and uniquely among the Eastern bloc, objections were accepted and the objectors assigned to construction units. They were however part of the military, so that a fully civilian alternative did not exist. Also, "
631:
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and
521:
resolution 1995/83 stated that "persons performing military service should not be excluded from the right to have conscientious objections to military service". This was re-affirmed on April 22, 1998, when resolution 1998/77 recognized that "persons performing military service may
2345:
Tribunals' cases over the conscription period, estimated at 2 per cent. Tribunals were notoriously harsh towards conscientious objectors, reflecting widespread public opinion that they were lazy, degenerate, ungrateful 'shirkers' seeking to benefit from the sacrifices of others.
1688:'s special status between the end of the Second World War and 1990 as a city governed by foreign military powers, draft did not apply within its borders. This made Berlin a safe haven for many young people who chose to move to the city to prevent criminal court repercussions for
2165:(non-submittants) publicly refused the PSS, and hundreds were imprisoned. In addition a number of those in the military decided to refuse further duties. A number of people not liable for military service made declarations of self-incrimination, stating that they had encouraged
2506:, there is the option of performing an alternative civilian service, subject to the review of a written application or after a hearing about the state of conscience. In Greece, the alternative civilian service is twice as long as the corresponding military service; in Austria
1084:
described him as a "spy suspect". The US military (in which he was never inducted) charged him with desertion and spreading propaganda, then sentenced him to death (this was later revised to 25 years hard labor). On June 5, 1917, Salmon wrote in a letter to President Wilson:
857:) raises the burning issue of selective conscientious objection: While it is universally accepted that an individual cannot be compelled against conscience to war in general, does the same hold for an individual who objects, in the depths of the soul, to a particular war?"
2845:"Conscientious objection to military service, Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/77, Navigation to document: press "next" four times, see bottom listing, and at the right choose letter for language ("E" for English) Document: CHR 54th 4/22/1998E/CN.4/RES/1998/77"
1566:, conscientious objection was not recognized in the law. In theory, objectors would be drafted and then court-martialled for desertion. The practice was even harsher: going beyond the letter of an already extremely flexible law, conscientious objection was considered
2110:
Conscientious objectors ... often spend the rest of their lives tainted by their decision... Criminal records from draft dodging make it difficult for objectors to find good jobs and the issue of army service is often raised by potential employers during job
2015:
In the present day, Russian draft legislation allows people to choose an alternative civilian service for religious or ideological reasons. Most objectors are employed in healthcare, construction, forestry and post industries, serving 18 to 21 months.
2126:
On 1 November 2018, the Supreme Court of Korea decided that conscientious objection is a valid reason to refuse mandatory military service, and vacated and remanded the appellate court's decision finding a Jehovah's Witness guilty of the objection.
1779:
But in recent years this exemption practice has become the subject of debate in Israeli society, as the absolute and the relative numbers of the men who received this exemption rose sharply. In 2012, the Israeli Supreme Court ruled in the case of
1815:
judged too punitive, an arrangement was made to make the civilian service as long as the military service. Since 2004, Italian males no longer need to object because military service has been turned into volunteer for both males and females.
569:, was conscripted into the Roman Army in the year 295, but "told the Proconsul in Numidia that because of his religious convictions he could not serve in the military". He was executed for this, and was later canonized as Saint Maximilian.
1002:
arose during and after World War I between Seventh-day Adventists in Germany who agreed to serve in the military if conscripted and those who rejected all participation in warfare—the latter group eventually forming a separate church (the
1462:
in 1918, conscription was reintroduced for all able-bodied men. In 1922, the option of noncombatant military service was introduced, but service in the military remained compulsory on pain of imprisonment. After the struggle of pacifist
1878:
having automatic exemption from the conscription. During the First World War, between 1,500 and 2,000 objectors and defaulters were convicted, or came under state control, for their opposition to war. At least 64 of these were still at
1090:
belief with death on the cross. When human law conflicts with Divine law, my duty is clear. Conscience, my infallible guide, impels me to tell you that prison, death, or both, are infinitely preferable to joining any branch of the Army.
1809:
males. Those who were born in the last months of the year typically used to serve in the Navy, unless judged unable for ship service (in this case they could be sent back to Army or Air Force). Until 1972, objectors were considered as
1400:, those not willing to enter mandatory military service could avoid it by signing a contract for work lasting years in unattractive occupations, such as mining. Those who did not sign were imprisoned. Both numbers were tiny. After the
2482:. The United States recognizes religious and moral objections, but not selective objections. Conscientious objectors in the United States may perform either civilian work or noncombatant service in lieu of combatant military service.
2530:
In the United States, military personnel who come to a conviction of conscientious objection during their tour of duty must appear in front of a panel of experts, which consists of psychiatrists, military chaplains and officers.
2176:
Fronting the decreasing birth rate and the popular opposition to an army seen as a continuating institution of one of the pillars of the dictatorship's regime, the Spanish government tried to modernise the model carried from the
1109:, young Jehovah's Witnesses were imprisoned because of their conscientious objection to military service; this was discontinued in November 2013. The government of South Korea also imprisons hundreds for refusing the draft. In
2367:
at the insistence of back-bench MPs) for the five years 1 September 1921 – 31 August 1926, but as it was a last-minute amendment there was no administrative machinery to enforce it, which was admitted to be a "dead letter".
1827:
no person can be conscripted if, after being afforded a reasonable opportunity to do so, he has established that he is a conscientious objector to participation in war (Marshall Islands Constitution Article II Section 11).
1758:
and permanent residents are liable to military service. However, the Ministry of Defense has used its discretion under article 36 of this law to automatically exempt all non-Jewish women and all Arab men, except for the
2234:
As of March 2011, there were 125 objectors including 25 female objectors in Turkey. Another 256 people of Kurdish origin also had announced their conscientious objection to military service. Conscientious objector
2003:. The law was not applied uniformly and hundreds of objectors were imprisoned and over 200 were executed.The United Council was forced to cease activity in December 1920, but alternative service was available under the
1837:
service have to be provided by government services, or by institutions designated for employment of conscientious objectors designated by the Secretary of Social Affairs and Employment, who work in the public interest.
1301:
In some cases, conscientious objectors have been interned in concentration-camp-like conditions, which would be coercive for objectors to "volunteer" for quasi-ethical experimentation. Such a technique was used in the
2379:. In 1918 the Army's manpower shortage led to passing a further act enabling conscription in Ireland if and when the government saw fit. In the event, the government never saw fit, although the legislation led to the
2007:
until it was abolished in 1936. Unlike the earlier forestry and hospital service, later conscientious objectors were classified "enemies of the people" and their alternative service was performed in remote areas in a
1539:
The effect of these laws was suspended in 2001 when compulsory military service was abolished in France. The special prison at Strasbourg for Jehovah's Witnesses, who refuse to join any military, was also abolished.
1794:, the Supreme Court reiterated its position that selective conscientious objection was not permitted, adding that conscientious objection could only be recognized in cases of general objection to military service.
817:
concerning a more specific type of conscientious objection: "the issue of selective conscientious objection, conscientious objection to particular wars, or as it is sometimes called, discretionary armed service."
689:. It was based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and was originally created in 1966. Nations that have signed this treaty are bound by it. Its Article 18 begins: "Everyone shall have the right to
1724:, medical assistance or assistance for the disabled. Their relatively low-paid work was seen as an ever more important backbone of a health sector which was grappling with rapidly increasing costs of care.
5297:
3119:"Out of the margins: The right to conscientious objection to military service in Europe. An announcement of amnesty international's forthcoming campaign and briefing for the UN commission on Human Rights"
2025:
influx of military and civilian patients. When civil service was introduced the mandatory military service period was reduced from 12 months to 6 months. Mandatory military service was abolished in 2011.
985:
which states, "...neither shall they learn war anymore". Other objections can stem from a deep sense of responsibility toward humanity as a whole, or from simple denial that any government possesses the
2323:
of January 1916, which came into full effect on 2 March 1916. The Act allowed for objectors to be absolutely exempted, to perform alternative civilian service or to serve as a non-combatant in the army
2089:
for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights has not shown a clear stance on the pressing human rights issues such as, among other things, the rights of conscientious objectors to military service.
831:
that "the exemption for those who oppose 'participation in war in any form' applies to those who oppose participating in all war and not to those who object to participation in a particular war only."
3422:
The doctrine of the Emmanuel Association is similar to that of the Pilgrim Holiness Church, but it has a very rigid behavior code called Principles of Holy Living. Members are conscientious objectors.
7135:
7125:
4542:
1740:
Conscription was suspended in Hungary in 2004. Before being drafted anyone can apply for the status of conscientious objector and fulfill his duties in unarmed military service or civilian service.
3691:
Peter Dueck; Conrad Stoesz; Grant Klassen; Lynette Wiebe; Elsie Rempel; Lawrence Klippenstein; Alf Redekopp; Dan Dyck; John C. Klassen; Grant Klassen; Edward Enns; Jake K. Wiens; David Schroeder.
1797:
Women can claim exemption from military service on grounds of conscience under arts. 39 (c) and 40 of the Defense Service Law, according to which religious reasons can be grounds for exemption.
1570:, a crime normally punished with death. On 15 September 1939, August Dickmann, a Jehovah's Witness, and the first conscientious objector of the war to be executed, died by a firing squad at the
1096:
Public authorities should make equitable provision for those who for reasons of conscience refuse to bear arms; these are nonetheless obliged to serve the human community in some other way.
759:
as contrary to basic rules of human conduct, punishment for desertion or draft-evasion could, in the light of all other requirements of the definition, in itself be regarded as persecution.
3722:
2181:
era, professionalizing it and thus bringing an end to conscription by the end of 2001. The new army tried to provide an education for civilian life and participated in peace operations in
2082:
Korean conscientious objectors, declared that the government was violating Article 18 of the ICCPR, the provision that guarantees the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
1138:
is "Pānātipātā veramaṇi sikkhāpadam samādiyāmi", or "I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures", which is in obvious opposition to the practice of warfare. The
2078:, thousands of conscientious objectors had no choice but to be imprisoned as criminals. Every year about 500 young men, mostly Jehovah's Witnesses, are arrested for refusing the draft.
719:
included this quote: "The right to conscientious objection to military service is not a marginal concern outside the mainstream of international human rights protection and promotion."
2871:"THE STATUS OF CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION UNDER ARTICLE 4 OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 33 N.Y.U. J. INT'L L. & POL. 379 (2000); See pages 412–424, (or PDF pages 34–36)"
875:
Cases of behavior which could be considered as religiously motivated conscientious objection are historically attested long before the modern term appeared. For example, the Medieval
2716:
1637:) until the abolition of draft in 2011. Initially, each conscientious objector had to appear in person to a panel hearing at the draft office (or contest a negative decision at the
1514:
The creation of a legal status for conscientious objectors in France was the subject of a long struggle involving for instance or the much-publicised trials of Protestant activists
1142:
has stated that war "should be relegated to the dustbin of history". On the other hand, many Buddhist sects, especially in Japan, have been thoroughly militarized, warrior monks (
2403:
had their own laws: in general, all the larger countries of the Empire participated, and some were, in proportion to their population, major participants in the First World War.
1101:
Because of their conscientious objection to participation in military service, whether armed or unarmed, Jehovah's Witnesses have often faced imprisonment or other penalties. In
5329:
The Right to Refuse to Bear Arms – the most authoritative recent world survey on provisions for conscientious objection to military service, by War Resisters' International
2219:(ECHR) found Turkey had violated article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights (prohibition of degrading treatment) in a case dealing with the conscientious objection of
1902:
708:
right to manifest one's religion or belief." In 2006, the committee has found for the first time a right to conscientious objection under article 18, although not unanimously.
2139:. Conscientious objectors usually refused to serve on religious grounds, such as being Jehovah's Witnesses, and were placed in prison for the duration of their sentences. The
1105:, for example, before the introduction of alternative civilian service in 1997, hundreds of Witnesses were imprisoned, some for three years or even more for their refusal. In
2300:
were used to strengthen army and navy rolls on occasions from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. Pressed men did have the right of appeal, in the case of sailors, to the
1492:
There are a small number of total objectors who refuse even civilian service, and are imprisoned for six months. This is not registered into the person's criminal record.
1424:
Any male getting drafted, but unwilling to serve, has the possibility to avoid military service by instead serving community service for the duration of the conscription.
973:
have been known as non-combatants, and have done work in hospitals or to give medical care rather than combat roles, and the church has upheld the non-combative position.
