1585:(2016) has indicated that the continuing reassessment of Niger–Congo's "internal structure is due largely to the preliminary nature of Greenberg's classification, explicitly based as it was on a methodology that doesn't produce proofs for genetic affiliations between languages but rather aims at identifying "likely candidates."...The ongoing descriptive and documentary work on individual languages and their varieties, greatly expanding our knowledge on formerly little-known linguistic regions, is helping to identify clusters and units that allow for the application of the historical-comparative method. Only the reconstruction of lower-level units, instead of "big picture" contributions based on mass comparison, can help to verify (or disprove) our present concept of Niger–Congo as a genetic grouping consisting of Benue–Congo plus Volta–Niger, Kwa, Adamawa plus Gur, Kru, the so-called Kordofanian languages, and probably the language groups traditionally classified as Atlantic."
2710:. "No comprehensive reconstruction has yet been done for the phylum as a whole, and it is sometimes suggested (e.g. by Dixon 1997) that Niger-Congo is merely a typological and not a genetic unity. This view is not held by any specialists in the phylum, and reasons for thinking Niger-Congo is a true genetic unity will be given in this chapter. It is, however, true that the subclassification of the phylum has been continuously modified in recent years and cannot be presented as an agreed scheme. The factors which have delayed reconstruction are the large number of languages, the inaccessibility of much of the data, and the paucity of able researchers committed to this field. Emphasis will be placed on three characteristics of Niger-Congo; noun-class systems, verbal extensions, and basic lexicon." See also: Bendor-Samuel, J. ed. 1989.
399:, which is not contiguous with the remainder of the Niger–Congo-language-speaking region and is at the northeasternmost extent of the current Niger–Congo linguistic region. The current prevailing linguistic view is that Kordofanian languages are part of the Niger–Congo language family and that these may be the first of the many languages still spoken in that region to have been spoken in the region. The evidence is insufficient to determine if this outlier group of Niger–Congo language speakers represents a prehistoric range of a Niger–Congo linguistic region that has since contracted as other languages have intruded, or if instead, this represents a group of Niger–Congo language speakers who migrated to the area at some point in prehistory where they were an isolated linguistic community from the beginning.
1908:. However, this is the rarer inventory as oftentimes there are one or more vowels that are not part of a harmonic pair. This has resulted in seven- and nine-vowel systems being the more popular systems. The majority of languages with controlled vowel harmony have either seven or nine vowel phonemes, with the most common non-participatory vowel being /a/. It has been asserted that this is because vowel quality differences in the mid-central region where /ə/, the counterpart of /a/, is found, are difficult to perceive. Another possible reason for the non-participatory status of /a/ is that there is articulatory difficulty in advancing the tongue root when the tongue body is low in order to produce a low vowel. Therefore, the vowel inventory for nine-vowel languages is generally:
1544:, which is in current use among linguists. Many classifications continue to place Kordofanian as the most distant branch, but mainly due to negative evidence (fewer lexical correspondences), rather than positive evidence that the other languages form a valid genealogical group. Likewise, Mande is often assumed to be the second-most distant branch based on its lack of the noun-class system prototypical of the Niger–Congo family. Other branches lacking any trace of the noun-class system are Dogon and Ijaw, whereas the Talodi branch of Kordofanian does have cognate noun classes, suggesting that Kordofanian is also not a unitary group.
2959:, 2 vols. (1976–1977). Blench (2004): "Almost simultaneously , Mukarovsky (1976–7) published his analysis of 'Western Nigritic'. Mukarovsky's basic theme was the relationship between the reconstructions of Bantu of Guthrie and other writers and the languages of West Africa. Mukarovsky excluded Kordofanian, Mande, Ijo, Dogon, Adamawa-Ubangian and most Bantoid languages for unknown reasons, thus reconstructing an idiosyncratic grouping. Nonetheless, he buttressed his argument with an extremely valuable compilation of data, establishing the case for Bantu/Niger-Congo genetic link beyond reasonable doubt."
168:
1407:
1419:
1395:
1609:, Crevels, and Muysken (2020) stated: "Greenberg's hypothesis of Niger–Congo phylum has sometimes been taken as an established fact rather than a hypothesis awaiting further proof, but there have also been attempts to look at his argumentation in more detail. Much of the discussion concerning Niger–Congo after Greenberg's seminal contribution in fact centered around the inclusion or exclusion of specific languages or language groups."
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1896:
vowel that is in the whole word, then the rest of the vowels harmonize with that feature. However, if there is no vowel that is , the vowels appear in their underlying form. This form of vowel harmony control is best exhibited in West
African languages. For example, in Nawuri, the diminutive suffix /-bi/ will cause the underlying vowels in a word to become phonetically .
1490:
375:(2004), all specialists in Niger–Congo languages believe the languages to have a common origin, rather than merely constituting a typological classification, for reasons including their shared noun-class system, shared verbal extensions and shared basic lexicon. Similar classifications to Niger–Congo have been made ever since
2059:
between oral and nasal consonants before oral and nasal vowels. Subsequent loss of the nasal/oral contrast in vowels may result in nasal consonants becoming part of the phoneme inventory. In all cases reported to date, the bilabial /m/ is the first nasal consonant to be phonologized. Niger–Congo thus
1578:
Babaev (2013) stated: "The truth here is that almost no attempts in fact have been made to verify
Greenberg's Niger–Congo hypothesis. This might seem strange but the path laid by Joseph Greenberg to Proto–Niger–Congo was not followed by much research. Most scholars have focused on individual families
1514:
took
Westermann's work as a starting-point for his own classification. In a series of articles published between 1949 and 1954, he argued that Westermann's 'West Sudanic' and Bantu formed a single genetic family, which he named Niger–Congo; that Bantu constituted a subgroup of the Benue–Congo branch;
1895:
Unlike in the root-controlled harmony system, where the two values behave symmetrically, a large number of Niger–Congo languages exhibit a pattern where the value is more active or dominant than the value. This results in the second vowel harmony controller being the value. If there is even one
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in other languages, but there are often a fairly large number of classes (often 10 or more), and the classes may be male human/female human/animate/inanimate, or even completely gender-unrelated categories such as places, plants, abstracts, and groups of objects. For example, in Bantu, the
Swahili
1480:
In this period a relation between Bantu and languages with Bantu-like (but less complete) noun class systems began to emerge. Some authors saw the latter as languages which had not yet completely evolved to full Bantu status, whereas others regarded them as languages which had partly lost original
383:
continued that tradition, making it the starting point for modern linguistic classification in Africa, with some of his most notable publications going to press starting in the 1960s. However, there has been active debate for many decades over the appropriate subclassifications of the languages in
1899:
There are two types of vowels which affect the harmony process. These are known as neutral or opaque vowels. Neutral vowels do not harmonize to the value of the word, and instead maintain their own value. The vowels that follow them, however, will receive the value of the root. Opaque vowels
1616:. The term, as presently used, however, is not without its difficulties. On the one hand, it is employed as a referential label for a group of over 1,500 languages, putting it among the largest commonly cited language groups in the world. On the other hand, the term is also intended to embody a
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between a form in Bantu and in
Atlantic languages, or between Bantu and Mande, we have all grounds to trace this form back to Niger–Congo. If we establish such a relationship between Mel and Kru or between Mande and Dogon, we don't have enough reason to claim it Niger–Congo. In other words, all
2527:
The term , as presently used, however, is not without its difficulties. On the one hand, it is employed as a referential label for a group of over 1,500 languages, putting it among the largest commonly cited language groups in the world. On the other hand, the term is also intended to embody a
2037:
The fact that ten vowels have been reconstructed for proto-Ijoid has led to the hypothesis that the original vowel inventory of Niger–Congo was a full ten-vowel system. On the other hand, Stewart, in recent comparative work, reconstructs a seven-vowel system for his proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu.
1903:
The vowel inventory listed above is a ten-vowel language. This is a language in which all of the vowels of the language participate in the harmony system, producing five harmonic pairs. Vowel inventories of this type are still found in some branches of Niger–Congo, for example in the
1650:, which has consequently had a disproportionate influence on conceptions of what Proto–Niger–Congo may have been like. The only stage higher than Proto-Bantu that has been reconstructed is a pilot project by Stewart, who since the 1970s has reconstructed the common ancestor of the
1508:. In a 1911 work he established a basic division between 'East' and 'West'. A historical reconstruction of West Sudanic was published in 1927, and in his 1935 'Charakter und Einteilung der Sudansprachen' he conclusively established the relationship between Bantu and West Sudanic.
2095:
is thought to have been a tone language with two contrastive levels. Synchronic and comparative-historical studies of tone systems show that such a basic system can easily develop more tonal contrasts under the influence of depressor consonants or through the introduction of a
2469:
all coming after the noun. The major exceptions are found in the western areas where verb-final word order predominates and genitives precede nouns, though other modifiers still come afterwards. Degree words almost always follow adjectives, and except in verb-final languages
1550:(2012) stated: "The hypothesis of kinship between Niger–Congo languages didn't appear as a result of discovery of numerous related forms, for example, in Mande and Adamawa. It appeared as a result of comparison between the Bantu languages, for which the classical
1791:) feature. In this type of vowel harmony, the position of the root of the tongue in regards to backness is the phonetic basis for the distinction between two harmonizing sets of vowels. In its fullest form, this type involves two classes, each of five vowels.
2054:
have originated under the influence of nasal vowels; this hypothesis is supported by the fact that there are several Niger–Congo languages that have been analysed as lacking nasal consonants altogether. Languages like this have nasal vowels accompanied with
1837:
There are two types of vowel harmony controllers in Niger–Congo. The first controller is the root. When a root contains a or vowel, then that value is applied to the rest of the word, which involves crossing morpheme boundaries. For example, suffixes in
2087:. A typical Niger–Congo tone system involves two or three contrastive level tones. Four-level systems are less widespread, and five-level systems are rare. Only a few Niger–Congo languages are non-tonal; Swahili is perhaps the best known, but within the
1579:
or groups, and classifications as well as reconstructions were made on lower levels. Compared with the volume of literature on
Atlantic or Mande languages, the list of papers considering the aspects of Niger–Congo reconstruction per se is quite scarce."
2477:
The verb-final languages of the Mende region have two quite unusual word order characteristics. Although verbs follow their direct objects, oblique adpositional phrases (like "in the house", "with timber") typically come after the verb, creating a
472:
The following is an overview of the language groups usually included in Niger–Congo. The genetic relationship of some branches is not universally accepted, and the cladistic connection between those who are accepted as related may also be unclear.