4590:
3155:
2796:
2527:
Only two European Union countries – Germany and the Netherlands – recognize the right to conscientious objection for contract and professional military personnel.
6118:
1641:). The suspension of the procedure (1977), allowing to "object with a post card", was ruled unconstitutional in 1978. Beginning in 1983, competence was shifted to the
1293:
In 1991, The Peace Abbey established the National Registry for Conscientious Objection where people can publicly state their refusal to participate in armed conflict.
2258:
to write a new constitution in 2012. The commission is still in negotiations on various articles and conscientious objection is one of the most controversial issues.
1937:
voted to abolish conscription in October 2005, with the vote formalizing one of many military modernization and reform programs that Romania agreed to when it joined
1360:
of 1873 yet initially, many were imprisoned until the matter was again resettled. With pressure of public opinion, the Canadian government barred entry of additional
676:
2534:
In Switzerland, the panel consists entirely of civilians, and military personnel have no authority whatsoever. In Germany, the draft has been suspended since 2011.
6167:
2336:
specially-created Non-Combatant Corps. Six thousand were refused any exemption and forced into main army regiments; if they then refused to obey orders, they were
5005:. Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing/Herald Press. A history and analysis of conscientious objection in the Assemblies of God, the largest Pentecostal denomination.
4661:
4199:
The National Registry of Conscientious Objectors launched in 1989, listed some 700 plus objectors for that year alone. Source: Argus, Thursday, September 21, 1989
981:, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe they should be neutral in worldly conflicts and often cite the latter portion of
885: – the future Saint Magnus – had a reputation for piety and gentleness, and because of his religious convictions refused to fight in a Viking raid on
2055:. Most lived in a state of internal exile, forced to go underground within the borders of the country until a moratorium on conscription was declared in 1993.
1369:
994:
conscientious objectors were sent to concentration camps or mental institutions; some were executed. Some Seventh-day Adventists volunteered for the US Army's
229:
1696:
were often part of the far-left political spectrum, this was one factor which spawned a politically active left-wing and left-wing radical scene in the city.
6177:
5570:
3193:
Source: Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees
2086:
1240:, particularly if the goal is accomplished through dishonesty or evasive maneuvers. However, many people who support conscription will distinguish between "
6152:
2660:
1914:
683:
225:
1774:
In discussing the status of the armed forces shortly after the founding of the State of Israel, representatives of orthodox religious parties argued that
6006:
3180:
727:
6092:
2822:
842:. These specific missions included "civilian population centers" in "the territories". These pilots clarified: "We ... shall continue to serve in the
20:
4838:
2669:
6746:
5229:
5225:
4494:
2215:
are the only two countries refusing to recognize conscientious objection and sustain their membership in the Council of Europe. In January 2006, the
1894:
No. 1, which "involved being tethered tightly by the wrists to a sloping pole to ensure their bodies hung with their hands taking all their weight."
1334:
Since conscription was suspended in 1994 and military service is voluntary, the status of conscience objector can not be granted anymore in Belgium.
4356:
602:, conscientious objection was permitted from the country's founding, although regulation was left to individual states prior to the introduction of
4480:
675:
said, in his Nobel Lecture, "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is '
5065:
3730:
3672:
also barred immigrants and objectors from voting. This bar on entry was overturned in the 1920s, allowing immigrants to escape Soviet repression.
3752:
3318:
1681:, which stated that if two older brothers had already served in the military, any following male children of a family were exempt from service.
1163:
are advised to do social service instead of active army service, but when this is not possible because of obligations in certain countries, the
3638:"THE STATUS OF CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION UNDER ARTICLE 4 OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 33 N.Y.U. J. INT'L L. & POL. 379 (2000)"
4602:
Ordás García, Carlos Ángel (May 2022). "The Antimilitarist Campaign against Compulsory Military Service in Spain during the 1970s and 1980s".
4098:
703:
On 30 July 1993, explicit clarification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 18 was made in the United Nations
696:
However, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights left the issue of conscientious objection inexplicit, as in this quote from
7150:
6021:
2549:
1353:
739:
2153:
was the only important organisation employing objectors. Because of this, the waiting lists for the PSS were long, especially in areas like
6597:
6225:
6199:
3786:
2564:
2459:
244:
5207:
Rick Tejada-Flores, Judith Ehrlich (2000), "The good war and those who refused to fight it"; Paradigm Productions in association with the
5098:
4516:
2724:
2288:
The United Kingdom recognised the right of individuals not to fight in the 18th century following major problems with attempting to force
2231:
was tried by a Turkish court for supporting Tarhan and advocating conscientious objection as a human right; but later, she was acquitted.
1929:, as of 23 October 2006 conscription was suspended, therefore, the status of conscience objector does not apply. This came about due to a
1787:
the authority of the Minister of Defence, and that it violated Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty and was, therefore, unconstitutional.
1331:
After their service, objectors are not allowed to take jobs that require them to carry weapons, such as police jobs, until the age of 42.
1080:
was a Catholic conscientious objector during World War I and outspoken critic of Just War theology. The Catholic Church denounced him and
7247:
4772:
These strange criminals: an anthology of prison memoirs by conscientious objectors to military service from the Great War to the Cold War
4284:
3637:
2870:
2559:
2376:
330:
4001:
3930:[ * Sergej Kaledin: Das Baubataillon.Übersetzung der russischen Originalausgabe "Strojbat" (1991). Verlag Volk & Welt. Berlin 1992.
8097:
6157:
2485:
Historically, conscientious objectors have been persecuted in the United States. After the Selective Service System was founded during
1413:
3265:
2227:
was sentenced to four years in a military prison as a conscientious objector (he was unexpectedly released in March 2006). Journalist
1477:, Pekurinen and other conscientious objectors were imprisoned, and Pekurinen was eventually executed at the front in 1941, during the
6162:
5974:
3576:
2052:
1612:: "No person may be forced against their conscience to perform armed military service. Details shall be regulated by a federal law."
1376:
burgeoned, men were shifted into agriculture, education and industry. The 10,700 Canadian objectors were mostly Mennonites (63%) and
839:
518:
6123:
6088:
4681:
3068:
2407:
405:
6265:
6194:
5312:
5287:
2199:
There is the possibility of avoiding military service by instead serving civilian services for the duration of the conscription.
2043:
During the 1980s, hundreds of South African white males dodged the draft, refused the call-up or objected to conscription in the
1587:
788:, of the British Royal Air Force (RAF), served in the military from 1898 to 1928. In 1923 he selectively refused to serve in the
723:
compelled to leave their country of origin because they fear persecution owing to their refusal to perform military service ..."
668:
595:
as a professional national military reserve, a clause in the Militia Ballot Act allowed Quakers exemption from military service.
7100:
6240:
5792:
5706:
2068:
470:
4274:
3159:
2800:
2774:"UN Commission on Human Rights, Conscientious objection to military service., 8 March 1995, E/CN.4/RES/1995/83 (See point #2)"
1440:– and those who refuse the draft are imprisoned. Some Jehovah's Witness conscientious objectors have been in jail since 1994.
7182:
6623:
5893:
5460:
5167:
5138:
4996:
4930:
3415:
2364:
2320:
2251:
Turkish government a deadline until the end of 2011 to legalize conscientious objection. The draft was withdrawn afterwards.
1910:
1004:
904:
object to war in their sixth principle "The goal of world community with peace, liberty and justice for all". Members of the
624:
5338:
7577:
6994:
6245:
6098:
6050:
514:
A number of organizations around the world celebrate the principle on May 15 as International Conscientious Objection Day.
5333:
3042:
1156:. Both Sikhs and Hindus believe war should be a last resort and should be fought to sustain life and morality in society.
310:
7737:
7677:
6321:
4308:
2479:
1906:
1543:
Since 1986, the associations defending conscientious objection in France have chosen to celebrate their cause on 15 May.
1536:
at the expense of the military, the duration of the civil service is however kept twice as long as the military service.
24:
3016:
774:
states "No person, who is conscientiously scrupulous about the lawfulness of bearing arms, shall be compelled thereto."
7172:
6275:
6255:
5841:
5737:
5383:
5079:
4658:
2442:
2267:
2208:
822:
410:
165:
160:
5123:
Robb, Linsey. "The 'Conchie Corps': Conflict, Compromise and Conscientious Objection in the British Army, 1940–1945."
4340:
4188:
3291:
2967:
1987:
issued a decree allowing alternative service for religious objectors whose sincerity was determined upon examination.
1727:
In 2011 the mandatory draft was abolished in Germany, mainly due to a perceived lack of aforementioned necessity. The
1700:
court decisions based on the reasoning that former service personnel could be redrafted for military exercises called
900:
The reasons for refusing to perform military service are varied. Many conscientious objectors cite religious reasons.
6103:
5767:
5425:
5214:
Catherine Ryan, Gary Weimberg (2008), "Soldiers of Conscience"; Luna Productions. Aired on the PBS nonfiction series
5181:
5114:
5093:
5038:
4884:
4578:
4390:
3935:
3915:
3846:
2797:"Conscientious objection to military service; Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/77; see preamble "Aware...""
2614:
2469:
2255:
949:
882:
415:
60:
4044:
2474:
There are currently legal provisions in the United States for recognizing conscientious objection, both through the
1416:
in both countries now guarantees the right to refuse military service on grounds on conscience or religious belief.
8203:
6461:
6182:
6172:
5787:
4406:
4366:
4209:
3955:"Conscientious objection to military service in Israel: an unrecognised human right – War Resisters' International"
2123:
1953. The Defense Ministry said it would honor the ruling by introducing alternative services as soon as possible.
1824:
1571:
1287:
941:
170:
4728:
4428:
3466:
1615:
According to Article 12a, a law may be passed to require every male from the age of 18 to military service called
8012:
7727:
5555:
5550:
5292:
5228:(2019), "Objector"; Java Films. A documentary about Israeli conscientious objector Atalya Ben-Abba, premiered at
4937:
3954:
3859:
3760:
2746:
2634:
2189:
2059:, was rife in English-speaking campuses, and later the war in the townships became the focus of these groupings.
2034:
1669:, meant that a person was rejected for military service and thus also did not need to enter replacement service.
1528:
The legal status law was passed in December 1963, 43 years (and many prison sentences) after the first requests.
1303:
620:
500:
355:
325:
37:
2994:
2696:"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights"
1352:
Mennonites and other similar peace churches in Canada were automatically exempt from any type of service during
8017:
6130:
5470:
5420:
5208:
4971:
4779:
2936:
2773:
2216:
1901:
In the contemporary setting, there is no statute or case law which deal with conscientious objection. But, the
1347:
1310:
where objectors were deliberately exposed to biological weapons and would gain their freedom if they survived.
937:
5128:
2149:) as an alternative to the Army. In spite of this, a strong movement appeared that refused both services. The
1467:
a law was passed providing for a peacetime-only alternative to military service, or civilian service (Finnish
420:
315:
7592:
7567:
7031:
6891:
6270:
6145:
5732:
4604:
3860:"15 mai – Journée internationale de l'objection de conscience – Internationale des Résistant(e)s à la Guerre"
3590:
3489:
2924:
2554:
1343:
716:
370:
5261:
4459:
3452:
3069:"Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief. Framework for communications. Conscientious Objection"
2903:
2670:"Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief. Framework for communications. Conscientious Objection"
7927:
7887:
7603:
7572:
6861:
6768:
6573:
6481:
5876:
5797:
5777:
5560:
5480:
5465:
5430:
4243:
3816:
2423:. For conscientious objectors exempted conditional upon performing civil work, acceptable occupations were
2247:
2140:
1875:
982:
970:
810:
738:
The Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status (the Handbook) of the Office of the
588:
375:
82:
3156:"Conscientious objection to military service; Commission on Human Rights resolution 1998/77; see point *7"
2673:
1840:
1578:
was executed after his conscientious objection, on the grounds that he could not fight for an evil force.
640:
during the General Assembly on 10 December 1948 by a vote of 48 in favour, 0 against, with 8 abstentions.
19:
This article is about freedom of conscience in the military. For conscientious objection in medicine, see
8208:
8067:
7587:
6941:
6668:
6582:
6220:
6044:
5762:
5445:
5190:
4900:
3669:
2380:
2292:
into military service. The Militia Ballot Act of 1757 allowed Quakers to be excluded from service in the
2044:
1749:
1373:
697:
503:
due to a crisis of conscience. In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to an alternative
390:
305:
300:
6886:
6756:
5109:. Revised and expanded by Cornelius Krahn. Newton, Kansas: Faith and Life Press. pp. 299–300, 311.
2272:
8137:
7777:
7562:
7207:
7065:
6953:
6288:
6135:
6113:
5812:
5772:
5490:
5410:
4621:
2579:
2436:
2329:
2301:
1980:
945:
854:
463:
350:
200:
28:
7492:
4323:
4114:
2450:
service; a procedure was devised for them in the Second World War and with adaptations, it continues.
1152:) participating in the civil wars. Hindu beliefs do not go against the concept of war, as seen in the
1037:
identified their religion with peace; they strongly condemned war for the bloodshed which it involved.
952:, object to war from the conviction that Christian life is incompatible with military action, because
746:
171. Not every conviction, genuine though it may be, will constitute a sufficient reason for claiming
7967:
7582:
7262:
7257:
6736:
6724:
6602:
6546:
6521:
6471:
6408:
6338:
6187:
6140:
6108:
5802:
5747:
5022:
Brennan, Jason. "Conscientious tax objection: why the liberal state must accommodate tax resisters."
3764:
3315:
2844:
2048:
2038:
1964:
1515:
827:
380:
195:
190:
2169:. The government, fearing popular reaction, reduced the length of service and instead of sentencing
7982:
7942:
7892:
7757:
7347:
7252:
7177:
7166:
7060:
7009:
6701:
6587:
6388:
6063:
5996:
5866:
5846:
5829:
5485:
5356:
4005:
3204:
2901:
2475:
2420:
2356:
2119:
In 2015, Lee Yeda was the first conscientious objector to be allowed to live in France via asylum.
2056:
814:
584:
7382:
3693:"Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada: 1939 – 1945"
1306:
whereby objectors agreed to be starved to near-death conditions in exchange for their freedom and
562:
beliefs were a starting point in many nations for legally granting conscientious objector status.
8052:
7742:
7712:
7657:
7652:
6881:
6661:
6639:
6592:
6314:
6056:
5742:
5545:
5475:
4566:
4543:"South Korea Supreme Court allows conscientious objection to military service in landmark ruling"
2574:
2411:
2400:
2296:. It then ceased to be a major issue, since Britain's armed forces were generally all-volunteer.
2293:
1930:
1764:
1755:
1619:; also, a law can require conscientious objectors to perform non-military service instead called
1575:
1552:
1437:
1279:
1202:
925:
901:
866:
756:
592:
443:
425:
320:
280:
275:
265:
260:
250:
7427:
3794:
3094:
2098:
national security concerns have shown that alternative service can be successfully implemented.
8027:
7962:
7897:
7822:
7802:
7797:
7642:
7632:
7477:
6979:
6796:
6778:
6731:
6678:
6612:
6607:
6486:
6476:
6466:
6033:
6027:
5856:
5757:
5376:
4877:
Danger UXB The Remarkable Story of the Disposal of Unexploded Bombs During the Second World War
4176:
2695:
2664:
2514:
2508:
2341:
2240:
2182:
1950:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1025:
974:
933:
793:
704:
400:
395:
385:
365:
360:
345:
340:
335:
290:
285:
270:
240:
215:
210:
4069:
3644:
2877:
2489:, such persecutions decreased in frequency, and recognition for conscientious objectors grew.
2348:
In an attempt to press the issue, in May 1916 a group of thirty-five objectors, including the
1454:
Finland introduced conscription in 1881, but its enforcement was suspended in 1903 as part of
8127:
7937:
7917:
7877:
7862:
7707:
7687:
7467:
7242:
7217:
7160:
7110:
6556:
6501:
6368:
6358:
6353:
6001:
5851:
5616:
5323:
5272:
5133:
Tinnelly CM, Joseph T. "The Conscientious Objector Under the Selective Service Act of 1940."
4706:
3524:
3507:
2823:"Conscientious objection to military service; E/CN.4/RES/1998/77; See introductory paragraph"
1219:
in 2007 for dying for his beliefs, and is viewed as a symbol of self-sacrificing resistance.
929:
843:
712:
566:
492:
456:
255:
220:
3253:
2337:
8182:
8043:
8032:
8022:
8007:
7997:
7947:
7902:
7882:
7832:
7812:
7807:
7787:
7782:
7767:
7762:
7747:
7732:
7717:
7672:
7667:
7662:
7647:
7637:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7553:
7367:
7337:
7327:
7081:
7055:
5871:
5782:
5347:" A film about conscientious objector, Desmond T.Doss who received 'Medal of Honor' in WW2.
3366:
Random, Jack (25 May 2005). "Just Say No: The Case for Selective Conscientious Objection".
3269:
2639:
2465:
2143:
acknowledged conscientious objectors. The Spanish parliament established a longer service (
1638:
1597:
803:
583:
Formal legislation to exempt objectors from fighting was first granted in mid-18th-century
295:
235:
205:
5319:
Watch His Conscience: A Short History Of The Conscientious Objector. By Michael D. Peabody
5017:
Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963.
4702:
4146:
3118:
3095:"HRC views in case Yoon and Choi v. Republic of Korea, communications nos. 1321-1322/2004"
1160:
8:
8117:
8002:
7992:
7977:
7957:
7952:
7932:
7912:
7907:
7872:
7867:
7857:
7837:
7792:
7772:
7692:
7682:
7612:
7507:
7397:
7278:
7192:
7155:
7130:
7095:
7070:
7037:
7026:
6846:
6836:
6751:
6719:
6632:
6561:
6230:
6204:
5944:
5929:
5924:
5914:
5881:
5671:
5666:
5604:
3381:
2952:
2589:
2569:
2325:
2004:
1999:, which successfully freed 8000 conscientious objectors from military service during the
1934:
1567:
1307:
1262:
Despite the fact that international institutions such as the United Nations (UN) and the
1256:
1255:
Conservative Mennonites do not object to serving their country in peaceful alternatives (
1063:
995:
921:
870:
496:
137:
102:
97:
5283:
Alternative Service in the Second World War: Conscientious Objectors in Canada 1939–1945
4862:
4678:
3072:
2281:
2220:
2106:
unlikely that they will be employed by any company that inquires about criminal records.
2074:
countries are required to serve in alternative services. Since the establishment of the
1164:
8175:
7987:
7972:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7817:
7752:
7702:
7697:
7482:
7407:
7222:
7212:
7115:
7049:
7015:
6969:
6307:
5990:
5964:
5919:
5752:
5711:
5631:
4641:
2604:
2158:
1067:
957:
690:
573:
107:
87:
7352:
6235:
5160:
A Pacifist at War: Military Memoirs of a Conscientious Objector in Palestine 1917–1918
4931:"Professional Soldiers and the Right to Conscientious Objection in the European Union"
3132:
1653:; it was illegal and could be punished with a fine or a suspended custodial sentence.
180:
8147:
8077:
7922:
7827:
7722:
7437:
7307:
7090:
7043:
6806:
6683:
6536:
6398:
6250:
5636:
5415:
5392:
5369:
5177:
5163:
5110:
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5075:
5034:
5000:
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4474:
3931:
3911:
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3692:
3411:
2932:
2847:. United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 1998
2584:
2075:
2000:
1988:
1960:
1459:
1401:
1263:
1216:
999:
733:
686:
548:
535:
5315:: conscientious objection and human rights in World War I. Peace Pledge Union, 2006.
4026:
3897:
3620:
2228:
1286:) today. In many countries outside Europe, especially in armed conflict areas (e.g.
122:
8168:
8057:
7497:
7442:
7357:
7227:
7202:
7145:
7120:
7021:
6963:
6931:
6916:
6851:
6791:
6761:
6741:
6709:
6673:
6656:
6644:
6551:
6511:
6421:
6416:
6260:
5984:
5939:
5817:
5611:
5594:
5530:
5510:
5505:
5450:
5318:
5303:"Making a Choice: Conscientious Objection or Refusing to Register" (Resisters.info)
5072:
Smoke Jumping on the Western Fire Line: Conscientious Objectors during World War II
4625:
4189:
https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/odluka_o_obustavi_obaveze_sluzenja_vojnog_roka.html
3561:
2609:
2446:
2388:
2384:
2360:
2349:
2277:
2178:
2051:, an anti-war movement banned in 1988, while others fled into exile and joined the
1891:
1887:
1871:
1478:
1357:
1233:
1117:
978:
807:
789:
504:
488:
132:
127:
5276:
5265:
4941:
849:
On 25 May 2005, journalist Jack Random wrote the following: "The case of Sergeant
672:
8107:
7517:
7417:
7412:
7392:
7362:
7317:
7312:
7302:
7267:
7140:
6989:
6811:
6786:
6714:
6491:
6373:
5520:
5194:
4854:
4685:
4665:
4394:
4344:
4312:
3907:
3493:
3322:
3153:
3071:. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from
3019:. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from
2794:
2672:. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from
2316:
2309:
2236:
2136:
1760:
1464:
1449:
1139:
1050:
987:
877:
850:
796:
785:
7472:
7292:
5010:
Conscience, government and war: Conscientious objection in Great Britain 1939–45
4817:
2161:
and a low unemployment rate discouraged young males from the army. Thousands of
1767:
may volunteer to perform military service, but very few do so (except among the
580:
in 1575. They could refuse military service in exchange for a monetary payment.
8122:
8112:
7372:
7287:
7197:
6911:
6906:
6896:
6831:
6801:
6516:
6446:
6403:
6383:
6378:
6069:
5888:
5651:
5621:
5525:
5515:
5500:
5455:
5396:
4517:"South Korea Must Offer Civilian Alternatives to Military Service, Court Rules"
3984:
3616:
3339:
3245:
3225:
3192:
3133:"Conscientious objection to military service; E/CN.4/RES/1998/77; See Point #5"
3046:
2619:
2599:
2544:
2396:
2012:-like environment in order to break their resistance and encourage enlistment.
1956:
1405:
1397:
1205:, who was executed on August 9, 1943, for openly refusing to serve in the Nazi
1198:
1071:
1018:
905:
591:
into military service. In 1757, when the first attempt was made to establish a
5361:
4629:
4305:
3690:
1010:
840:
27 reserve pilots and former pilots refused to serve in only specific missions
8197:
7532:
7487:
7452:
7432:
7387:
7342:
7237:
7187:
7105:
6926:
6871:
6456:
6451:
6431:
6016:
5954:
5934:
5861:
5836:
5641:
4637:
4617:
4338:
Korean government held responsible for deaths of five conscientious objectors
3470:
3463:
3020:
2416:
2315:
A more general right to refuse military service was not introduced until the
2224:
1973:
1768:
1518:, Philippe Vernier and Camille Rombault in 1932–1933 or the hunger strike of
1455:
1229:
1212:
1187:
1135:
1059:
782:
599:
112:
5328:
3643:. New York University School of Law, Issues – Volume 33. Archived from
3464:"The Seventh-day Adventist Church: Controversies, books and other resources"
2902:
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012).
2876:. New York University School of Law, Issues – Volume 33. Archived from
1883:
Prison on 5 March 1919 – some of whom had gone on hunger strike in protest.
1783:. that the blanket exemption granted to ultra-Orthodox yeshiva students was
8072:
8062:
7537:
7462:
7402:
7377:
7322:
6974:
6936:
6901:
6426:
6363:
5969:
5807:
5661:
5599:
5565:
5535:
5221:
5153:
Army GI, Pacifist CO: The World War II Letters of Frank and Albert Dietrich
4790:
Adrian Gregory, 'Military Service Tribunals, 1916–1918' in J. Harris (ed.)
4436:
4361:
4337:
4279:
4187:
Decision on the suspension of the obligation to serve the military service
2971:
2629:
2624:
2432:
1984:
1721:
1716:
1629:. These laws were applicable and demanded compulsory service in the German
1593:
1563:
1522:
1237:
1130:, or on an explicit prohibition of violence by their religion, e.g., for a
1046:
1042:
652:
603:
508:
142:
52:
5353:– a 2019 documentary about Israeli conscientious objector Atalya Ben-Abba.
4387:
2750:
7542:
7512:
7502:
7457:
7332:
6921:
6876:
6841:
6531:
6441:
5979:
5716:
5681:
5646:
5626:
5540:
5293:
International Conscientious Objectors' Day (War Resisters' International)
5234:
2594:
2503:
2486:
2297:
1992:
1863:
1685:
1625:
1609:
1532:
1404:
in 1989, alternative civil service was established. As of 2006, both the
1252:, which they view as evasion of military service without a valid excuse.