2443:. However, the structure SC-OC-VbStem (Subject concord, Object concord, Verb stem) found in the "verbal complex" of the SVO Bantu languages suggests an earlier SOV pattern (where the subject and object were at least represented by pronouns).
3870:
1453:
attempted a careful classification, the groupings of which in quite a number of cases correspond to modern groupings. An early sketch of the extent of Niger–Congo as one language family can be found in Koelle's observation, echoed in
1575:, apart from the recent inclusion of some of the Kordofanian groups, but not Niger–Congo as a whole. They list the following as separate families: Atlantic–Congo, Mande, Dogon, Ijoid, Lafofa, Katla-Tima, Heiban, Talodi, and Rashad.
1891:
Furthermore, the directionality of assimilation in root-controlled vowel harmony need not be specified. The root features and spread left and/or right as needed, so that no vowel would lack a specification and be ill-formed.
2438:
Whereas Claudi (1993) argues for SVO on the basis of existing SVO > SOV grammaticalization paths, Gensler (1997) points out that the notion of 'basic word order' is problematic as it excludes structures with, for example,
323:. The connection of the Mande languages especially has never been demonstrated, and without them, the validity of Niger–Congo family as a whole (as opposed to Atlantic–Congo or a similar subfamily) has not been established.
2347:
In the Bantu languages, where noun classification is particularly elaborate, it typically appears as prefixes, with verbs and adjectives marked according to the class of the noun they refer to. For example, in
Swahili,
1770:
Several branches of Niger–Congo have a regular phonological contrast between two classes of consonants. Pending more clarity as to the precise nature of this contrast, it is commonly characterized as a contrast between
1515:
that
Adamawa-Eastern, previously not considered to be related, was another member of this family; and that Fula belonged to the West Atlantic languages. Just before these articles were collected in final book form (
206:
system), and possibly several smaller groups of languages that are difficult to classify. If valid, Niger–Congo would be the world's largest in terms of member languages, the third-largest in terms of speakers, and
1900:
maintain their own value as well, but they affect the harmony process behind them. All of the vowels following an opaque vowel will harmonize with the value of the opaque vowel instead of the vowel of the root.
1761:
change. Verbs are composed of a root followed by one or more extensional suffixes. Nouns consist of a root originally preceded by a noun class prefix of (C)V- shape which is often eroded by phonological change.
879:
of languages of uncertain genetic unity, spoken along the Ivory Coast, across southern Ghana and in central Togo, with a total of some 40 million speakers (2010s). The largest language in this group is
1757:(though it has not been reconstructed) is thought to have been CVCV, a structure still attested in, for example, Bantu, Mande and Ijoid – in many other branches this structure has been reduced through
1346:
region. These are minor languages, spoken by a total of about 100,000 people according to 1980s estimates. Katla and Rashad languages show isoglosses with Benue–Congo that the other families lack.
2316:, traces of which can be found in every branch of the family but Mande, Ijoid, Dogon, and the Katla and Rashad branches of Kordofanian. These noun-classification systems are somewhat analogous to
391:
An important unresolved issue in determining the time and place where the Niger–Congo languages originated and their range prior to recorded history is this language family's relationship to the
441:, as part of the Niger–Congo language family is disputed. Ubangian was grouped with Niger–Congo by Greenberg (1963), and later authorities concurred, but it was questioned by Dimmendaal (2008).
3889:
426:. These estimates of the place of origin of the Benue–Congo language family do not fix a date for the start of that expansion, other than that it must have been sufficiently prior to the
1481:
features still found in Bantu. The
Bantuist Meinhof made a major distinction between Bantu and a 'Semi-Bantu' group which according to him was originally of the unrelated Sudanic stock.
1443:, one of the principal criteria used to distinguish different groupings was the languages' use of prefixes to classify nouns, or the lack thereof. A major advance came with the work of
1554:
was possible to be applied and which were reliably reconstructed, with other
African languages. Niger–Congo does not exist without Bantu. We need to say clearly that if we establish a
1418:
2060:
invalidates two common assumptions about nasals: that all languages have at least one primary nasal consonant, and that if a language has only one primary nasal consonant it is /n/.
1834:
The roots are then divided into and categories. This feature is lexically assigned to the roots because there is no determiner within a normal root that causes the value.
232:
alone account for 350 million people (2015), or half the total Niger–Congo speaking population. The most widely spoken Niger–Congo languages by number of native speakers are
1458:(1856), that the Atlantic languages used prefixes just like many Southern African languages. Subsequent work of Bleek, and some decades later the comparative work of
641:
have been demonstrated to be Atlantic–Congo languages. It otherwise accepts the family but not its inclusion within a broader Niger–Congo. Glottolog also considers
820:: about 70 languages spoken in the Sahel and Savanna regions of West Africa, accounting for some 20 million speakers (2010). The largest language of this group is
1540:(1989). Kordofanian was presented as one of several primary branches rather than being coordinate to the family as a whole, prompting re-introduction of the term
3590:
le Saout (1973) for an early overview, Stewart (1976) for a diachronic, Volta–Congo wide analysis, Capo (1981) for a synchronic analysis of nasality in Gbe (see
3108:
3348:
228:
The proposed family would be the third-largest in the world by number of native speakers, with around 700 million people as of 2015. Within Niger–Congo, the
4053:
1684:' (now classified as Niger–Congo) were united. Gregersen (1972) proposed that Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan be united into a larger phylum, which he termed
3747:
6224:
1477:
considered Bantu to be of African origin, and many 'Mixed Negro languages' as products of an encounter between Bantu and intruding Asiatic languages.
3902:
The Bill Question: Contributions to the Study of Linguistics and Languages in Honor of Bill J. Darden on the Occasion of His Sixty-sixth Birthday
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476:
The core phylum of the Niger–Congo group are the Atlantic–Congo languages. The non-Atlantic–Congo languages within Niger–Congo are grouped as
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3726:
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methods. The East/West Volta–Congo division, West/East Benue–Congo division, and North/South Bantoid division are not supported, whereas a
3072:
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4191:
3594:), and Bole-Richard (1984, 1985) as cited in Williamson (1989) for similar reports on several Mande, Gur, Kru, Kwa, and Ubangi languages.
1612:
Good (2020) stated: "First proposed by Greenberg (1949), Niger–Congo (NC) has for decades been treated as one of the four major phyla of
2751:
2707:
1646:
of Proto–Niger–Congo in 2018. The most extensive reconstructions of lower-order Niger–Congo branches include several reconstructions of
1536:
Bennet and Sterk (1977) presented an internal reclassification based on lexicostatistics that laid the foundation for the regrouping in
2683:
1406:
2775:(the published results from a major project of the Institute of African and Asian Studies: the Language Survey of the Nuba Mountains.)
615:
Although the Kordofanian branch is generally included in the Niger–Congo languages, some researchers do not agree with its inclusion.
4122:
2974:
2901:
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assimilate to the value of the root to which they attach. The following examples of these suffixes alternate depending on the root.
1177:
3962:
Stewart, John M. (2002). "The potential of Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated".
3564:
Stewart, John M. (2002). "The potential of Proto-Potou-Akanic-Bantu as a pilot Proto-Niger-Congo, and the reconstructions updated".
410:
as well as time at which it started to expand is known with great specificity. Blench (2004), relying particularly on prior work by
1654:
and Bantu languages, without so far considering the hundreds of other languages which presumably descend from that same ancestor.
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group consisting of Ekoid, Bendi, Dakoid, Jukunoid, Tivoid, Mambiloid, Beboid, Mamfe, Tikar, Grassfields, and Bantu is supported.
6217:
4040:
1533:. Greenberg's work on African languages, though initially greeted with scepticism, became the prevailing view among scholars.
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3883:
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Blench, Roger (January 1995). "Is Niger-Congo simply a branch of Nilo-Saharan?". In Nicolaï, Robert; Rottland, Franz (eds.).
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As noted by Williamson (1989:24). The assumptions are from Ferguson's (1963) 'Assumptions about nasals' in Greenberg (ed.)
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1696:(1995), who puts forward phonological, morphological and lexical evidence for uniting Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan in a
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860:. Senufo has been placed traditionally within Gur but is now usually considered an early offshoot from Atlantic–Congo.
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Niger–Congo as it is known today was only gradually recognized as a linguistic unit. In early classifications of the
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Actes du Cinquième Colloque de Linguistique Nilo-Saharienne: 24 - 29 août 1992, Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis
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303:) is widely accepted, the internal cladistic structure is not well established. Other primary branches may include
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1473:, in his ambitious classification (1876–88), separated the 'Negro' and Bantu languages. Likewise, the Africanist
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2100:. Languages which have more tonal levels tend to use tone more for lexical and less for grammatical contrasts.
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68:
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Olson, Kenneth S. (2006). "On Niger-Congo Classification". In Darden, Bill J.; Aronson, Howard Isaac (eds.).
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hypothesis of genealogical relationship between the referential NC languages that has not been proven (p.139)
2034:
Note that in the nine-vowel language, the missing vowel is, in fact, , 's counterpart, as would be expected.
1905:
17:
4109:
1285:, estimated at 1.6 million as of 2013. May have a noun-class system related to the Atlantic–Congo languages.
530:. It comprises more than 80% of the Niger–Congo speaking population, or close to 600 million people (2015).
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this language family, which is a key tool used in localising a language's place of origin. No definitive "
356:
The language family most likely originated in or near the area where these languages were spoken prior to
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5126:
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Williamson, Kay (2000). "Towards reconstructing Proto-Niger-Congo". In Wolff, H. E.; Gensler, O. (eds.).
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2412:
2067:, a language with a ten-vowel system employing ATR vowel harmony, has seven nasalized vowels. Similarly,
1501:
941:": a large group of languages centred on Nigeria, accounting for about 100 million speakers (late 2010s)
1424:
Table of demographic estimates in the same color code as the maps (est. 400 million speakers as of 2007)
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systems of its languages. Atlantic–Congo largely corresponds to Mukarovsky's "Western Nigritic" phylum.
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word order. Also noteworthy in these languages is the prevalence of internally headed and correlative
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1704:. However, fifteen years later his views had changed, with Blench (2011) proposing instead that the
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3878:. Documents on Social Sciences and Humanities. Tervuren, Belgium: Royal Museum for Central Africa.
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The coherence of Niger–Congo as a language phylum is supported by Grollemund, et al. (2016), using
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1024:
803:
438:
430:
to allow for the diversification of the languages within this language family that includes Bantu.
360:(i.e. West Africa or Central Africa). Its expansion may have been associated with the expansion of
585:, which account for 350 million people (2015), or half the total Niger–Congo speaking population.