1183:
1127:
1110:
648:
117:
5302:
5053:
Krahn, Cornelius, Gingerich, Melvin & Harms, Orlando (Eds.) (1955).
5041:
4217:
2864:
2862:
2355:
Although a few objectors were accepted for non-combatant service in the
956:
enjoins his followers to love their enemies and to refuse violence. The
846:
and the Air Force for every mission in defense of the state of Israel."
36:"Objector" redirects here. For the 1966 Australian television play, see
8102:
8087:
8082:
7527:
6999:
6649:
6526:
6496:
6393:
6011:
5823:
5701:
5686:
5676:
5495:
5339:
You have no enemies. A Call for Conscientious Objection. By Dieter Duhm
4736:
3344:
3335:
2340:
and sent to prison. Thus, the well-known pacifist and religious writer
2305:
2212:
1630:
1474:
1186:, which states "An it harm none, do what ye will" (or variations). The
1120:, the opposition to warfare may be based on either the general idea of
1113:, virtually every Jehovah's Witness is exempted from military service.
1077:
913:
553:
66:
5344:
5060:
Magelssen, Morten. "When should conscientious objection be accepted?"
3962:
3867:
3522:
2094:
indefinitely after the succeeding administration took office in 2008.
1368:
immigrants, rescinding the privileges of the Order in Council. During
619:
In 1948, the issue of the right to "conscience" was dealt with by the
8142:
8092:
7422:
6984:
6541:
6436:
6330:
5949:
5435:
4613:
4429:"Ruling allows Korea to continue imprisoning conscientious objectors"
2859:
2717:"Confessions of a Military Industrial Complex Conscientious Objector"
2150:
1519:
1377:
1365:
1361:
1241:
1207:
1194:
751:
656:
643:
577:
5282:
3635:
2868:
1933:
which allowed the parliament to make military service optional. The
1432:
There is no right to conscientious objection to military service in
7447:
7004:
6688:
6506:
6038:
5691:
5277:
1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
5266:
1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
4839:
Silence in castle to honour First World War conscientious objectors
3158:. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from
3154:
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (22 April 1998).
2799:. United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from
2795:
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (22 April 1998).
2392:
1880:
1844:
1657:
replacement office. Five categories/levels of physical fitness, or
1409:
1175:
1131:
886:
637:
5174:
Writing Peace: The Unheard Voices of Great War Mennonite Objectors
4729:"NTV Haber – Türkiye ve Dünya Gündemi Güncel Son Dakika Haberleri"
3595:
Selected Topics of Comparison in Christianity and the Baháʼí Faith
3486:
2395:
volunteered to fight in both world wars. The various parts of the
1148:
734:
Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status
499:. The term has also been extended to objecting to working for the
8132:
6348:
5048:
Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service
4043:
Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu.
2522:
2499:
2419:
and over 350 men volunteered. Other non-combatants worked in the
2372:
2289:
2154:
1926:
1917:
creates a legal framework which enables conscientious objection.
1867:
1811:
1775:
1433:
1324:
1106:
1055:
909:
747:
487:
is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform
5298:
of Human Rights factsheet on case law on conscientious objection
5031:
The CPS Story: An Illustrated History of Civilian Public Service
4147:"Forsteidienst, Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online"
3548:
Unsung Hero of the Great War: The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon
3043:"A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights System"
7297:
7232:
5959:
5909:
5656:
5586:
4324:
Conscientious Objectors to Get Non-Armed Services for 36 Months
2428:
1969:
1600:" were discriminated against in their later professional life.
1228:
of conscientious objection. One compromising form is to accept
1122:
1102:
1029:
835:
660:
572:
An early recognition of conscientious objection was granted by
540:
5334:
A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights System
5188:
Conscientious Objection and Alternative Service: Who Qualifies
5187:
4908:
4096:
1886:
Also during the First World War fourteen objectors, including
1732:
Wehrersatzdienst) possible, if it is thought to be necessary.
7522:
5696:
3442:. The Sound of Trumpet Ministries. 17 March 1960. p. 14.
2771:
2009:
1806:
1500:
1179:
953:
917:
894:
890:
6299:
5350:
4230:
Imprisonment of conscientious objectors to military service]
4177:
https://www.paragraf.rs/propisi/zakon_o_civilnoj_sluzbi.html
2371:
Britain's conscription legislation of 1916 did not apply to
2047:. Some simply deserted, or joined organisations such as the
1890:, were forcibly sent to the front lines and were subject to
1623:, literally "military replacement service", or colloquially
1473:). The law was dubbed "Lex Pekurinen" after him. During the
5238:
5002:
Peace to War: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God
4145:
Braun, Abraham; Block, Th.; Klippenstein, Lawrence (1989).
2424:
1938:
1763:, from military service ever since Israel was established.
1313:
1153:
4269:
4267:
4265:
1792:
David Zonschein et al. v. Military Advocate General et al.
5307:
4244:"South Korea military objectors say don't jail pacifists"
3292:"FindLaw's United States Supreme Court case and opinions"
3205:"Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania – 1790"
2747:"Campaigns: International Day on Conscientious Objection"
2445:
was retained, with rights of conscientious objection, as
2328:, according to the extent to which they could convince a
1805:
Until 2004 conscription was mandatory to all able-bodied
1531:
In 1983, a new law passed by socialist Interior Minister
5057:, Volume I, pp. 76–78. Mennoniite Publishing House.
3636:
D. CHRISTOPHER DECKER; AND LUCIA FRESA (29 March 2001).
2869:
D. CHRISTOPHER DECKER; AND LUCIA FRESA (29 March 2001).
2498:
has its problems. In certain European countries such as
1790:
As for conscientious objection, in 2002, in the case of
1062:. Objectors became a minority. Some theologians see the
614:
4966:
4262:
3723:"Objecion conciencia cuando y donde se puede practicar"
2968:"Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration"
1098:" (point 2311 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church)
4144:
3340:"In Fact... (THE ISRAELI PEACE MOVEMENT TAKES FLIGHT)"
3017:"International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights"
1193:
A notable example of a conscientious objector was the
1171:, and the individual should perform the army service.
4774:, p. 14, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004,
4306:
Second Session of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR)
4135:
The decree was issued in October 1918. Smith, p. 329.
3487:"Origin of the Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement"
1677:
Another way to get out of service completely was the
1603:
1328:
shortest military service, the latter twice as long.
1211:, consciously accepting the penalty of death. He was
2661:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
1915:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
777:
684:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
6007:
Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)
3577:
Armenia Releases All Imprisoned Jehovah's Witnesses
3408:
The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions
3181:
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
2984:
under "Who are the signatories of the Declaration?"
1388:Conscientious objection is recognised in Colombia.
728:
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
27:. For the documentary film about Desmond Doss, see
5571:Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
4703:"Prisoner of conscience escapes and is rearrested"
2173:to prison declared them unfit for public service.
1997:United Council of Religious Fellowships and Groups
21:Conscience clause in medicine in the United States
5288:The National Registry for Conscientious Objection
5099:Quakers in Britain — Conscientious Objectors
4901:"Conscientious Objection and Alternative Service"
4595:
4435:(Press release). 2 September 2011. Archived from
1290:), conscientious objection is punished severely.
730:recognised the right to conscientious objection.
16:Person refusing military service on moral grounds
8195:
4495:"News & Stories – Amnesty International USA"
3440:Discipline of the Reformed Free Methodist Church
2659:On July 30, 2001, explicit clarification of the
2207:Conscientious objection is highly controversial
5391:
5308:The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection
4832:
3896:by Florida Center for Instructional Technology
3523:Staff of the Catholic Peace Fellowship (2007).
990:to command warlike behavior from its citizens.
960:of the Reformed Free Methodist Church teaches:
3949:
3947:
3715:
3268:. Woodstock Theological Center. Archived from
3135:. UN Commission on Human Rights. 22 April 1998
2825:. UN Commission on Human Rights. 22 April 1998
2772:UN Commission on Human Rights (8 March 1995).
2523:Conscientious objection in professional forces
1507:Centre de défense des objecteurs de conscience
1323:Conscription was mandatory to all able-bodied
1296:
1058:, strengthening the idea and acceptability of
565:The earliest recorded conscientious objector,
6315:
6022:Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces
5377:
4117:, United Press International, 23 October 2006
4099:"New Zealand Law and Conscientious Objection"
4004:(in Hebrew). 21 February 2012. Archived from
4002:"בבית המשפט העליון בשבתו כבית משפט גבוה לצדק"
3505:
3477:, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance.
3045:. War Resisters International. Archived from
2904:"Conscientious objection to military service"
2550:Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors
2144:
2135:Conscientious objection was not permitted in
1468:
1222:
936:), as well as Holiness Pacifists such as the
740:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
715:'s forthcoming campaign and briefing for the
464:
4601:
4573:. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999
4479:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4357:"Abuse blamed for mysterious deaths in army"
3545:
2565:Conscientious objection to military taxation
2460:Conscientious objection in the United States
1505:
1094:Nowadays, the Catholic Church teaches that "
893:, instead staying on board his ship singing
587:following problems with attempting to force
5086:Troublesome People: Enemies of War, 1916–86
4433:Jehovah’s Witnesses Official Media Web Site
4275:"Should conscientious objectors be jailed?"
4214:Jehovah’s Witnesses Official Media Web Site
3944:
3434:
3432:
3430:
2560:Conscientious Objectors Commemorative Stone
2319:. Britain introduced conscription with the
8098:Definition of anarchism and libertarianism
6322:
6308:
5384:
5370:
5357:International Conscientious Objectors' Day
4460:"A Korean Conscientious Objector in Paris"
3334:
2663:Article 18 was made in the United Nations
1414:Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms
471:
457:
5975:Global Day of Action on Military Spending
4940:. October 2008. p. 6. Archived from
4861:(Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116;
4333:
4331:
4238:
4236:
4115:Romania drops compulsory military service
3787:"Suomi syrjii aseistakieltäytyjiä! – AKL"
3399:
2922:
2053:Committee on South African War Resistance
655:stated "I ain't got no quarrel with them
519:United Nations Commission on Human Rights
4761:(Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116.
4514:
4202:
3427:
2408:National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939
2271:
1839:
1712:, or equal justice of military service.
1499:
1314:Conscientious objection around the world
1009:
965:convictions of our members be respected.
813:and theologian, delivered an address at
642:
539:
3996:
3994:
2406:In the Second World War, following the
1862:In 1916 conscription was introduced in
1588:Conscientious objection in East Germany
669:Secretary-General of the United Nations
8196:
7101:Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA
5707:Soviet influence on the peace movement
4868:
4328:
4233:
3365:
3263:
3257:
2085:The government's National Action Plan
2069:Conscientious objection in South Korea
6303:
5894:World March for Peace and Nonviolence
5365:
5104:
4874:
4092:
4090:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4027:Wet gewetensbezwaren militaire dienst
3588:
3405:
3264:Murray, John Courtney (4 June 1967).
3226:"State Constitution - Bill of Rights"
2918:
2916:
2512:is one-third times longer, the Swiss
2365:Representation of the People Act 1918
1911:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1005:Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement
625:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
615:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6051:Third Party Non-violent Intervention
4807:(Manchester University Press, 2009).
4457:
4097:United Nations Human Rights Office.
3991:
3525:"The Life and Witness of Ben Salmon"
2931:. Greenwood Press. pp. 99–102.
2375:, despite it then being part of the
2254:A commission was founded within the
1781:Ressler et al. v. The Knesset et al.
1370:Canada's involvement in World War II
860:
609:
4659:"Chamber Judgement Ulke vs. Turkey"
4540:
4283:. 19 September 2011. Archived from
3834:
3615:
3609:
3509:The Early Christian Attitude to War
2332:of the quality of their objection.
2276:Conscientious Objector memorial in
1818:
1354:Canada's involvement in World War I
1190:may also be grounds for objection.
1182:, may object on the grounds of the
25:Conscientious objection to abortion
13:
6276:Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir
6173:Anti-war protests in Russia (2014)
5461:Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp
5201:
5145:
4990:
4695:
4087:
4042:
4031:
3894:A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust
2913:
2492:
2453:
2443:Conscription in the United Kingdom
2363:(through a clause inserted in the
2268:Conscription in the United Kingdom
1831:
1604:West Germany and reunified Germany
823:Supreme Court of the United States
14:
8220:
5768:International Day of Non-Violence
5426:Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions
5254:
5125:Twentieth Century British History
4591:Spanish Constitution section 30.2
4571:Pacifism in the Twentieth Century
4388:Restrictions on Religious Freedom
4365:. 17 January 2009. Archived from
3410:. Prometheus Books. p. 304.
2929:An Encyclopedia of War and Ethics
2615:Selective conscientious objection
2470:Conscription in the United States
2308:last took pressed men during the
2261:
2256:National Assembly of the Republic
1608:According to Article 4(3) of the
1412:have abolished conscription. The
1391:
950:Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)
883:Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney
778:Selective conscientious objection
8162:
7136:International Conference of Rome
7126:International Conference of Rome
6178:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
5074:, University of Oklahoma Press.
4959:
4923:
4893:
4848:
4792:Civil Society in British History
3563:Catechism of the Catholic Church
1825:Republic of the Marshall Islands
1572:Sachsenhausen concentration camp
1288:Democratic Republic of the Congo
942:Emmanuel Association of Churches
792:. (He later went on to serve as
768:
59:
5551:Social Democratic Party (Japan)
5172:Mock, Melanie Springer (2003).
5107:Smith's Story of the Mennonites
4879:. Channel 4 books. p. 92.
4810:
4797:
4784:
4764:
4751:
4721:
4679:pages of the "opponents to war"
4671:
4652:
4584:
4560:
4541:Lee, Joyce (30 December 2018).
4534:
4515:Sang-Hun, Choe (28 June 2018).
4508:
4487:
4451:
4421:
4399:
4381:
4349:
4317:
4299:
4193:
4181:
4169:
4160:
4138:
4129:
4120:
4108:
4062:
4020:
3977:
3924:
3901:
3882:
3852:
3809:
3779:
3745:
3706:
3684:
3675:
3662:
3629:
3582:
3570:
3554:
3539:
3516:
3499:
3480:
3457:
3446:
3382:"Bruderhof Communities – GAMEO"
3374:
3359:
3328:
3309:
3284:
3252:), 1999, relevant quotation at
3250:Nu dog du: bombernas århundrade
3239:
3218:
3197:
3186:
3174:
3147:
3125:
3111:
3087:
3061:
3035:
3009:
2987:
2959:
2945:
2923:Churchill, Robert Paul (1996).
2895:
2776:. UN Commission on Human Rights
2190:Insubordinate movement in Spain
2035:South African resistance to war
2028:
1581:
1568:subversion of military strength
1557:
1304:Minnesota Starvation Experiment
763:
621:United Nations General Assembly
7248:Australian Anarchist Centenary
7173:German Revolution of 1918–1919
5471:List of pacifist organisations
5209:Independent Television Service
5050:, Mennonite Central Committee.
5033:, pp. 75–79. Good Books.
4972:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
2837:
2815:
2788:
2765:
2739:
2709:
2688:
2667:general comment 22, Para. 11:
2653:
2555:Center on Conscience & War
2383:. British conscription in the
2217:European Court of Human Rights
2146:Prestación Social Sustitutoria
2062:
1857:
1674:physical or mental handicaps.
1402:communist party lost its power
1348:War Resisters Support Campaign
969:Since the American Civil War,
938:Reformed Free Methodist Church
1:
6887:Decentralized planned economy
6329:
5176:, Cascadia Publishing House.
5162:Anastasia Press, Much Hadham
4967:"Aktuelle Nachrichten online"
4605:Contemporary European History
2995:"The Imperatives of Survival"
2646:
2280:Gardens, London—dedicated on
2057:Opposition to the Angolan War
1931:2003 constitutional amendment
1848:
1344:Canada and Iraq War resisters
1232:roles during conscription or
717:UN Commission on Human Rights
6482:Proletarian internationalism
5877:World Peace Bell Association
5778:Dialogue Among Civilizations
5481:New Socialist Party of Japan
5466:Iraq War resisters in Canada
5431:Coalition of Women for Peace
5084:Moorehead, Caroline (1987).
4938:War Resisters' International
4865:at spartacus-educational.com
3761:War Resisters' International
3597:(MA thesis). Landegg Academy
2927:. In Donald K. Wells (ed.).
2635:War Resisters' International
2141:Spanish Constitution of 1978
1769:Bedouin population of Israel
711:In 1997, an announcement of
693:, conscience and religion."
83:Alternative civilian service
7:
7183:1919 United States bombings
6045:The whole world is watching
5813:Peace & Love (festival)
5763:Imagine Piano Peace Project
3791:aseistakieltaytyjaliitto.fi
3670:Conscription Crisis of 1917
2537:
2381:Conscription Crisis of 1918
2045:South African Defence Force
1750:Refusal to serve in the IDF
1383:
1297:Informed Consent Violations
1169:loyalty to one's government
1015:Blessed are the Peacemakers
698:War Resisters International
677:The Right to Refuse to Kill
526:conscientious objections".
501:military–industrial complex
10:
8225:
8138:Situationist International
7208:Spanish Revolution of 1936
7066:Self-managed social center
6168:2011 intervention in Libya
5788:List of places named Peace
5773:International Day of Peace
5491:Peace and conflict studies
5411:Anti-nuclear organizations
5151:Bennett, Scott H. (2005).
5055:The Mennonite Encyclopedia
5046:Gingerich, Melvin (1949),
5015:Bennett, Scott H. (2003).
4859:English History, 1914–1945
4845:, accessed 19 October 2014
4759:English History, 1914–1945
4692:), accessed on 15 May 2011
4622:Cambridge University Press
3248:, "A History of Bombing" (
2463:
2457:
2265:
2243:by Amnesty International.
2187:
2066:
2032:
1981:Russian Revolution of 1917
1948:
1920:
1847:Prison for WW1 objectors,
1747:
1735:
1585:
1550:
1546:
1447:
1443:
1427:
1419:
1341:
1318:
1223:Alternatives for objectors
946:Immanuel Missionary Church
864:
533:
529:
35:
30:The Conscientious Objector
18:
8157:
8042:
7602:
7552:
7277:
7263:Really Really Free Market
7258:1999 Seattle WTO protests
7080:
6952:
6860:
6824:
6777:
6700:
6631:
6622:
6572:
6547:Temporary autonomous zone
6472:Permanent autonomous zone
6409:Consensus decision-making
6337:
6284:
6213:
6078:
5902:
5803:Nobel Peace Prize Concert
5798:Mother's Day Proclamation
5748:Dances of Universal Peace
5725:
5579:
5561:The Women's Peace Crusade
5403:
5324:Catholic Peace Fellowship
5186:U.S. Selective Service, "
5062:Journal of Medical Ethics
4630:10.1017/S0960777322000224
4458:Diplomat, Yena Lee, The.
4045:"Conscientious objection"
2953:"Conscientious Objection"
2925:"Conscientious Objection"
2330:Military Service Tribunal
2246:On 14 November 2011, the
2202:
2194:
2049:End Conscription Campaign
2039:End Conscription Campaign
2019:
1944:
1743:
1495:
1337:
1032:refused to take up arms.
834:On 14 September 2003, in
828:Gillette v. United States
659:... They never called me
647:Refusing to serve in the
7253:Carnival Against Capital
7178:Bavarian Soviet Republic
7167:Manifesto of the Sixteen
7061:Radical environmentalism
7010:Independent Media Center
6942:Workers' self-management
6389:Autonomous social center
6064:Violence begets violence
5997:Non-aggression principle
5867:The Non-Violence Project
5847:Promoting Enduring Peace
5830:Promoting Enduring Peace
5486:Pacifist Socialist Party
5105:Smith, C. Henry (1981).
5029:Keim, Albert N. (1990).
5024:Public Affairs Quarterly
4905:Selective Service System
4668:, Accessed June 7, 2006.
4175:Law about civil service
3406:Lewis, James R. (2001).
2997:. Nobel Foundation. 1974
2476:Selective Service System
2421:Royal Army Medical Corps
2357:Royal Army Medical Corps
2130:
1909:and the ratification of
1800:
815:Western Maryland College
8204:Conscientious objection
6882:Cost the limit of price
6158:Military action in Iran
5793:Monuments and memorials
5743:Concert Yutel for Peace
5546:React, Include, Recycle
5476:List of peace activists
5441:Conscientious objectors
5262:Conscientious Objectors
5088:, Hamish Hamilton Ltd,
5070:Matthews, Mark (2006).
5019:(Syracuse Univ. Press).
4805:Telling Tales About Men
4070:"Field punishment No 1"
2580:Friends' Ambulance Unit
1907:Bill of Rights Act 1990
1553:Conscription in Germany
1246:conscientious objection
926:Conservative Mennonites
906:Historic Peace Churches
902:Unitarian Universalists
867:List of pacifist faiths
757:international community
667:In 1974, the Assistant
7678:Bosnia and Herzegovina
6487:Propaganda of the deed
6477:Prefigurative politics
6467:Participatory politics
6413:Conscientious objector
6079:Opposition to specific
6034:Swords to ploughshares
6028:Soldiers are murderers
5421:Anti-war organizations
5158:McNair, Donald (2008)
5155:(Fordham Univ. Press).
5127:29.3 (2018): 411–434.
4841:dated 25 June 2013 at
3506:C John Cadoux (1919).
3475:religioustolerance.org
2665:Human Rights Committee
2342:Stephen Henry Hobhouse
2285:
2241:prisoner of conscience
2145:
2113:
1951:Conscription in Russia
1876:Seventh-day Adventists
1854:
1715:Then-German President
1592:After World War II in
1511:
1506:
1469:
1174:Some practitioners of
1092:
1039:
1026:early Christian Church
1021:
971:Seventh-day Adventists
967:
934:Church of the Brethren
794:Air Officer Commanding
761:
705:Human Rights Committee
664:
634:
558:
517:On March 8, 1995, the
485:conscientious objector
93:Conscientious objector
8128:Libertarian socialism
7243:Kate Sharpley Library
7218:Red inverted triangle
7161:High Treason Incident
7151:Congress of Amsterdam
6557:Voluntary association
6369:Anti-authoritarianism
6359:Anarchist criminology
6354:Anarchist Black Cross
6081:wars or their aspects
6002:Nonviolent resistance
5852:Show of Peace Concert
5617:Anti-nuclear movement
5271:Patterson, David S.:
5135:St. John's Law Review
5026:26.2 (2012): 141–159.
4843:thenorthernecho.co.uk
4818:"The Men Who Said No"
4707:Amnesty International
4407:"Objectors Top 5,000"
3727:gobiernobogota.gov.co
3591:"1. The Moral Domain"
3589:Mazal, Peter (1999).
3546:Torin Finney (1989).
3469:11 September 2012 at
3338:(23 September 2003).
2480:Department of Defense
2275:
2266:Further information:
2108:
1843:
1598:construction soldiers
1504:Stamp created by the
1503:
1356:by provisions of the
1087:
1034:
1013:
962:
930:Bruderhof Communities
844:Israel Defense Forces
825:ruled in the case of
821:On 8 March 1971, the
744:
713:Amnesty International
646:
636:The proclamation was
629:
623:in Article 18 of the
543:
534:Further information:
511:or military service.
493:freedom of conscience
152:By historical country
65:1780 caricature of a
8169:Anarchism portal
7573:Fictional characters
7056:Radical cheerleading
6163:Sri Lankan Civil War
6057:Turn the other cheek
5872:University for Peace
5783:List of peace prizes
5064:38.1 (2012): 18–21.
4875:Jappy, M. J (2001).
4820:. Peace Pledge Union
4677:See the list on the
2974:on 12 September 2012
2640:War Resisters League
2466:New York Draft Riots
2321:Military Service Act
1963:to run and maintain
1663:Tauglichkeitsstufe 5
1639:administrative court
1045:officially embraced
804:John Courtney Murray
507:as a substitute for
491:" on the grounds of
435:By geographical area
406:United Arab Emirates
40:Australian Playhouse
8118:Left-libertarianism
7193:Kronstadt rebellion
7131:Trial of the Thirty
7096:Revolutions of 1848
7038:No gods, no masters
6847:Synthesis anarchism
6837:Anarcho-syndicalism
6825:Types of federation
6205:Nuclear disarmament
6188:in Russian Far East
5945:Department of Peace
5930:Counter-recruitment
5925:Conflict resolution
5915:Central Park be-ins
5903:Slogans and tactics
5882:Japanese Peace Bell
5672:Non-interventionism
5667:Modern-war pacifism
5605:Christian anarchism
4008:on 31 December 2013
3888:September 17, 1939
3668:Smith, p. 321. The
3650:on 22 November 2011
3625:. pp. 134–135.
3550:. pp. 118–119.