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Dimmendaal, Gerrit (2008). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent".
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The putative Niger–Congo languages outside of the Atlantic–Congo family are centred in the upper
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The strict genetic unity of any of these subgroups may themselves be under dispute. For example,
257:
3735:
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Can Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic help us understand the evolution of Niger-Congo noun classes?
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In many cases, wider classifications employed a blend of typological and racial criteria. Thus,
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The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family
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One of the most distinctive characteristics common to Atlantic–Congo languages is the use of a
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to be independent language phyla that have not been demonstrated to be related to each other.
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of genealogical relationship between the referential NC languages that has not been proven."
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Tivoid-Beboid: a large range of languages of southwestern Cameroon and southeastern Nigeria:
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in Niger–Congo. In his reconstruction of proto-Volta–Congo, Steward (1976) postulates that
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3618:"Niger-Congo languages – Widespread characteristics of Niger-Congo languages | Britannica"
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Williamson, Kay; Blench, Roger (2000). "Niger-Congo". In Bernd Heine; Derek Nurse (eds.).
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Atlantic group accounts for about 35 million speakers as of 2016, mostly accounted for by
8:
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Towards Volta-Congo reconstruction: a comparative study of some languages of Black-Africa
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as a branch co-ordinate with Niger–Congo as a whole; consequently, he renamed the family
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of West African languages, accounting for roughly 110–120 million speakers (late 2010s).
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208:
2652:
6740:
6510:
6421:
6251:
5830:
5825:
5815:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5772:
5741:
5736:
5689:
5683:
5634:
5579:
5502:
5386:
5350:
5311:
5253:
5060:
5055:
4766:
4525:
4494:
4460:
4448:
4407:
4282:
3811:
3111:. Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: comparison and reconstruction (2nd International Congress)
2317:
2252:
2088:
2084:
1551:
1537:
1394:
1188:
825:
798:
761:
665:
597:
542:
534:
523:
434:
300:
191:
5927:
5890:
2293:
Abbreviations used: T top, H high, M mid, L low, B bottom, PA/S pitch-accent or stress
1489:
7133:
7040:
6709:
6524:
6378:
6352:
6332:
6260:
5841:
5746:
5726:
5665:
5645:
5356:
5317:
5288:
5276:
5213:
5159:
5137:
5110:
5050:
5023:
4842:
4803:
4793:
4761:
4634:
4560:
4542:
4536:
4438:
4356:
4270:
4087:
4070:
4017:
4007:
4002:
Williamson, Kay; Blench, Roger. "Niger-Congo". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.).
3988:
3932:
3924:
3905:
3879:
3836:
3711:
3673:
3648:
3524:
3498:
3451:
3418:
3248:
3202:
3159:
3130:
3088:
3053:
3004:
2867:
2801:, edited by E. J. Alagoa, F. N. Anozie and N. Nzewunwa. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
2590:
2563:
2516:
2263:
2226:
2168:
2092:
1754:
1729:
1689:
1673:
1613:
1606:
1593:
1505:
1196:
1162:
782:
605:
593:
538:
414:
and P. De Wolf, argued that Benue–Congo probably originated at the confluence of the
406:, the largest subfamily of the group. Within Benue–Congo, the place of origin of the
216:
5932:
5921:
5901:
4239:
4047:
2661:
2636:
1692:, morphological resemblances, and lexical similarities. A more recent proponent was
821:
281:
7201:
7147:
7140:
7098:
7047:
6863:
6723:
6716:
6652:
6624:
6585:
6517:
6457:
6451:
6395:
6326:
6313:
6149:
6009:
5999:
5994:
5948:
5942:
5911:
5804:
5699:
5623:
5561:
5513:
5448:
5441:
5434:
5427:
5420:
5409:
5393:
5328:
5323:
5306:
5247:
5141:
5073:
4984:
4951:
4919:
4815:
4787:
4736:
4657:
4641:
4627:
4609:
4602:
4588:
4548:
4530:
4514:
4500:
4322:
4305:
3971:
3844:
3832:
3803:
3782:
3573:
3545:
3474:
3447:
3393:
3239:
3192:
3080:
2996:
2656:
2373:
2285:
2234:
2192:
2154:
2142:
2130:
2126:
1772:
1511:
1504:, a pupil of Meinhof, set out to establish the internal classification of the then
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1316:
1262:
families). They account for a total population of about 100 million (2015), mostly
1192:
1137:
1109:
1057:
857:
832:
634:
630:
626:
501:
380:
320:
285:
265:
245:
98:
5989:
5937:
4929:
4159:
4093:
3465:
Doneux, Jean L. (1975). "Hypothèses pour la comparative des langues atlantiques".
2797:
Williamson, K. 1988. "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of the Niger Delta".
2586:
Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society
1310:
1263:
824:, with over 12 million speakers. Gur and Adamawa-Ubangi have also been grouped as
7184:
7177:
7171:
7092:
6945:
6941:
6897:
6883:
6770:
6695:
6638:
6631:
6617:
6558:
6470:
6437:
6430:
6144:
6019:
6004:
5973:
5694:
5655:
5520:
5466:
5338:
5200:
4966:
4961:
4826:
4741:
4622:
4615:
4595:
4577:
4482:
4465:
4264:
4153:
4137:
4130:
4126:
4113:
4083:
4066:
2687:
2483:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2248:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2164:
2138:
2068:
1705:
1560:
1463:
1370:
1322:
1306:
1300:
1288:
1274:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1172:
1152:
1143:
1113:
1095:
1091:
1082:
948:
853:
791:
787:
765:
734:
650:
646:
642:
609:
582:
570:
497:
493:
489:
481:
477:
449:
445:
427:
407:
403:
357:
351:
316:
308:
304:
233:
229:
195:
187:
173:
117:
92:
86:
80:
55:
1668:
Over the years, several linguists have suggested a link between Niger–Congo and
7260:
7253:
7215:
7207:
7033:
6989:
6921:
6838:
6782:
6734:
6681:
6675:
6598:
6463:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6338:
6319:
6154:
6014:
5983:
5954:
5585:
5471:
5454:
5404:
5399:
5270:
5207:
4977:
4971:
4891:
4886:
4832:
4809:
4554:
4376:
4333:
4316:
4310:
4288:
4276:
3773:
Casali, Roderic F. (1995). "On the Reduction of Vowel Systems in Volta-Congo".
3536:
Casali, Roderic F. (1995). "On the Reduction of Vowel Systems in Volta-Congo".
3107:
Rebecca Grollemund, Simon Branford, Jean-Marie Hombert & Mark Pagel. 2016.
3039:
Towards Proto-Niger-Congo: Comparison and Reconstruction International Congress
2440:
2330:
2271:
2230:
2196:
2172:
2146:
2134:
2122:
2072:
2064:
1839:
1709:
1643:
1638:(or Proto-Atlantic–Congo) has not been comprehensively reconstructed, although
1385:
1339:
1292:
1255:
1206:
1202:
1166:
1129:
1125:
1069:
1016:
964:
721:
692:
681:
485:
411:
312:
269:
261:
3786:
3549:
3398:
3381:
2836:
Blench, R. M. 1989. "A proposed new classification of Benue–Congo languages".
7319:
7276:
7222:
7087:
6999:
6994:
6985:
6980:
6976:
6971:
6930:
6876:
6870:
6856:
6849:
6794:
6788:
6777:
6764:
6702:
6444:
6383:
6372:
6363:
6308:
6302:
6283:
6038:
5978:
5960:
5476:
5460:
5414:
5171:
4991:
4956:
4946:
4924:
4881:
4746:
4327:
4259:
3936:
3928:
3760:
Capo, Hounkpati B.C. (1981). "Nasality in Gbe: A Synchronic Interpretation".
3643:
Haspelmath, Martin; Dryer, Matthew S.; Gil, David and Comrie, Bernard (eds.)
2870:(2008) "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent",
2462:
2372:
The same Atlantic–Congo languages which have noun classes also have a set of
2267:
2222:
2218:
2208:
2200:
2150:
1784:
1750:
1733:
1455:
1381:
1377:
1227:
1210:
973:
907:
881:
871:
837:
816:
769:
748:
726:
716:
710:
700:
677:
638:
601:
574:
554:
550:
546:
277:
273:
241:
237:
172:
Map showing the distribution of major Niger–Congo languages. Pink-red is the
111:
4169:
4021:
3314:(PhD dissertation). Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. p. ii.
3183:
2622:
1688:. His evidence was mainly based on the uncertainty in the classification of
388:" lexicon or grammar has been developed for the language family as a whole.
7003:
6967:
6963:
6843:
6813:
6729:
6289:
4935:
3478:
3197:
2885:
Disorders of Hemoglobin: Genetics, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Management
2338:
2238:
2204:
1693:
1459:
1342:. "Kordofanian" is a geographic grouping, not a genetic one, named for the
1278:
1147:
1063:
1003:
958:
927:
673:
589:
372:
253:
249:
3985:
African Voices: An Introduction to the Languages and Linguistics of Africa
3975:
3807:
3794:
Der-Houssikian, Haig (1972). "The Evidence for a Niger-Congo Hypothesis".
3577:
3495:
Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress of African Linguistics, Leipzig 1997
146:
6829:
4059:
3223:
Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa
2938:
2446:
2071:
has seven oral vowels and only five nasal ones. However, the language of
2047:
1713:
1647:
1522:
1296:
1267:
1247:
1231:
841:
790:, spoken by an estimated total of 1.6 million as of 1996; the largest is
757:
419:
415:
215:
has almost as many member languages, although this is complicated by the
4164:
4076:
2415:
word order is quite widespread among today's Niger–Congo languages, but
6202:
4582:
3815:
2677:
The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies
2471:
2432:
2313:
2051:
1721:
1617:
1007:
753:
657:
452:, leading to the assimilation and extinction of many of the indigenous
327:
221:
203:
3417:. Current Studies in Linguistics. Vol. 25. Cambridge: MIT Press.
3185:
The numeral system of Proto-Niger-Congo: A step-by-step reconstruction
2063:
Niger–Congo languages commonly show fewer nasalized than oral vowels.
3325:
Clements, G. N. (1981). "Akan vowel harmony: A non-linear analysis".
2454:
2397:
1758:
1717:
1567:
617:
154:
140:
136:
2738:
Historical inferences from linguistic research in sub-Saharan Africa
330:
system, which is essentially a gender system with multiple genders.
3705:
3191:. Niger-Congo Comparative Studies. Berlin: Language Science Press.
2637:"The demographic response to Holocene climate change in the Sahara"
2466:
2097:
1343:
1235:
944:
3058:
Journal of the Association for the Study of Language in Prehistory
684:
speakers. Atlantic is not considered to constitute a valid group.
4106:
2275:
1736:
of Niger–Congo, and the lexical similarities being due to loans.
1012:
923:
696:
461:
457:
423:
347:
3284:(2–3). Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics. Archived from
2431:. As a result, there has been quite some debate as to the basic
1753:
of the type CV (Consonant Vowel). The typical word structure of
7238:
6178:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
6159:
6057:
4146:
4035:
3438:
Casali, Roderic F. (2008). "ATR Harmony in African Languages".
3406:
2708:"The Benue-Congo languages: a proposed internal classification"
1720:
number system, triggered the development or elaboration of the
1672:, probably starting with Westermann's comparative work on the "
990:
969:
48:
3121:
Dimmendaal, Gerrit J.; Crevels, Mily; Muysken, Pieter (2020).
2538:
2536:
1708:
system of Central Sudanic, commonly reflected in a tripartite
565:(or "East Benue–Congo"). Volta–Niger includes the two largest
6824:
2046:
Several scholars have documented a contrast between oral and
954:
919:
911:
885:
849:
704:
453:
448:, beginning around 1000 BC, swept across much of Central and
433:
The classification of the relatively divergent family of the
396:
361:
2083:
The large majority of present-day Niger–Congo languages are
1497:
laid much of the basis for the understanding of Niger–Congo.
284:. The most widely spoken by the total number of speakers is
4142:
2814:. J. Bendor-Samuel ed. Lanham: University Press of America.
2533:
1319:, spoken in Dogon country but seemingly unrelated to Dogon.
1282:
936:
930:(7 million speakers in 2017) is the largest and best known.
915:
845:
806:. May be an independent family or grouped with Adamawa as "
786:: close to 100 languages and dialects scattered across the
364:
agriculture in the African Neolithic period, following the
288:, which is used as a lingua franca in parts of eastern and
2075:
has a nasal equivalent for each of its seven oral vowels.
1254:), and far to the east in south-central Sudan, around the
900:(also known as "West Benue–Congo" or "East Kwa"): a large
3945:
3919:
le Saout, J. (1973). "Languages sans consonnes nasales".
2784:
Williamson, K. 1971. "The Benue–Congo languages and Ijo"
2613:, Twenty-first edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
889:
888:, with about 22 million speakers as of 2014, followed by
402:
There is more agreement regarding the place of origin of
3120:
3071:
Storch, Anne; Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (11 February 2016).
2105:
Contrastive levels of tone in some Niger–Congo languages
4077:
Swadesh lists of African proto-language reconstructions
3473:. Tervuren: Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale: 41–129.
3054:"Joseph Greenberg and the Current State of Niger-Congo"
1951:
And seven-vowel languages have one of two inventories:
1603:(ASJP) also groups many Niger–Congo branches together.
549:. Outside of the Savannas group, Volta–Congo comprises
3668:
Bendor-Samuel, John; Hartell, Rhonda L., eds. (1989).
2740:. Boston University Papers in African History, 1:1–15.
1700:
phylum, with special affinity between Niger–Congo and
219:; the number of named Niger–Congo languages listed by
3647:; pp 346–385. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
3412:
3123:"Patterns of dispersal and diversification in Africa"
2449:
in most Niger–Congo languages are characteristically
1571:(2013) accepts the core with noun-class systems, the
1180:, for a total of between 250 and 550 named languages.
794:, accounting for about a quarter of Adamawa speakers.
3667:
3362:(1). Summer Institute of Linguistics. Archived from
3233:
3231:
2609:
Simons, Gary F. and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2018.
2312:
Niger–Congo languages are known for their system of
1484:
217:
ambiguity about what constitutes a distinct language
3032:"From Atlantic to Niger-Congo: three, two, one ..."
1521:) in 1963, he amended his classification by adding
1015:: group of languages of central Nigeria, including
4094:Phonologies and orthographies of African languages
3300:
3298:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3247:. Cascadilla Proceedings Project. pp. 70–71.
3152:"Niger-Congo, With A Special Focus On Benue Congo"
2987:Dimmendaal, Gerrit J.; Storch, Anne (2016-02-11).
2702:
2700:
2511:. In Vossen, Rainer; Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (eds.).
2509:"Niger-Congo, with a special focus on Benue-Congo"
1749:Niger–Congo languages have a clear preference for
1728:, with tripartite number marking surviving in the
1495:Die Sudansprachen: Eine sprachvergleichende Studie
3342:
3340:
3228:
2848:
2846:
2743:
2490:the relative clause rather than the main clause.
1201:other languages unclassified within Benue–Congo:
840:(about 3 million speakers as of 2010), spoken in
656:The Atlantic–Congo group is characterised by the
7317:
3869:Nurse, Derek; Rose, Sarah; Hewson, John (2016).
3413:Archangeli, Diana; Pulleyblank, Douglas (1994).
3127:Language Dispersal, Diversification, and Contact
3070:
3030:Pozdniakov, Konstantin (September 18–21, 2012).
2986:
2852:
3868:
3710:. Nilo-Saharan. Vol. 10. pp. 83–130.
3689:"South Central Niger-Congo: A reclassification"
3349:"Nawuri ATR Harmony in Typological Perspective"
3295:
3261:
2810:Williamson, K. 1989. "Benue–Congo Overview" in
2697:
1657:
3793:
3521:Towards Volta-Congo Reconstruction : Rede
3337:
2843:
2788:, 7. ed. T. Sebeok 245–306. The Hague: Mouton.
2634:
1338:are spoken in south-central Sudan, around the
6218:
4199:
4185:
3856:Gregersen, Edgar A. (1972). "Kongo-Saharan".
3639:
3637:
3373:
3318:
2969:
2967:
2965:
2857:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–12.
2515:. Oxford University Press. pp. 139–160.
1388:languages are often assigned to Niger–Congo.
561:(also "East Kwa" or "West Benue–Congo"), and
6188:Families with more than 30 languages are in
4165:Journal of African Languages and Linguistics
4001:
3964:Journal of African Languages and Linguistics
3686:
3566:Journal of African Languages and Linguistics
4056:, Derek Nurse, Sarah Rose & John Hewson
4048:An Evaluation of Niger–Congo Classification
3687:Bennett, Patrick R.; Sterk, Jan P. (1977).
3431:
2773:The Nuba Mountains: Who Spoke What in 1976?
1412:Overview map of Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon
802:: a group of minor languages spoken in the
27:Large language family of Sub-Saharan Africa
6225:
6211:
4192:
4178:
3943:
3822:
3634:
3607:, pp 50–60 as cited in Williamson art.cit.
3492:
3178:
3172:
3114:
3029:
3023:
2962:
2918:"Roger Blench: Niger-Congo reconstruction"
2825:The noun class system of Proto-Benue–Congo
2562:. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.
2555:
1329:
1299:(3 million as of 2011), plus the moribund
3855:
3843:
3397:
3196:
2660:
2556:Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (2000-08-03).
2376:and other verbal extensions, such as the
1664:Nilo-Saharan languages § Blench 2006
1429:
947:: 50 million speakers (2010s), including
344:Sub-Saharan Africa § Genetic history
6232:
3918:
3904:. Slavica Publishers. pp. 153–190.
3379:
3324:
3282:Occasional Papers in Applied Linguistics
3158:. Oxford University Press. p. 139.
3156:The Oxford Handbook of African Languages
3129:. Oxford University Press. p. 201.
2635:Manning, Katie; Timpson, Adrian (2014).
2513:The Oxford Handbook of African Languages
1680:' (now classified as Nilo-Saharan) and '
1488:
1434:
1094:spread across Sub-Saharan Africa in the
366:desiccation of the Sahara in c. 3500 BCE
3961:
3952:
3563:
3518:
3497:. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. pp. 49–70.
3304:
3109:Genetic unity of the Niger-Congo family
2989:"Niger-Congo: A brief state of the art"
2392:'to love each other'; also applicative
14:
7318:
4060:Preliminary Niger–Congo classification
3772:
3745:
3724:
3703:
3645:The World Atlas of Language Structures
3535:
3464:
3437:
3346:
3272:
3237:
3051:
3045:
2714:. Lanham: University Press of America.
2307:
1006:: a minor dialect continuum spoken in
395:, now spoken in the Nuba mountains of
340:Linguistic homeland § Niger–Congo
6206:
4173:
3923:. Série H, Linguistique (in French).
3899:
3523:. Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.
3077:Oxford Handbook Topics in Linguistics
2681:Igbo Language Roots and (Pre)-History
2582:
2419:is found in branches as divergent as
1601:Automated Similarity Judgment Program
1559:Niger–Congo languages are equal, but
3982:
3759:
3149:
3143:
3097:– via www.oxfordhandbooks.com.
3085:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935345.013.3
3001:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935345.013.3
2887:, Cambridge University Press, 2001,
2799:The early history of the Niger Delta
2506:
2367:
1313:, estimated at 70 million as of 2016
1019:with 1 to 2 million speakers (2010s)
713:, sometimes grouped with Senegambian
621:3.4 (2019) does not accept that the
526:, which do not form one branch, and
3241:Harmony in an Eleven Vowel Language
2625:, "The Language Gulper", March 2015
2589:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 2036.
2546:, "aboutworldlanguages", March 2015
2486:, in both of which the head occurs
1563:are "more equal" than the others."
299:of the core of Niger–Congo (called
24:
4107:Linguistique et Langues Africaines
4004:African Languages: An Introduction
3661:
2902:"Niger-Congo: an alternative view"
2855:African Languages: An Introduction
2749:
2611:Ethnologue: Languages of the World
2559:African Languages: An Introduction
1739:
25:
7347:
4160:Journal of West African languages
4143:Nordic Journal of African Studies
4029:
3921:Annales de l'Université d'Abidjan
3734:. CALL 41. Leiden. Archived from
3356:Journal of West African Languages
1623:
1485:Westermann, Greenberg, and others
848:, with a geographical outlier in
581:group, which is dominated by the
507:
467:
4034:
3837:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00085.x
3825:Language and Linguistics Compass
3755:. Nuba Hills Conference. Leiden.
3452:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00064.x
3440:Language and Linguistics Compass
2975:Niger-Congo: an alternative view
2872:Language and Linguistics Compass
1417:
1405:
1393:
1234:river basins, south and west of
166:
4054:Tense and Aspect in Niger–Congo
3872:Tense and Aspect in Niger-Congo
3749:Should Kordofanian be split up?