3162:on 19 November 2018
2883:on 22 November 2011
2803:on 19 November 2018
2590:Medical Cadet Corps
2570:Counter-recruitment
2412:Kellogg–Briand Pact
2326:Non-Combatant Corps
2248:Ministry of Justice
2005:New Economic Policy
1935:Romanian Parliament
1659:Tauglichkeitsstufen
1610:German constitution
1374:Conscription Crisis
1308:Operation Whitecoat
1257:alternative service
1064:Constantinian shift
1054:tradition with the
996:Operation Whitecoat
975:Jehovah's Witnesses
922:Old Order Mennonite
871:Freedom of religion
138:Penal military unit
103:Counter-recruitment
98:Conscription crisis
8209:Military sociology
8068:Anti-globalization
7738:Dominican Republic
7563:Anarcho-punk bands
7223:Labadie Collection
7213:Barcelona May Days
7116:Cantonal rebellion
7050:Property is theft!
7016:The Internationale
6970:Anarchist bookfair
6769:Without adjectives
6624:Schools of thought
6099:American Civil War
5991:Make love, not war
5965:Economic sanctions
5920:Civil disobedience
5753:Festival for Peace
5726:Media and cultural
5712:Testimony of peace
5632:Christian pacifism
5193:2017-04-27 at the
5012:(Routledge, 2021).
4947:on 18 January 2012
4739:on 5 November 2013
4684:2011-06-04 at the
4664:2006-10-09 at the
4521:The New York Times
4393:2010-02-18 at the
4343:2010-01-11 at the
4311:2008-07-26 at the
4287:on 25 January 2013
4250:. 2 September 2008
3965:on 21 January 2013
3890:The New York Times
3767:on 31 October 2018
3733:on 21 October 2022
3492:2010-08-15 at the
3321:2010-03-08 at the
2605:Peace Pledge Union
2575:Franz Jägerstätter
2286:
2159:Basque nationalism
2157:, where pacifism,
1961:Russian Mennonites
1905:believes that the
1855:
1643:Kreiswehrersatzamt
1576:Franz Jägerstätter
1512:
1203:Franz Jägerstätter
1082:The New York Times
1068:Christian pacifism
1022:
958:Book of Discipline
691:freedom of thought
687:entered into force
665:
574:William the Silent
559:
108:Draft-card burning
88:Civil conscription
8191:
8190:
8148:Spontaneous order
8078:Anti-war movement
7583:Jewish anarchists
7091:French Revolution
7044:Popular education
6820:
6819:
6537:Spontaneous order
6399:Classless society
6297:
6296:
6200:Military taxation
6070:War tax resisters
5637:Deterrence theory
5416:Anti-war movement
5168:978-0-9536396-1-8
4794:. (Oxford, 2003).
4757:A. J. P. Taylor,
4569:and Nigel Young,
4439:on 7 October 2011
4369:on 11 August 2011
4074:nzhistory.govt.nz
3870:on 15 August 2016
3712:Krahn, pp. 76–78.
3681:Gingerich p. 420.
3622:Unfolding Destiny
3417:978-1-61592-738-8
3316:Courage to Refuse
2676:on 6 January 2020
2585:GI Rights Network
2437:ambulance service
2387:did not apply to
2076:Republic of Korea
2001:Russian Civil War
1989:Vladimir Chertkov
1710:Wehrgerechtigkeit
1690:Totalverweigerung
1679:two brothers rule
1651:Totalverweigerung
1460:Finnish Civil War
1438:indefinite length
1436:– which is of an
1264:Council of Europe
1217:Pope Benedict XVI
1159:Followers of the
1116:For believers in
1072:the great failing
861:Religious motives
855:Iraq War Resister
610:International law
549:Boardman Robinson
536:Anti-war movement
481:
480:
181:By modern country
8216:
8167:
8166:
8165:
8058:Anti-consumerism
8053:Anti-corporatism
7203:Amakasu Incident
7146:Strandza Commune
7121:Haymarket affair
7022:Jewish anarchism
6964:A las Barricadas
6932:Social ownership
6917:Market socialism
6892:Free association
6852:Union of egoists
6629:
6628:
6562:Workers' council
6552:Union of egoists
6512:Security culture
6422:Decentralization
6417:Critique of work
6324:
6317:
6310:
6301:
6300:
6124:list of protests
5985:Lesson of Munich
5940:Demilitarisation
5818:Peace journalism
5612:Anti-imperialism
5595:Anarcho-pacifism
5531:Peace psychology
5511:Peace conference
5506:Peace commission
5451:Culture of Peace
5386:
5379:
5372:
5363:
5362:
5313:Refusing to Kill
5250:
5248:
5246:
5137:15.2 (2013): 6+
5120:
5008:Barker, Rachel.
4984:
4983:
4981:
4979:
4963:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4946:
4935:
4927:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4911:on 27 April 2017
4907:. Archived from
4897:
4891:
4890:
4872:
4866:
4852:
4846:
4836:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4814:
4808:
4801:
4795:
4788:
4782:
4768:
4762:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4735:. Archived from
4725:
4719:
4718:
4716:
4714:
4699:
4693:
4690:savaş karşıtları
4675:
4669:
4656:
4650:
4649:
4599:
4593:
4588:
4582:
4581:(pp. 96–7, 311).
4564:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4553:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4527:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4501:
4491:
4485:
4484:
4478:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4444:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4409:. 8 January 2009
4403:
4397:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4353:
4347:
4335:
4326:
4321:
4315:
4303:
4297:
4296:
4294:
4292:
4271:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4240:
4231:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4216:. Archived from
4206:
4200:
4197:
4191:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4167:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4153:
4142:
4136:
4133:
4127:
4124:
4118:
4112:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4094:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4080:
4066:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4040:
4029:
4024:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4013:
3998:
3989:
3981:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3970:
3961:. Archived from
3951:
3942:
3928:
3922:
3905:
3899:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3866:. Archived from
3856:
3850:
3838:
3832:
3831:
3829:
3827:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3804:
3802:
3793:. Archived from
3783:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3763:. Archived from
3749:
3743:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3729:. Archived from
3719:
3713:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3688:
3682:
3679:
3673:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3655:
3649:
3642:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3602:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3503:
3497:
3484:
3478:
3461:
3455:
3453:sidadventist.org
3450:
3444:
3443:
3436:
3425:
3424:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3363:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3332:
3326:
3313:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3261:
3255:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3201:
3195:
3190:
3184:
3178:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3129:
3123:
3122:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3099:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3065:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3013:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3002:
2991:
2985:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2970:. Archived from
2963:
2957:
2956:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2920:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2875:
2866:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2749:. Archived from
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2727:on 27 April 2015
2723:. Archived from
2713:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2657:
2610:Richmond Sixteen
2478:and through the
2447:National Service
2389:Northern Ireland
2385:Second World War
2350:Richmond Sixteen
2338:court-martialled
2278:Tavistock Square
2221:Osman Murat Ülke
2148:
1991:, a follower of
1965:forestry service
1892:Field Punishment
1888:Archibald Baxter
1872:Christadelphians
1853:
1850:
1819:Marshall Islands
1756:Israeli citizens
1694:Totalverweigerer
1621:Wehrersatzdienst
1574:. Among others,
1509:
1479:Continuation War
1472:
1358:Order in Council
1234:military service
1213:declared Blessed
1118:Indian religions
1066:and the loss of
979:Christadelphians
802:On 4 June 1967,
790:RAF Iraq Command
742:(UNHCR) states:
505:civilian service
489:military service
473:
466:
459:
133:National service
128:Military service
74:Related concepts
63:
49:
48:
8224:
8223:
8219:
8218:
8217:
8215:
8214:
8213:
8194:
8193:
8192:
8187:
8163:
8161:
8153:
8152:
8151:
8108:Labour movement
8038:
8037:
8036:
7598:
7597:
7596:
7548:
7547:
7546:
7273:
7272:
7271:
7268:Occupy movement
7141:Ferrer movement
7076:
7075:
7074:
6990:Escuela Moderna
6948:
6947:
6946:
6856:
6816:
6773:
6737:Insurrectionary
6696:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6568:
6567:
6566:
6492:Refusal of work
6379:Anti-militarism
6374:Anti-capitalism
6333:
6328:
6298:
6293:
6280:
6209:
6153:Afghanistan War
6104:Second Boer War
6080:
6074:
5898:
5721:
5575:
5521:Peace education
5404:Peace advocates
5399:
5390:
5260:Schleif, Luke:
5257:
5244:
5242:
5233:
5226:Amitai Ben-Abba
5211:, aired on PBS.
5204:
5202:Further viewing
5195:Wayback Machine
5148:
5146:Primary sources
5117:
4997:Alexander, Paul
4993:
4991:Further reading
4988:
4987:
4977:
4975:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4950:
4948:
4944:
4933:
4929:
4928:
4924:
4914:
4912:
4899:
4898:
4894:
4887:
4873:
4869:
4855:A. J. P. Taylor
4853:
4849:
4837:
4833:
4823:
4821:
4816:
4815:
4811:
4803:Lois Bibbings,
4802:
4798:
4789:
4785:
4769:
4765:
4756:
4752:
4742:
4740:
4727:
4726:
4722:
4712:
4710:
4709:. 28 April 2011
4701:
4700:
4696:
4686:Wayback Machine
4676:
4672:
4666:Wayback Machine
4657:
4653:
4600:
4596:
4589:
4585:
4565:
4561:
4551:
4549:
4539:
4535:
4525:
4523:
4513:
4509:
4499:
4497:
4493:
4492:
4488:
4472:
4471:
4464:
4462:
4456:
4452:
4442:
4440:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4412:
4410:
4405:
4404:
4400:
4395:Wayback Machine
4386:
4382:
4372:
4370:
4355:
4354:
4350:
4345:Wayback Machine
4336:
4329:
4322:
4318:
4313:Wayback Machine
4304:
4300:
4290:
4288:
4273:
4272:
4263:
4253:
4251:
4242:
4241:
4234:
4223:
4221:
4208:
4207:
4203:
4198:
4194:
4186:
4182:
4174:
4170:
4165:
4161:
4151:
4149:
4143:
4139:
4134:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4113:
4109:
4101:
4095:
4088:
4078:
4076:
4068:
4067:
4063:
4053:
4051:
4041:
4032:
4025:
4021:
4011:
4009:
4000:
3999:
3992:
3982:
3978:
3968:
3966:
3953:
3952:
3945:
3929:
3925:
3908:Bernd Eisenfeld
3906:
3902:
3887:
3883:
3873:
3871:
3858:
3857:
3853:
3839:
3835:
3825:
3823:
3815:
3814:
3810:
3800:
3798:
3797:on 26 July 2007
3785:
3784:
3780:
3770:
3768:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3736:
3734:
3721:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3707:
3697:
3695:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3676:
3667:
3663:
3653:
3651:
3647:
3640:
3634:
3630:
3617:Effendi, Shoghi
3614:
3610:
3600:
3598:
3587:
3583:
3575:
3571:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3544:
3540:
3521:
3517:
3504:
3500:
3494:Wayback Machine
3485:
3481:
3462:
3458:
3451:
3447:
3438:
3437:
3428:
3418:
3404:
3400:
3390:
3388:
3380:
3379:
3375:
3364:
3360:
3350:
3348:
3333:
3329:
3323:Wayback Machine
3314:
3310:
3300:
3298:
3290:
3289:
3285:
3275:
3273:
3272:on 14 June 2008
3262:
3258:
3244:
3240:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3223:
3219:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3187:
3183:, Article 10, 2
3179:
3175:
3165:
3163:
3152:
3148:
3138:
3136:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3092:
3088:
3078:
3076:
3067:
3066:
3062:
3052:
3050:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3026:
3024:
3015:
3014:
3010:
3000:
2998:
2993:
2992:
2988:
2977:
2975:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2921:
2914:
2906:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2873:
2867:
2860:
2850:
2848:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2828:
2826:
2821:
2820:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2777:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2754:
2753:on 25 June 2014
2745:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2679:
2677:
2668:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2540:
2525:
2495:
2493:Other countries
2472:
2462:
2456:
2361:disenfranchised
2317:First World War
2310:Napoleonic Wars
2270:
2264:
2205:
2197:
2192:
2137:Francoist Spain
2133:
2071:
2065:
2041:
2033:Main articles:
2031:
2022:
1968:battlefield to
1953:
1947:
1923:
1860:
1851:
1834:
1832:The Netherlands
1821:
1803:
1752:
1746:
1738:
1720:public health,
1606:
1590:
1584:
1560:
1555:
1549:
1498:
1470:siviilipalvelus
1465:Arndt Pekurinen
1452:
1450:Siviilipalvelus
1446:
1430:
1422:
1394:
1386:
1350:
1340:
1321:
1316:
1299:
1225:
1178:, particularly
1176:pagan religions
1140:14th Dalai Lama
1074:of the Church.