3672:. University Press of America.
3610:
3597:
3584:
3557:
3512:
3486:
3458:
3215:
3101:
3064:
2980:
2949:
2931:
2894:
2877:
2861:
2830:
2817:
2804:
2791:
2778:
2765:
2730:
2717:
2662:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.07.003
2302:
2295:Adapted from Williamson 1989:27
637:) or the difficult-to-classify
211:in terms of geographical area.
3775:African Languages and Cultures
3762:Studies in African Linguistics
3693:Studies in African Linguistics
3538:African Languages and Cultures
3386:Studies in African Linguistics
3382:"ATR vowel harmony in Akposso"
3308:Harmony, Dominance and Control
2669:
2628:
2616:
2603:
2576:
2549:
2500:
2091:branch some others are found.
202:(which share a characteristic
13:
1:
7099:Samogo (partial: Duun–Sembla)
2786:Current Trends in Linguistics
2544:"Niger-Congo Language Family"
2493:
2406:
2325:while the Swahili people are
1906:Ghana Togo Mountain languages
1765:
1099:
994:
7336:Niger-Congo-speaking peoples
3957:(Speech). Leiden University.
3858:Journal of African Languages
3327:Harvard Studies in Phonology
1783:Many Niger–Congo languages'
1744:
1658:Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan
1187:Central Nigerian (Platoid):
522:Atlantic–Congo combines the
190:spoken over the majority of
7:
7055:Soso–Jalonke (Susu–Yalunka)
3987:. Oxford University Press.
3946:"RefLex: Reference Lexicon"
3851:. Indiana University Press.
3796:Cahiers d'Études Africaines
3347:Casali, Roderic F. (2002).
3150:Good, Jeff (Mar 19, 2020).
2957:A Study of Western Nigritic
2838:Afrikanische Arbeitspapiere
2752:"Unpublished Working Draft"
2329:Likewise, in Ubangian, the
2041:
577:. Benue–Congo includes the
10:
7352:
7331:Proposed language families
2727:. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
2679:(1989), 9–10 (cited after
2641:Quaternary Science Reviews
2057:complementary distribution
1661:
1630:Proto-Niger–Congo language
1627:
1590:computational phylogenetic
1376:The endangered or extinct
511:
337:
69:Proto-Niger–Congo language
7287:
7231:
7194:
7164:
7123:
7078:
7023:
7016:
6954:
6912:
6905:
6896:
6822:
6754:
6666:
6607:
6575:
6534:
6502:
6493:
6484:
6420:
6362:
6259:
6250:
6241:
6173:
6132:
6109:
6048:
6037:
5881:
5614:
5603:
5571:
5498:
5489:
5378:
5195:
5184:
5151:
5013:
5004:
4912:
4670:
4656:
4570:
4365:
4347:
4298:
4216:
4207:
4201:Primary language families
3953:Stewart, John M. (1976).
3787:10.1080/09544169508717790
3550:10.1080/09544169508717790
3519:Stewart, John M. (1976).
3399:10.32473/sal.v28i2.107372
2812:The Niger–Congo Languages
2712:The Niger–Congo Languages
2291:
1778:
1325:, once classified as Kru.
1090:: includes the far-flung
612:are not coherent groups.
333:
165:
153:
135:
74:
64:
56:Linguistic classification
54:
42:
37:
32:
5018:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
3944:Segerer, G; Flavier, S.
3380:Anderson, C. G. (1999).
3275:"Vowel Harmony in Wolof"
3238:Morton, Deborah (2012).
1726:Atlantic–Congo languages
1573:Atlantic–Congo languages
1445:Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle
1221:
804:Central African Republic
514:Atlantic–Congo languages
439:Central African Republic
200:Atlantic–Congo languages
60:Proposed language family
6185:have no living members.
3849:The Languages of Africa
3592:Gbe languages: nasality
3554:(Re: proto-Volta-Conga)
3052:Babaev, Kirill (2013).
2993:Oxford Handbooks Online
2736:Greenberg, J. H. 1964.
2623:"Niger-Congo Languages"
2078:
1583:Oxford Handbooks Online
1518:The Languages of Africa
1295:, the languages of the
6165:Unclassified languages
6119:list of sign languages
5087:Northeastern Tasmanian
3746:Blench, Roger (2011).
3725:Blench, Roger (2011).
3605:Universals of Language
3479:10.3406/aflin.1975.892
3305:Bakovic, Eric (2000).
3273:Unseth, Carla (2009).
3221:Tom Gueldemann (2018)
3198:10.5281/zenodo.1311704
3180:Pozdniakov, Konstantin
2723:Westermann, D. 1922a.
2583:Ammon, Ulrich (2006).
1498:
1466:as a linguistic unit.
1462:, solidly established
1430:Classification history
7326:Niger–Congo languages
6140:Constructed languages
4043:at Wikimedia Commons
4041:Niger-Congo languages
3976:10.1515/jall.2002.012
3808:10.3406/cea.1972.2768
3578:10.1515/jall.2002.012
3291:on September 3, 2013.
2973:Blench, Roger. 2012.
2883:Martin H. Steinberg,
2725:Die Sprache der Guang
2264:Mandinka (Senegambia)
1640:Konstantin Pozdniakov
1492:
1435:Early classifications
1336:Kordofanian languages
1027:(moribund or extinct)
689:Senegambian languages
512:Further information:
464:) populations there.
393:Kordofanian languages
338:Further information:
4687:Binanderean–Goilalan
3845:Greenberg, Joseph H.
3483:(Re: proto-Atlantic)
3467:Africana Linguistica
2955:Hans G. Mukarovsky,
2827:. The Hague: Mouton.
2759:www.rogerblench.info
2350:watu wazuri wataenda
1789:advanced tongue root
1556:genetic relationship
1475:Karl Richard Lepsius
951:(c. 40 million 2017)
892:(9 million in 2015).
703:, spoken across the
567:languages of Nigeria
518:Languages of Nigeria
6452:Ngbaka (Mundu–Baka)
5969:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
5872:Tequiraca–Canichana
5715:Harákmbut–Katukinan
4478:Northwest Caucasian
4472:Northeast Caucasian
4396:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
2840:, Köln, 17:115–147.
2771:Herman Bell. 1995.
2653:2014QSRv..101...28M
2507:Good, Jeff (2020).
2474:are prepositional.
2413:subject-verb-object
2321:language is called
2314:noun classification
2308:Noun classification
2107:
1676:" family in which '
1450:Polyglotta Africana
1441:languages of Africa
1309:: languages of the
1277:: languages of the
1040:(East Benue–Congo)
836:: languages of the
752:: languages of the
592:(2012) argued that
377:Diedrich Westermann
295:While the ultimate
290:southeastern Africa
7062:Southwestern Mande
5591:Tarascan/Purépecha
5080:Northern Tasmanian
4838:South Bougainville
4799:North Bougainville
4152:2020-07-11 at the
4136:2021-01-27 at the
4125:2011-01-04 at the
4112:2021-01-13 at the
4082:2021-08-08 at the
4065:2021-05-09 at the
4006:. pp. 11–42.
3983:Webb, Vic (2001).
3622:www.britannica.com
3415:Grounded Phonology
3369:on March 30, 2014.
2920:. Rogerblench.info
2907:. Rogerblench.info
2823:De Wolf, P. 1971.
2686:2019-07-17 at the
2396:'to love for' and
2318:grammatical gender
2103:
1787:is based on the (
1642:reconstructed the
1552:comparative method
1499:
1493:Westermann's 1911
1447:, who in his 1854
961:(24 million 2010s)
826:Savannas languages
524:Atlantic languages
435:Ubangian languages
192:sub-Saharan Africa
186:is a hypothetical
7313:
7312:
7295:Proto-Niger–Congo
7119:
7118:
7115:
7114:
7012:
7011:
6892:
6891:
6750:
6749:
6662:
6661:
6566:Upper Cross River
6552:Lower Cross River
6480:
6479:
6320:Mbum (Kebi–Benue)
6200:
6199:
6150:Language isolates
6128:
6127:
6033:
6032:
5599:
5598:
5485:
5484:
5180:
5179:
5127:Western Tasmanian
5045:Eastern Tasmanian
5000:
4999:
4722:East Geelvink Bay
4652:
4651:
4343:
4342:
4120:Journal Mandenkan
4088:Guillaume Segerer
4071:Guillaume Segerer
4039:Media related to
3911:978-0-89357-330-0
3885:978-9-4922-4429-1
3509:(Re: proto-Ijoid)
3254:978-1-57473-453-9
3208:978-3-96110-098-9
3165:978-0-19-960989-5
3136:978-0-19-872381-3
3094:978-0-19-993534-5
3010:978-0-19-993534-5
2939:"Glottolog 3.4 -"
2868:Gerrit Dimmendaal
2374:verb applicatives
2368:Verbal extensions
2300:
2299:
2296:
2106:
2093:Proto–Niger–Congo
2032:
2031:
1992:
1991:
1949:
1948:
1889:
1888:
1832:
1831:
1755:Proto–Niger–Congo
1636:Proto–Niger–Congo
1614:African languages
1531:Niger–Kordofanian
1527:Congo-Kordofanian
1506:Sudanic languages
1178:Guthrie zones A–S
976:(24 million 2011)
557:(or "West Kwa"),
437:, centred in the
386:Proto-Niger–Congo
181:
180:
129:
108:
16:(Redirected from
7343:
7269:Serengeti-Dorobo
7081:(Samogo–Soninke)
7026:(Manding–Kpelle)
7021:
7020:
6910:
6909:
6903:
6902:
6609:Southern Bantoid
6577:Northern Bantoid
6500:
6499:
6491:
6490:
6257:
6256:
6248:
6247:
6227:
6220:
6213:
6204:
6203:
6046:
6045:
6000:Huaorani/Waorani
5884:(extant in 2000)
5848:Esmeralda–Yaruro
5619:Andoque–Urequena
5612:
5611:
5496:
5495:
5302:Plateau Penutian
5193:
5192:
5168:(Northern Daly?)