1051:just war theory
988:moral authority
912:, Anabaptists (
878:Orkneyinga Saga
873:
865:Main articles:
863:
851:Kevin Benderman
786:Lionel Charlton
780:
771:
766:
736:
617:
612:
593:British Militia
538:
532:
477:
448:
430:
356:the Philippines
326:the Netherlands
175:
147:
69:
45:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8222:
8212:
8211:
8206:
8189:
8188:
8186:
8179:
8172:
8158:
8155:
8154:
8150:
8145:
8140:
8135:
8130:
8125:
8123:Libertarianism
8120:
8115:
8113:Left communism
8110:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8090:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8050:
8049:
8048:
8046:
8044:Related topics
8040:
8039:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8015:
8013:United Kingdom
8010:
8005:
8000:
7995:
7990:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7965:
7960:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7940:
7935:
7930:
7925:
7920:
7915:
7910:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7840:
7835:
7830:
7825:
7820:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7785:
7780:
7775:
7770:
7765:
7760:
7755:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7728:Czech Republic
7725:
7720:
7715:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7695:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7665:
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7655:
7650:
7645:
7640:
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7615:
7610:
7609:
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7565:
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7510:
7505:
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7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7440:
7435:
7430:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7410:
7405:
7400:
7395:
7390:
7385:
7383:González Prada
7380:
7375:
7370:
7365:
7360:
7355:
7350:
7345:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7295:
7290:
7285:
7284:
7283:
7281:
7275:
7274:
7270:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7198:Makhnovshchina
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7118:
7113:
7111:Hague Congress
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7087:
7086:
7084:
7078:
7077:
7073:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7053:
7046:
7041:
7034:
7029:
7024:
7019:
7012:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6967:
6960:
6959:
6958:
6956:
6950:
6949:
6945:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6912:Labour voucher
6909:
6907:Give-away shop
6904:
6899:
6897:General strike
6894:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6868:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6834:
6832:Affinity group
6828:
6826:
6822:
6821:
6818:
6817:
6815:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6802:Post-anarchist
6799:
6794:
6789:
6783:
6781:
6775:
6774:
6772:
6771:
6766:
6765:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6728:
6727:
6725:Social ecology
6722:
6712:
6706:
6704:
6702:Post-classical
6698:
6697:
6695:
6694:
6693:
6692:
6691:
6681:
6671:
6666:
6665:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6653:
6652:
6637:
6635:
6626:
6620:
6619:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6580:
6579:
6578:
6576:
6570:
6569:
6565:
6564:
6559:
6554:
6549:
6544:
6539:
6534:
6529:
6524:
6522:Social ecology
6519:
6517:Self-ownership
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6489:
6484:
6479:
6474:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6447:Horizontalidad
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6411:
6406:
6404:Class struggle
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6384:Affinity group
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6343:
6341:
6335:
6334:
6327:
6326:
6319:
6312:
6304:
6295:
6294:
6292:
6291:
6285:
6282:
6281:
6279:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6266:United Kingdom
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6217:
6215:
6211:
6210:
6208:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6191:
6190:
6185:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6149:
6148:
6143:
6133:
6128:
6127:
6126:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6096:
6084:
6082:
6076:
6075:
6073:
6072:
6067:
6060:
6053:
6048:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5906:
5904:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5896:
5891:
5889:Women in Black
5886:
5885:
5884:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5827:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5729:
5727:
5723:
5722:
5720:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5652:Green politics
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5622:Antimilitarism
5619:
5614:
5609:
5608:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5589:
5583:
5581:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5526:Peace movement
5523:
5518:
5516:Peace congress
5513:
5508:
5503:
5501:Peace churches
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5456:ECOPEACE Party
5453:
5448:
5446:Counterculture
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5407:
5405:
5401:
5400:
5397:peace movement
5389:
5388:
5381:
5374:
5366:
5360:
5359:
5354:
5348:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5269:
5256:
5255:External links
5253:
5252:
5251:
5219:
5212:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5198:
5184:
5170:
5156:
5147:
5144:
5143:
5142:
5131:
5121:
5115:
5102:
5096:
5082:
5080:978-0806137667
5068:
5058:
5051:
5044:
5027:
5020:
5013:
5006:
4992:
4989:
4986:
4985:
4958:
4922:
4892:
4885:
4867:
4847:
4831:
4809:
4796:
4783:
4763:
4750:
4720:
4694:
4670:
4651:
4594:
4583:
4559:
4533:
4507:
4486:
4450:
4420:
4398:
4380:
4348:
4327:
4316:
4298:
4261:
4232:
4220:on 25 May 2012
4201:
4192:
4180:
4168:
4166:Smith, p. 330.
4159:
4137:
4128:
4126:Smith, p. 311.
4119:
4107:
4086:
4061:
4030:
4019:
3990:
3985:Torato Omanuto
3976:
3943:
3923:
3900:
3881:
3851:
3833:
3808:
3778:
3744:
3714:
3705:
3683:
3674:
3661:
3628:
3608:
3581:
3569:
3553:
3538:
3535:(Spring 2007).
3515:
3498:
3479:
3456:
3445:
3426:
3416:
3398:
3373:
3358:
3327:
3308:
3283:
3256:
3246:Sven Lindqvist
3238:
3217:
3196:
3185:
3173:
3146:
3124:
3110:
3086:
3075:on 17 May 2008
3060:
3049:on 15 May 2008
3034:
3023:on 5 July 2008
3008:
2986:
2958:
2944:
2937:
2912:
2894:
2858:
2836:
2814:
2787:
2764:
2738:
2708:
2687:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2620:Tax resistance
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2600:Peace movement
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2545:Antimilitarism
2541:
2539:
2536:
2524:
2521:
2494:
2491:
2458:Main article:
2455:
2452:
2397:British Empire
2377:United Kingdom
2263:
2262:United Kingdom
2260:
2229:Perihan Mağden
2204:
2201:
2196:
2193:
2132:
2129:
2064:
2061:
2030:
2027:
2021:
2018:
1995:, chaired the
1957:Russian Empire
1949:Main article:
1946:
1943:
1922:
1919:
1859:
1856:
1833:
1830:
1820:
1817:
1802:
1799:
1748:Main article:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1605:
1602:
1586:Main article:
1583:
1580:
1559:
1556:
1551:Main article:
1548:
1545:
1516:Jacques Martin
1497:
1494:
1445:
1442:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1418:
1406:Czech Republic
1398:Czechoslovakia
1393:
1392:Czechoslovakia
1390:
1385:
1382:
1339:
1336:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1298:
1295:
1224:
1221:
1199:Roman Catholic
1019:George Bellows
881:mentions that
862:
859:
806:, an American
779:
776:
770:
767:
765:
762:
735:
732:
616:
613:
611:
608:
531:
528:
479:
478:
476:
475:
468:
461:
453:
450:
449:
447:
446:
440:
437:
436:
432:
431:
429:
428:
423:
418:
413:
411:United Kingdom
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
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318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
238:
233:
230:child soldiers
226:Congo-Kinshasa
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
187:
184:
183:
177:
176:
174:
173:
168:
166:Russian Empire
163:
161:Ottoman Empire
157:
154:
153:
149:
148:
146:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
123:Levée en masse
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
79:
76:
75:
71:
70:
64:
56:
55:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8221:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8185:
8184:
8180:
8178:
8177:
8173:
8171:
8170:
8159:
8156:
8149:
8146:
8144:
8141:
8139:
8136:
8134:
8131:
8129:
8126:
8124:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8114:
8111:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8064:
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8059:
8056:
8054:
8051:
8047:
8045:
8041:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8018:United States
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
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7969:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7959:
7956:
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7809:
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7804:
7801:
7799:
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7779:
7778:French Guiana
7776:
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7214:
7211:
7209:
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7201:
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7196:
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7189:
7188:Biennio Rosso
7186:
7184:
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7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7168:
7164:
7162:
7159:
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7139:
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7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7106:Paris Commune
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7085:
7083:
7079:
7072:
7069:
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7018:
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6965:
6961:
6957:
6955:
6951:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6927:Mutual credit
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6872:Communization
6870:
6869:
6865:
6863:
6859:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
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6835:
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6708:
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6703:
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6690:
6687:
6686:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6676:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6663:
6662:Philosophical
6660:
6658:
6655:
6651:
6648:
6647:
6646:
6643:
6642:
6641:
6640:Individualist
6638:
6636:
6634:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6621:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6583:Animal rights
6581:
6577:
6575:
6571:
6563:
6560:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6548:
6545:
6543:
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6508:
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6500:
6498:
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6480:
6478:
6475:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6452:Individualism
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6432:Direct action
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
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6387:
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6380:
6377:
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6340:
6336:
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6325:
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6313:
6311:
6306:
6305:
6302:
6290:
6287:
6286:
6283:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6271:United States
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
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6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6131:War on Terror
6129:
6125:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6094:
6090:
6087:War of 1812 (
6086:
6085:
6083:
6077:
6071:
6068:
6065:
6061:
6058:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6046:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6029:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6017:Peacebuilding
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5992:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5955:Draft evasion
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5935:De-escalation
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5907:
5905:
5901:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5883:
5880:
5879:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5837:Peace One Day
5835:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5825:
5821:
5820:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
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5799:
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5791:
5789:
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5779:
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5759:
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5751:
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5708:
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5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
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5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5642:Direct action
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5600:Anarcho-punks
5598:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5582:
5578:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5566:War resisters
5564:
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5554:
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5509:
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5387:
5382:
5380:
5375:
5373:
5368:
5367:
5364:
5358:
5355:
5352:
5349:
5346:
5345:Hacksaw Ridge
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5314:
5311:
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5223:
5220:
5217:
5213:
5210:
5206:
5205:
5196:
5192:
5189:
5185:
5183:
5182:1-931038-09-0
5179:
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5132:
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5122:
5118:
5116:0-87303-069-9
5112:
5108:
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5094:0-241-12105-1
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5056:
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5043:
5040:
5039:1-56148-002-9
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4910:
4906:
4902:
4896:
4888:
4886:0-7522-1938-3
4882:
4878:
4871:
4864:
4863:FWW Pacifists
4860:
4856:
4851:
4844:
4840:
4835:
4819:
4813:
4806:
4800:
4793:
4787:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4770:Brock, Peter,
4767:
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4579:0-8156-8125-9
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4219:
4215:
4211:
4210:"South Korea"
4205:
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4132:
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4111:
4100:
4093:
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4071:
4065:
4050:
4049:teara.govt.nz
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3936:3-353-00927-2
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3916:3-88129-158-X
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3847:9782757400388
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3529:Sign of Peace
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3471:archive.today
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3325:Pilots letter
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2520:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2502:, Greece and
2501:
2490:
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2461:
2454:United States
2451:
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2422:
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2417:bomb disposal
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2230:
2226:
2225:Mehmet Tarhan
2222:
2218:
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2211:. Turkey and
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2142:
2138:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2077:
2070:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2017:
2013:
2011:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1975:
1974:Ekaterinoslav
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1952:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1829:
1826:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1765:Israeli Arabs
1762:
1757:
1751:
1741:
1733:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1711:
1705:
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1569:
1565:
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1537:
1534:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1510:(around 1936)
1508:
1502:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1458:. During the
1457:
1456:Russification
1451:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1417:
1415:
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1407:
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1289:
1285:
1281:
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1260:
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1250:draft dodging
1247:
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1239:
1238:draft dodging
1235:
1231:
1230:non-combatant
1220:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1189:
1188:threefold law
1185:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1136:five precepts
1134:, one of the
1133:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1114:
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1108:
1104:
1099:
1097:
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1075:
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1061:
1057:
1052:
1048:
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1033:
1031:
1028:followers of
1027:
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760:
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750:status after
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680:
678:
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670:
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645:
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601:
600:United States
596:
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590:
586:
585:Great Britain
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579:
576:to the Dutch
575:
570:
568:
563:
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555:
550:
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542:
537:
527:
525:
520:
515:
512:
510:
506:
502:
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490:
486:
474:
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452:
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445:
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439:
438:
434:
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416:United States
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
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397:
394:
392:
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384:
382:
379:
377:
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372:
369:
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364:
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344:
342:
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329:
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297:
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289:
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279:
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209:
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202:
199:
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186:
185:
182:
179:
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172:
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167:
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162:
159:
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156:
155:
151:
150:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
113:Draft evasion
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
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91:
89:
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81:
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8073:Anti-statism
8063:Anti-fascism
7968:South Africa
7468:Pi i Margall
7165:
7014:
6975:Anarcho-punk
6962:
6937:Wage slavery
6902:Gift economy
6797:Postcolonial
6779:Contemporary
6732:Independence
6679:Collectivist
6598:Love and sex
6427:Deep ecology
6364:Anationalism
6114:World War II
5970:Flower power
5822:
5662:Isolationism
5536:Peace treaty
5440:
5243:. Retrieved
5222:Molly Stuart
5215:
5173:
5159:
5152:
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5106:
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4970:
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4942:the original
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4909:the original
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4812:
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4753:
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4737:the original
4733:ntvmsnbc.com
4732:
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4697:
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4546:
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4489:
4463:. Retrieved
4453:
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4437:the original
4432:
4423:
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4401:
4383:
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4367:the original
4362:Korea Herald
4360:
4351:
4319:
4301:
4289:. Retrieved
4285:the original
4280:Korea Herald
4278:
4252:. Retrieved
4247:
4222:. Retrieved
4218:the original
4213:
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4171:
4162:
4150:. Retrieved
4140:
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4110:
4077:. Retrieved
4073:
4064:
4052:. Retrieved
4048:
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4006:the original
3979:
3967:. Retrieved
3963:the original
3958:
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3893:
3889:
3884:
3872:. Retrieved
3868:the original
3863:
3854:
3836:
3824:. Retrieved
3820:
3811:
3799:. Retrieved
3795:the original
3790:
3781:
3769:. Retrieved
3765:the original
3756:
3747:
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3731:the original
3726:
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3708:
3696:. Retrieved
3686:
3677:
3664:
3652:. Retrieved
3645:the original
3631:
3621:
3611:
3601:13 September
3599:. Retrieved
3594:
3584:
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3385:
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3343:
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3295:
3286:
3276:25 September
3274:. Retrieved
3270:the original
3259:
3249:
3241:
3229:. Retrieved
3220:
3208:. Retrieved
3199:
3188:
3176:
3164:. Retrieved
3160:the original
3149:
3137:. Retrieved
3127:
3113:
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3089:
3077:. Retrieved
3073:the original
3063:
3051:. Retrieved
3047:the original
3037:
3025:. Retrieved
3021:the original
3011:
2999:. Retrieved
2989:
2976:. Retrieved
2972:the original
2961:
2947:
2928:
2897:
2885:. Retrieved
2878:the original
2849:. Retrieved
2839:
2827:. Retrieved
2817:
2805:. Retrieved
2801:the original
2790:
2778:. Retrieved
2767:
2755:. Retrieved
2751:the original
2741:
2729:. Retrieved
2725:the original
2720:
2711:
2699:. Retrieved
2690:
2678:. Retrieved
2674:the original
2655:
2630:War resister
2625:Voluntaryism
2533:
2529:
2526:
2513:
2507:
2496:
2484:
2473:
2441:
2433:firefighting
2405:
2401:Commonwealth
2370:
2354:
2347:
2334:
2314:
2287:
2253:
2245:
2239:was named a
2233:
2206:
2198:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2134:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2042:
2029:South Africa
2023:
2014:
1996:
1985:Leon Trotsky
1978:
1954:
1924:
1900:
1896:
1885:
1866:, with only
1861:
1835:
1822:
1804:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1753:
1739:
1728:
1726:
1722:elderly care
1717:Roman Herzog
1714:
1709:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1642:
1634:
1631:armed forces
1624:
1620:
1616:
1614:
1607:
1594:East Germany
1591:
1582:East Germany
1564:Nazi Germany
1561:
1558:Nazi Germany
1542:
1538:
1530:
1527:
1523:Louis Lecoin
1513:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1453:
1431:
1423:
1395:
1387:
1351:
1333:
1330:
1322:
1300:
1292:
1261:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1226:
1206:
1192:
1173:
1168:
1161:Baháʼí Faith
1158:
1147:
1143:
1121:
1115:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1088:
1081:
1076:
1047:Christianity
1043:Roman Empire
1040:
1035:
1023:
1014:
992:
968:
963:
899:
876:
874:
848:
833:
826:
820:
801:
781:
772:
764:National law
745:
737:
725:
721:
710:
702:
695:
681:
666:
653:Muhammad Ali
635:
630:
627:. It reads:
618:
604:conscription
597:
582:
571:
567:Maximilianus
564:
560:
552:
545:The Deserter
544:
523:
516:
513:
509:conscription
484:
482:
376:South Africa
171:Soviet Union
143:War resister
92:
53:Conscription
46:
39:
29:
7983:Switzerland
7943:Puerto Rico
7928:Philippines
7893:New Zealand
7888:Netherlands
7758:El Salvador
7593:Periodicals
7156:Tragic Week
7027:Lifestylism
6922:Mutual bank
6877:Cooperative
6842:Platformism
6792:Free-market
6720:Primitivist
6603:Nationalism
6532:Somatherapy
6442:Freethought
6261:Switzerland
6246:Netherlands
6119:Vietnam War
6109:World War I
5980:Human Be-In
5717:World peace
5682:Nonviolence
5647:Finvenkismo
5627:Appeasement
5541:Peaceworker
4624:: 286–304.
4567:Peter Brock
4373:21 December
4012:31 December
3959:wri-irg.org
3864:wri-irg.org
3817:"unhchr.ch"
3757:wri-irg.org
3391:19 December
3231:21 February
3210:21 February
2595:Pax Christi
2519:too great.
2515:Zivildienst
2509:Zivildienst
2504:Switzerland
2487:World War I
2298:Press gangs
2223:. In 2005,
2111:interviews.
2063:South Korea
1993:Leo Tolstoy
1976:hospitals.
1864:New Zealand
1858:New Zealand
1852: 1923
1785:ultra vires
1702:Wehrübungen
1686:West Berlin
1665:, in short
1661:, existed.
1626:Zivildienst
1533:Pierre Joxe
1184:Wiccan rede
1165:Baháʼí laws
1128:nonviolence
1111:Switzerland
649:Vietnam War
632:observance.
391:Switzerland
331:New Zealand
306:South Korea
301:North Korea
118:Impressment
8198:Categories
8103:Dual Power
8088:Autonomism
8083:Autarchism
7743:East Timor
7713:Costa Rica
7658:Bangladesh
7653:Azerbaijan
7363:Feyerabend
7000:Freeganism
6650:Illegalist
6588:Capitalism
6527:Sociocracy
6497:Revolution
6462:Mutual aid
6394:Black bloc
6226:Costa Rica
6012:Peace walk
5824:Peace News
5702:Satyagraha
5687:Pacificism
5677:Nonkilling
5591:Anarchism
5580:Ideologies
5496:Peace camp
5235:"Objector"
4978:12 October
4951:25 October
4780:0802087078
4152:7 November
4079:25 January
4054:25 January
3892:See also:
3737:21 October
3654:2 December
3351:11 January
3345:The Nation
3336:The Nation
3166:8 December
3139:9 December
2938:0313291160
2887:2 December
2829:9 December
2807:8 December
2780:2 December
2647:References
2464:See also:
2306:Royal Navy
2237:İnan Süver
2213:Azerbaijan
2188:See also:
2167:insumisión
2067:See also:
1979:After the
1729:Bundeswehr
1635:Bundeswehr
1617:Wehrdienst
1475:Winter War
1448:See also:
1342:See also:
1201:Christian
1078:Ben Salmon
1041:After the
1017:(1917) by
983:Isaiah 2:4
914:Mennonites
797:No 3 Group
663:." in 1966
578:Mennonites
554:The Masses
351:Mozambique
201:Azerbaijan
67:press gang
38:Objector (
8143:Socialism
8093:Communism
8028:Venezuela
7963:Singapore
7898:Nicaragua
7823:Indonesia
7803:Hong Kong
7798:Guatemala
7643:Australia
7633:Argentina
7604:By region
7588:Musicians
7493:Santillán
7443:Malatesta
7413:Kropotkin
7393:Guillaume
7071:Symbolism
6985:DIY ethic
6862:Economics
6807:Post-left
6752:Christian
6747:Religious
6684:Communist
6669:Mutualist
6633:Classical
6593:Education
6542:Squatting
6502:Rewilding
6437:Free love
6331:Anarchism
6214:Countries
6195:Landmines
6183:in Russia
6141:Criticism
5950:Desertion
5436:Code Pink
5245:2 October
4999:, (2008),
4743:12 August
4646:249051063
4638:1469-2171
4614:Cambridge
4500:12 August
4465:12 August
4443:7 October
4413:12 August
4291:8 January
4254:12 August
3983:From the
3969:12 August
3940:In German
3920:In German
3874:12 August
3826:12 August
3821:unhchr.ch
3801:12 August
3753:"Eritrea"
3386:gameo.org
3301:12 August
3103:12 August
2731:12 August
2302:Admiralty
2209:in Turkey
2171:insumisos
2163:insumisos
2151:Red Cross
1633:(German:
1525:in 1962.
1520:anarchist
1378:Dukhobors
1366:Hutterite
1362:Mennonite
1242:bona fide
1208:Wehrmacht
1144:yamabushi
752:desertion
726:In 2001,
657:Viet Cong
381:Sri Lanka
371:Singapore
316:Lithuania
245:reduction
196:Australia
191:Argentina
8176:Category
7938:Portugal
7918:Paraguay
7878:Mongolia
7863:Malaysia
7708:Colombia
7688:Bulgaria
7478:Proudhon
7438:Maksimov
7418:Landauer
7368:Giovanni
7318:Bookchin
7233:May 1968
7005:Infoshop
6757:Buddhist
6742:Pacifist
6710:Feminist
6689:Magonist
6657:Naturist
6613:Violence
6608:Religion
6507:Sabotage
6339:Concepts
6289:Category
6146:Protests
6136:Iraq War
6039:Teach-in
5692:Pacifism
5393:Anti-war
5351:Objector
5273:Pacifism
5191:Archived
4682:Archived
4662:Archived
4618:New York
4552:17 March
4475:cite web
4391:Archived
4341:Archived
4309:Archived
4224:13 April
3698:27 April
3490:Archived
3467:Archived
3319:Archived
3053:30 April
3001:30 April
2851:24 April
2721:OpEdNews
2538:See also
2435:and the
2393:Irishmen
1959:allowed
1913:and the
1881:Waikeria
1845:Waikeria
1812:traitors
1410:Slovakia
1384:Colombia
1195:Austrian
1167:include
1132:Buddhist
1060:holy war
1056:crusades
908:such as
887:Anglesey
651:, boxer
638:ratified
497:religion
8183:Outline
8133:Marxism
8033:Vietnam
8023:Uruguay
8008:Ukraine
7998:Tunisia
7948:Romania
7903:Nigeria
7883:Morocco
7833:Ireland
7813:Iceland
7808:Hungary
7788:Germany
7783:Georgia
7768:Finland
7763:Estonia
7748:Ecuador
7733:Denmark
7718:Croatia
7673:Bolivia
7668:Belgium
7663:Belarus
7648:Austria
7638:Armenia
7628:Andorra
7623:Algeria
7618:Albania
7538:Yarchuk
7513:Tolstoy
7508:Thoreau
7503:Stirner
7498:Spooner
7463:Parsons
7388:Graeber
7378:Goldman
7338:Durruti
7323:Chomsky
7313:Bonanno
7308:Berkman
7303:Bakunin
7082:History
7032:May Day
6954:Culture
6349:Anarchy
6231:Germany
5862:Symbols
5808:Museums
4547:Reuters
4526:29 June
4248:Reuters
3849:, p.168
3771:19 June
3296:Findlaw
2500:Austria
2391:. Many
2373:Ireland
2294:Militia
2290:Quakers
2155:Navarre
1927:Romania
1921:Romania
1868:Quakers
1823:In the
1807:Italian
1776:yeshiva
1736:Hungary
1684:Due to
1547:Germany
1444:Finland
1434:Eritrea
1428:Eritrea
1420:Denmark
1380:(20%).
1325:Belgian
1319:Belgium
1280:Finland
1197:devout
1107:Armenia
1024:In the
910:Quakers
748:refugee
598:In the
589:Quakers
530:History
524:develop
444:Ireland
426:Vietnam
421:Ukraine
321:Myanmar
281:Germany
276:Georgia
266:Finland
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