5011:
5010:
4897:Northwest Papuan
4861:Trans–New Guinea
4727:East New Britain
4702:Central Solomons
4668:
4667:
4413:Great Andamanese
4363:
4362:
4214:
4213:
4194:
4187:
4180:
4171:
4170:
4038:
4025:
3998:
3979:
3958:
3949:
3940:
3915:
3896:
3894:
3888:. Archived from
3877:
3865:
3852:
3840:
3819:
3790:
3769:
3756:
3754:
3742:
3740:
3733:
3721:
3700:
3683:
3655:
3641:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3614:
3608:
3601:
3595:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3561:
3555:
3553:
3534:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3490:
3484:
3482:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3435:
3429:
3428:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3377:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3353:
3344:
3335:
3334:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3302:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3279:
3270:
3259:
3258:
3246:
3235:
3226:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3200:
3190:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3147:
3141:
3140:
3118:
3112:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3049:
3043:
3042:
3036:
3027:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3017:
2984:
2978:
2971:
2960:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2906:
2898:
2892:
2881:
2875:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2850:
2841:
2834:
2828:
2821:
2815:
2808:
2802:
2795:
2789:
2782:
2776:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2756:
2747:
2741:
2734:
2728:
2721:
2715:
2704:
2695:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2614:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2553:
2547:
2542:Irene Thompson,
2540:
2531:
2530:
2504:
2484:relative clauses
2435:of Niger–Congo.
2292:
2108:
2104:
2102:
2052:nasal consonants
1994:
1993:
1954:
1953:
1911:
1910:
1845:
1844:
1794:
1793:
1773:fortis and lenis
1512:Joseph Greenberg
1471:Friedrich Müller
1421:
1409:
1397:
1366:Rashad languages
1361:Lafofa languages
1356:Heiban languages
1351:Talodi languages
1104:
1101:
1088:Southern Bantoid
1052:Northern Bantoid
999:
996:
993:: c. 3 million (
986:
985:
940:
939:
579:Southern Bantoid
488:(sometimes with
381:Joseph Greenberg
209:Africa's largest
194:. It unites the
170:
149:
127:
102:
30:
29:
21:
7351:
7350:
7346:
7345:
7344:
7342:
7341:
7340:
7316:
7315:
7314:
7309:
7288:Proto-languages
7283:
7227:
7190:
7160:
7111:
7080:
7074:
7025:
7008:
6950:
6888:
6827:
6818:
6746:
6658:
6603:
6571:
6530:
6476:
6416:
6358:
6237:
6231:
6201:
6196:
6195:
6169:
6155:Mixed languages
6124:
6105:
6040:
6029:
5883:
5877:
5732:Katembri–Taruma
5606:
5595:
5567:
5481:
5374:
5187:
5176:
5147:
4996:
4908:
4867:Turama–Kikorian
4777:Lower Mamberamo
4732:East Strickland
4660:
4648:
4566:
4354:
4349:
4339:
4294:
4203:
4198:
4154:Wayback Machine
4138:Wayback Machine
4127:Wayback Machine
4114:Wayback Machine
4084:Wayback Machine
4067:Wayback Machine
4050:, Kenneth Olson
4032:
4014:
3995:
3912:
3892:
3886:
3875:
3752:
3738:
3731:
3718:
3680:
3664:
3662:Further reading
3659:
3658:
3642:
3635:
3626:
3624:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3602:
3598:
3589:
3585:
3562:
3558:
3531:
3517:
3513:
3505:
3491:
3487:
3463:
3459:
3436:
3432:
3425:
3411:
3407:
3378:
3374:
3366:
3351:
3345:
3338:
3323:
3319:
3311:
3303:
3296:
3288:
3277:
3271:
3262:
3255:
3244:
3236:
3229:
3220:
3216:
3209:
3188:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3119:
3115:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3069:
3065:
3050:
3046:
3034:
3028:
3024:
3015:
3013:
3011:
2985:
2981:
2972:
2963:
2954:
2950:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2923:
2921:
2916:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2895:
2882:
2878:
2866:
2862:
2851:
2844:
2835:
2831:
2822:
2818:
2809:
2805:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2779:
2770:
2766:
2754:
2750:Blench, Roger.
2748:
2744:
2735:
2731:
2722:
2718:
2706:Blench, Roger,
2705:
2698:
2688:Wayback Machine
2675:Igor Kopytoff,
2674:
2670:
2633:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2554:
2550:
2541:
2534:
2523:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2409:
2370:
2310:
2305:
2294:
2251:(Benue–Congo),
2081:
2044:
1874:'nominalizing'
1781:
1768:
1747:
1742:
1740:Common features
1706:noun-classifier
1702:Central Sudanic
1682:Western Sudanic
1678:Eastern Sudanic
1666:
1660:
1634:The lexicon of
1632:
1626:
1561:Bantu languages
1487:
1437:
1432:
1425:
1422:
1413:
1410:
1401:
1398:
1371:Katla languages
1332:
1301:Defaka language
1224:
1176:: divided into
1103: 1000 BCE
1102:
1096:Bantu expansion
1092:Bantu languages
1043:Bantoid-Cross:
997:
983:
982:
935:
934:
788:Adamawa Plateau
583:Bantu languages
520:
510:
470:
450:Southern Africa
446:Bantu expansion
428:Bantu expansion
408:Bantu languages
358:Bantu expansion
354:
352:Bantu expansion
336:
230:Bantu languages
196:Mande languages
188:language family
177:
145:
44:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7349:
7339:
7338:
7333:
7328:
7311:
7310:
7308:
7307:
7305:Proto-Yoruboid
7302:
7297:
7291:
7289:
7285:
7284:
7282:
7281:
7273:
7264:
7258:
7250:
7242:
7235:
7233:
7229:
7228:
7226:
7225:
7220:
7212:
7204:
7198:
7196:
7192:
7191:
7189:
7188:
7181:
7174:
7168:
7166:
7162:
7161:
7159:
7158:
7151:
7144:
7137:
7129:
7127:
7121:
7120:
7117:
7116:
7113:
7112:
7110:
7109:
7102:
7095:
7090:
7084:
7082:
7076:
7075:
7073:
7072:
7065:
7058:
7051:
7044:
7037:
7029:
7027:
7018:
7014:
7013:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7006:
6997:
6992:
6983:
6974:
6960:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6949:
6948:
6939:
6936:Samo (Burkina)
6933:
6924:
6918:
6916:
6907:
6900:
6894:
6893:
6890:
6889:
6887:
6886:
6881:
6873:
6868:
6860:
6853:
6846:
6841:
6835:
6833:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6816:
6811:
6804:
6797:
6792:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6774:
6773:
6760:
6758:
6752:
6751:
6748:
6747:
6745:
6744:
6737:
6732:
6727:
6720:
6713:
6706:
6699:
6692:
6685:
6678:
6672:
6670:
6664:
6663:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6656:
6649:
6642:
6635:
6628:
6621:
6613:
6611:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6589:
6581:
6579:
6573:
6572:
6570:
6569:
6562:
6555:
6548:
6540:
6538:
6532:
6531:
6529:
6528:
6521:
6514:
6506:
6504:
6497:
6488:
6482:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6475:
6474:
6467:
6460:
6455:
6448:
6441:
6434:
6426:
6424:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6392:
6389:Samo (Burkina)
6386:
6381:
6376:
6368:
6366:
6360:
6359:
6357:
6356:
6353:Yendang (Maya)
6349:
6342:
6335:
6333:Nyingwom (Kam)
6330:
6323:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6299:
6292:
6287:
6280:
6273:
6265:
6263:
6254:
6245:
6243:Atlantic–Congo
6239:
6238:
6230:
6229:
6222:
6215:
6207:
6198:
6197:
6194:
6193:
6186:
6179:
6175:
6174:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6136:
6134:
6130:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6122:
6113:
6111:
6107:
6106:
6104:
6103:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6080:Indo-Pakistani
6077:
6072:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6049:
6043:
6035:
6034:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5963:
5958:
5951:
5946:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5899:
5894:
5887:
5885:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5875:
5869:
5863:
5857:
5851:
5845:
5839:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5779:Piaroa–Saliban
5776:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5739:
5734:
5729:
5724:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5680:
5675:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5601:
5600:
5597:
5596:
5594:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5575:
5573:
5569:
5568:
5566:
5565:
5558:
5551:
5546:
5544:Tequistlatecan
5541:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5517:
5510:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5487:
5486:
5483:
5482:
5480:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5457:
5452:
5445:
5438:
5431:
5424:
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5397:
5390:
5382:
5380:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5372:
5367:
5360:
5353:
5348:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5292:
5285:
5280:
5273:
5268:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5244:
5237:
5230:
5223:
5216:
5211:
5204:
5196:
5190:
5182:
5181:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5174:
5169:
5163:
5155:
5153:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5135:
5130:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5102:
5095:
5090:
5083:
5076:
5071:
5067:Marrku–Wurrugu
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5041:
5034:
5026:
5021:
5014:
5008:
5002:
5001:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4981:
4975:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4933:
4927:
4922:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4900:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4857:
4852:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4654:
4653:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4646:
4638:
4631:
4625:
4620:
4612:
4607:
4599:
4592:
4585:
4580:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4558:
4552:
4546:
4540:
4534:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4492:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4429:
4426:Hurro-Urartian
4422:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4398:
4393:
4386:
4379:
4374:
4366:
4360:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4331:
4325:
4320:
4313:
4308:
4302:
4300:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4292:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4262:
4257:
4249:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4225:
4217:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4197:
4196:
4189:
4182:
4174:
4168:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4140:
4117:
4103:
4102:
4098:
4097:
4091:
4074:
4057:
4051:
4031:
4030:External links
4028:
4027:
4026:
4012:
3999:
3993:
3980:
3959:
3950:
3941:
3916:
3910:
3897:
3895:on 2023-05-22.
3884:
3866:
3853:
3841:
3831:(5): 840–858.
3820:
3802:(46): 316–22.
3791:
3781:(2): 109–121.
3770:
3757:
3743:
3741:on 2019-04-23.
3722:
3716:
3701:
3684:
3678:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3656:
3633:
3609:
3596:
3583:
3572:(2): 197–224.
3556:
3544:(2): 109–121.
3529:
3511:
3503:
3485:
3457:
3446:(3): 496–549.
3430:
3423:
3405:
3392:(2): 185–214.
3372:
3336:
3317:
3294:
3260:
3253:
3227:
3214:
3207:
3171:
3164:
3142:
3135:
3113:
3100:
3093:
3063:
3044:
3022:
3009:
2979:
2961:
2948:
2930:
2893:
2876:
2860:
2842:
2829:
2816:
2803:
2790:
2777:
2764:
2742:
2729:
2716:
2696:
2668:
2627:
2615:
2602:
2595:
2575:
2568:
2548:
2532:
2521:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2463:demonstratives
2408:
2405:
2403:'to please').
2369:
2366:
2331:Zande language
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2216:
2212:
2211:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2080:
2077:
2043:
2040:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1887:
1886:
1885:'benefactive'
1883:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1863:'participant'
1861:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1780:
1777:
1767:
1764:
1751:open syllables
1746:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1724:system of the
1659:
1656:
1644:numeral system
1628:Main article:
1625:
1624:Reconstruction
1622:
1486:
1483:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1423:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1392:
1374:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1340:Nuba Mountains
1331:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1304:
1286:
1256:Nuba Mountains
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1207:Fali of Baissa
1199:
1185:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1169:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1141:
1085:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1049:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1010:
1001:
979:
978:
977:
967:
962:
952:
931:
893:
875:: a divergent
863:
862:
861:
829:
813:
812:
811:
808:Adamawa-Ubangi
795:
776:Adamawa-Ubangi
773:
739:
738:
730:
729:
724:
722:Limba language
719:
714:
708:
670:
669:
535:Savannas group
509:
508:Atlantic–Congo
506:
469:
468:Major branches
466:
412:Kay Williamson
335:
332:
301:Atlantic–Congo
179:
178:
171:
163:
162:
157:
151:
150:
143:
133:
132:
131:
130:
128:(noun classes)
124:Atlantic–Congo
121:
115:
109:
96:
90:
84:
76:
72:
71:
66:
65:Proto-language
62:
61:
58:
52:
51:
46:
40:
39:
38:(hypothetical)
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7348:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7323:
7321:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7292:
7290:
7286:
7279:
7278:
7274:
7271:
7270:
7265:
7262:
7259:
7256:
7255:
7251:
7248:
7247:
7243:
7240:
7237:
7236:
7234:
7230:
7224:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7213:
7210:
7209:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7199:
7197:
7193:
7187:
7186:
7182:
7180:
7179:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7163:
7157:
7156:
7155:Talodi–Heiban
7152:
7150:
7149:
7145:
7143:
7142:
7138:
7136:
7135:
7131:
7130:
7128:
7126:
7122:
7108:
7107:
7103:
7101:
7100:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7085:
7083:
7077:
7071:
7070:
7066:
7064:
7063:
7059:
7057:
7056:
7052:
7050:
7049:
7045:
7043:
7042:
7038:
7036:
7035:
7031:
7030:
7028:
7022:
7019:
7015:
7005:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6962:
6961:
6959:
6957:
6953:
6947:
6943:
6940:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6919:
6917:
6915:
6911:
6908:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6895:
6885:
6882:
6879:
6878:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6866:
6865:
6861:
6859:
6858:
6854:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6836:
6834:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6809:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6790:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6766:
6762:
6761:
6759:
6757:
6756:West Atlantic
6753:
6743:
6742:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6725:
6721:
6719:
6718:
6714:
6712:
6711:
6707:
6705:
6704:
6700:
6698:
6697:
6693:
6691:
6690:
6686:
6684:
6683:
6679:
6677:
6674:
6673:
6671:
6669:
6665:
6655:
6654:
6650:
6648:
6647:
6643:
6641:
6640:
6636:
6634:
6633:
6629:
6627:
6626:
6622:
6620:
6619:
6615:
6614:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6594:
6590:
6588:
6587:
6583:
6582:
6580:
6578:
6574:
6568:
6567:
6563:
6561:
6560:
6556:
6554:
6553:
6549:
6547:
6546:
6545:Central Delta
6542:
6541:
6539:
6537:
6533:
6527:
6526:
6522:
6520:
6519:
6515:
6513:
6512:
6508:
6507:
6505:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6483:
6473:
6472:
6468:
6466:
6465:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6453:
6449:
6447:
6446:
6442:
6440:
6439:
6435:
6433:
6432:
6428:
6427:
6425:
6423:
6419:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6397:
6393:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6374:
6370:
6369:
6367:
6365:
6361:
6355:
6354:
6350:
6348:
6347:
6343:
6341:
6340:
6336:
6334:
6331:
6329:
6328:
6324:
6322:
6321:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6304:
6300:
6298:
6297:
6293:
6291:
6288:
6286:
6285:
6281:
6279:
6278:
6274:
6272:
6271:
6267:
6266:
6264:
6262:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6249:
6246:
6244:
6240:
6235:
6228:
6223:
6221:
6216:
6214:
6209:
6208:
6205:
6191:
6187:
6184:
6180:
6177:
6176:
6172:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6121:
6120:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6108:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6090:Original Thai
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6070:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6050:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6036:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5968:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5956:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5892:
5889:
5888:
5886:
5880:
5873:
5870:
5867:
5864:
5861:
5858:
5855:
5854:Hibito–Cholón
5852:
5849:
5846:
5843:
5840:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5806:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5774:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5722:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5673:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5636:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5602:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5522:
5518:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5500:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5488:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5462:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5450:
5446:
5444:
5443:
5439:
5437:
5436:
5432:
5430:
5429:
5425:
5423:
5422:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5395:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5384:
5383:
5381:
5377:
5371:
5370:Yuman–Cochimí
5368:
5366:
5365:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5346:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5319:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5297:
5293:
5291:
5290:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5278:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5266:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5245:
5243:
5242:
5238:
5236:
5235:
5231:
5229:
5228:
5224:
5222:
5221:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5209:
5205:
5203:
5202:
5198:
5197:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5183:
5173:
5170:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5150:
5143:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5128:
5124:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5106:
5105:Southern Daly
5103:
5101:
5100:
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5082:
5081:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5046:
5042:
5040:
5039:
5035:
5032:
5031:
5030:Darwin Region
5027:
5025:
5022:
5019:
5016:
5015:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5003:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4986:
4982:
4979:
4976:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4937:
4934:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4862:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4828:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4811:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4789:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4712:Demta–Sentani
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4637:
4636:
4632:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4562:
4559:
4556:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4541:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4516:
4512:
4510:
4509:
4505:
4503:
4502:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4490:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4434:
4433:Indo-European
4430:
4428:
4427:
4423:
4421:
4420:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4391:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4383:Austroasiatic
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4372:
4368:
4367:
4364:
4361:
4358:
4353:
4346:
4335:
4332:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4318:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4297:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4248:
4247:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4224:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4195:
4190:
4188:
4183:
4181:
4176:
4175:
4172:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4151:
4148:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4135:
4132:
4131:introduction)
4128:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4105:
4104:
4100:
4099:
4095:
4092:
4090:2005, LLACAN)
4089:
4085:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4073:2005, LLACAN)
4072:
4068:
4064:
4061:
4058:
4055:
4052:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4037:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4013:9780521661782
4009:
4005:
4000:
3996:
3994:9780195716818
3990:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3874:
3873:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3751:
3750:
3744:
3737:
3730:
3729:
3723:
3719:
3717:3-927620-72-6
3713:
3709:
3708:
3702:
3699:(3): 241–273.
3698:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3681:
3679:9780819173751
3675:
3671:
3666:
3665:
3654:
3653:0-19-925591-1
3650:
3646:
3640:
3638:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3606:
3600:
3593:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3532:
3530:90-6021-307-6
3526:
3522:
3515:
3506:
3504:3-89645-124-3
3500:
3496:
3489:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3434:
3426:
3424:0-262-01137-9
3420:
3416:
3409:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3350:
3343:
3341:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3310:
3309:
3301:
3299:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3269:
3267:
3265:
3256:
3250:
3243:
3242:
3234:
3232:
3224:
3218:
3210:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3175:
3167:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3146:
3138:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3104:
3096:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3073:"Niger-Congo"
3067:
3059:
3055:
3048:
3040:
3033:
3026:
3012:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2958:
2952:
2944:
2943:glottolog.org
2940:
2934:
2919:
2903:
2897:
2890:
2886:
2880:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2856:
2849:
2847:
2839:
2833:
2826:
2820:
2813:
2807:
2800:
2794:
2787:
2781:
2774:
2768:
2760:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2733:
2726:
2720:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2701:
2693:
2692:A Mighty Tree
2689:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2663:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2624:
2619:
2612:
2606:
2598:
2596:9783110184181
2592:
2588:
2587:
2579:
2571:
2569:9780521666299
2565:
2561:
2560:
2552:
2545:
2539:
2537:
2529:
2524:
2522:9780191007378
2518:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2499:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2245:T, H, M, L, B
2244:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2101:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1995:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1952:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1835:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1785:vowel harmony
1776:
1774:
1763:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1737:
1735:
1734:Gur languages
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1698:Niger–Saharan
1695:
1691:
1687:
1686:Kongo-Saharan
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1602:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1543:
1539:
1538:Bendor-Samuel
1534:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1513:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1491:
1482:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1420:
1415:
1408:
1403:
1396:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:"Kordofanian"
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1311:Mandé peoples
1308:
1305:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1026:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1002:
992:
989:
988:
980:
975:
971:
968:
966:
963:
960:
956:
953:
950:
946:
943:
942:
938:
932:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
906:
905:
903:
899:
898:
894:
891:
887:
883:
878:
874:
873:
869:
868:
867:
864:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:Senufo people
835:
834:
830:
827:
823:
819:
818:
814:
809:
805:
801:
800:
796:
793:
789:
785:
784:
780:
779:
777:
774:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
750:
746:
745:
744:
741:
740:
737:
736:
732:
731:
728:
727:Gola language
725:
723:
720:
718:
717:Mel languages
715:
712:
711:Bak languages
709:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
687:
686:
685:
683:
679:
675:
668:
667:
663:
662:
661:
659:
654:
652:
648:
644:
640:
639:Laal language
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
619:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
586:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
533:The proposed
531:
529:
525:
519:
515:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
474:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
442:
440:
436:
431:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
400:
398:
394:
389:
387:
382:
378:
374:
371:According to
369:
367:
363:
359:
353:
349:
345:
341:
331:
329:
324:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
297:genetic unity
293:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
226:
224:
223:
218:
214:
210:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
175:
169:
164:
161:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
142:
138:
134:
125:
122:
119:
116:
113:
110:
106:
100:
97:
94:
91:
88:
85:
82:
79:
78:
77:
73:
70:
67:
63:
59:
57:
53:
50:
47:
41:
36:
31:
19:
18:Congo-Saharan
7275:
7267:
7252:
7246:Dima-Bottego
7244:
7232:Unclassified
7214:
7206:
7183:
7176:
7153:
7146:
7139:
7132:
7106:Soninke–Bozo
7104:
7097:
7067:
7060:
7053:
7046:
7039:
7032:
7024:Central West
6875:
6862:
6855:
6848:
6806:
6799:
6787:
6763:
6739:
6722:
6715:
6708:
6701:
6694:
6687:
6680:
6651:
6644:
6637:
6630:
6623:
6616:
6591:
6584:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6543:
6523:
6516:
6509:
6469:
6464:Sere (Ndogo)
6462:
6450:
6443:
6436:
6429:
6394:
6371:
6351:
6344:
6337:
6325:
6318:
6301:
6294:
6282:
6275:
6268:
6233:
6189:
6182:
6181:Families in
6116:
6067:
5965:
5953:
5803:
5771:
5762:Pano-Tacanan
5719:
5682:
5670:
5641:Arutani–Sape
5633:
5578:
5560:
5553:
5538:Oto-Manguean
5536:
5519:
5512:
5459:
5447:
5440:
5433:
5426:
5419:
5392:
5385:
5362:
5355:
5343:
5316:
5294:
5287:
5275:
5263:
5246:
5239:
5232:
5225:
5218:
5206:
5199:
5158:
5125:
5121:Western Daly
5099:Pama–Nyungan
5097:
5085:
5078:
5065:
5043:
5038:Eastern Daly
5036:
5028:
4983:
4859:
4847:
4825:
4808:
4786:
4757:Kaure–Kosare
4717:Doso–Turumsa
4707:Chimbu–Wahgi
4697:Bulaka River
4681:Austronesian
4679:
4640:
4633:
4614:
4601:
4594:
4587:
4513:
4506:
4499:
4489:Sino-Tibetan
4487:
4470:
4453:
4431:
4424:
4417:
4400:
4390:Austronesian
4388:
4381:
4369:
4315:
4253:Nilo-Saharan
4251:
4245:
4244:
4229:Austronesian
4227:
4220:
4033:
4003:
3984:
3967:
3963:
3954:
3920:
3901:
3890:the original
3871:
3861:
3857:
3848:
3828:
3824:
3799:
3795:
3778:
3774:
3765:
3761:
3748:
3736:the original
3727:
3706:
3696:
3692:
3669:
3644:
3625:. Retrieved
3621:
3612:
3604:
3599:
3586:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3541:
3537:
3520:
3514:
3494:
3488:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3414:
3408:
3389:
3385:
3375:
3364:the original
3359:
3355:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3307:
3286:the original
3281:
3240:
3222:
3217:
3184:
3174:
3155:
3145:
3126:
3116:
3103:
3076:
3066:
3057:
3047:
3038:
3025:
3014:. Retrieved
2992:
2982:
2956:
2951:
2942:
2933:
2922:. Retrieved
2909:. Retrieved
2896:
2884:
2879:
2871:
2863:
2854:
2837:
2832:
2824:
2819:
2811:
2806:
2798:
2793:
2785:
2780:
2772:
2767:
2758:
2745:
2737:
2732:
2724:
2719:
2711:
2691:
2676:
2671:
2644:
2640:
2630:
2618:
2610:
2605:
2585:
2578:
2558:
2551:
2526:
2512:
2502:
2487:
2479:
2476:
2451:noun-initial
2450:
2447:Noun phrases
2445:
2437:
2410:
2400:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2371:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2339:Zande people
2334:
2326:
2322:
2311:
2303:Morphosyntax
2082:
2062:
2048:nasal vowels
2045:
2036:
2033:
1950:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1836:
1833:
1782:
1775:consonants.
1769:
1759:phonological
1748:
1697:
1694:Roger Blench
1685:
1670:Nilo-Saharan
1667:
1633:
1611:
1605:
1598:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1566:
1565:
1546:
1541:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1516:
1510:
1500:
1494:
1479:
1468:
1448:
1438:
1400:Overview map
1375:
1334:The various
1333:
1279:Dogon people
1225:
1171:
1032:
972:: including
957:: including
910:: spoken in
895:
884:, spoken in
870:
865:
831:
815:
797:
781:
747:
742:
733:
695:, spoken in
674:polyphyletic
671:
664:
655:
616:
614:
590:Roger Blench
587:
532:
521:
475:
471:
443:
432:
420:Niger Rivers
401:
390:
373:Roger Blench
370:
355:
325:
294:
227:
220:
213:Austronesian
183:
182:
159:
75:Subdivisions
45:distribution
7300:Proto-Bantu
7125:Kordofanian
7093:Jowulu (Jɔ)
6830:Ivory Coast
6808:Senegambian
6668:Volta–Niger
6646:Grassfields
6536:Cross River
6495:Benue–Congo
6486:Volta–Congo
6373:Central Gur
6234:Niger–Congo
6075:Germanosign
5979:Mura-Pirahã
5860:Lule–Vilela
5836:Bora-Witoto
5811:Uru–Chipaya
5784:Ticuna–Yuri
5767:Peba–Yaguan
5752:Nambikwaran
5555:Uto-Aztecan
5491:Mesoamerica
5345:Uto-Aztecan
5334:Tsimshianic
5296:Palaihnihan
5166:Malak-Malak
4903:Papuan Gulf
4877:West Papuan
4782:Lower Sepik
4772:Lakes Plain
4675:Arai–Samaia
4663:the Pacific
4371:Afroasiatic
4246:Niger–Congo
4222:Afroasiatic
3864:(1): 46–56.
2472:adpositions
2441:auxiliaries
2388:'to love',
2341:are called
1714:singulative
1648:Proto-Bantu
1542:Niger–Congo
1523:Kordofanian
1297:Ijaw people
1260:Kordofanian
1248:Niger Delta
1158:Grassfields
1122:West Beboid
1118:East Beboid
1105:to 500 CE.
1047:Cross River
1034:Benue–Congo
998: 1990
926:, of which
897:Volta–Niger
866:South-Volta
852:; includes
842:Ivory Coast
760:; includes
758:West Africa
743:North-Volta
735:Volta–Congo
691:: includes
623:Kordofanian
563:Benue–Congo
559:Volta–Niger
528:Volta–Congo
422:in central
404:Benue–Congo
184:Niger–Congo
105:Kordofanian
33:Niger–Congo
7320:Categories
6689:Ayere–Ahan
6339:Samba–Duru
6309:Kwah (Baa)
6277:Bikwin–Jen
6069:Francosign
5917:Chiquitano
5897:Alacalufan
5705:Guaicuruan
5678:Chapacuran
5661:Cahuapanan
5629:Araucanian
5532:Mixe–Zoque
5527:Misumalpan
5241:Comecrudan
5093:Nyulnyulan
4872:Upper Yuat
4849:Torricelli
4821:Senu River
4752:Foja Range
4658:New Guinea
4583:Burushaski
4444:Kartvelian
4419:Hmong–Mien
4235:Khoe–Kwadi
3768:(1): 1–43.
3627:2022-05-13
3333:: 108–177.
3016:2020-03-26
2924:2012-12-29
2911:2012-12-29
2494:References
2455:adjectives
2433:word order
2407:Word order
2378:reciprocal
2362:(ta-enda)'
2337:while the
2333:is called
2327:Waswahili.
2323:Kiswahili,
2215:T, H, M, L
2114:Languages
1766:Consonants
1722:noun-class
1662:See also:
1652:Potou-Tano
1618:hypothesis
1607:Dimmendaal
1548:Pozdniakov
1502:Westermann
1025:Ayere-Ahan
1008:Kogi State
1000:estimates)
754:Kru people
658:noun class
625:branches (
328:noun-class
225:is 1,540.
222:Ethnologue
204:noun class
176:subfamily.
43:Geographic
7079:Northwest
6906:Southeast
6801:Rio Nunez
6593:Mambiloid
6346:Tula–Waja
6270:Bena–Mboi
6100:Tanzanian
6041:languages
5938:Hodï/Joti
5882:Isolates
5821:Yanomaman
5757:Otomákoan
5721:Jirajaran
5710:Guajiboan
5672:Catacaoan
5651:Barbacoan
5580:Cuitlatec
5549:Totonacan
5508:Jicaquean
5387:Chimariko
5283:Muskogean
5265:Kalapuyan
5259:Iroquoian
5234:Chumashan
5227:Chinookan
5220:Chimakuan
5138:Yangmanic
5133:Worrorran
5116:Wagaydyic
5006:Australia
4855:Trans-Fly
4521:Yeniseian
4508:Tyrsenian
4402:Dravidian
3937:772580339
3929:1011-6737
3225:, p. 146.
3060:(18): 19.
2647:: 28–35.
2467:genitives
2398:causative
2384:(Swahili
2352:is 'good
2253:Dan-Santa
1745:Phonology
1718:plurative
1568:Glottolog
1076:Mambiloid
618:Glottolog
537:combines
379:in 1922.
258:Ga-Dangme
155:Glottolog
137:ISO 639-2
7272:" ?
7195:Isolates
7069:Vai–Kono
6956:Southern
6823:Others (
6741:Yoruboid
6511:Jukunoid
6422:Ubangian
6252:Savannas
6236:branches
6133:See also
6110:Isolates
6085:Japanese
6025:Yuracaré
5907:Candoshi
5866:Macro-Jê
5831:Zaparoan
5826:Zamucoan
5816:Witotoan
5799:Tucanoan
5794:Tiniguan
5789:Timotean
5773:Quechuan
5742:Matacoan
5737:Mascoian
5727:Jivaroan
5690:Chibchan
5684:Charruan
5635:Arawakan
5572:Isolates
5503:Chibchan
5379:Isolates
5351:Wakashan
5312:Salishan
5254:Eskaleut
5160:Giimbiyu
5152:Isolates
5061:Jarrakan
5056:Iwaidjan
4913:Isolates
4767:Kutubuan
4635:Sumerian
4571:Isolates
4526:Yukaghir
4495:Tungusic
4461:Mongolic
4449:Koreanic
4408:Eskaleut
4299:Isolates
4283:Ubangian
4150:Archived
4147:archives
4134:Archived
4123:Archived
4110:Archived
4101:Journals
4096:(LLACAN)
4080:Archived
4063:Archived
4022:42810789
3847:(1963).
3182:(2018).
2874:2/5:841.
2694:, 2011).
2684:Archived
2459:numerals
2360:will go
2335:Pazande,
2255:(Mande)
2227:Munzombo
2169:Nafaanra
2098:downstep
2089:Atlantic
2042:Nasality
1852:Purpose
1529:, later
1344:Kordofan
1236:Timbuktu
1189:Jukunoid
945:Yoruboid
799:Ubangian
666:Atlantic
598:Ubangian
543:Ubangian
7280: ?
7263: ?
7257: ?
7249: ?
7241: ?
7219: ?
7211: ?
7202:Bangime
7041:Manding
6938: ?
6914:Eastern
6880: ?
6867: ?
6864:Mangree
6710:Idomoid
6525:Plateau
6503:Platoid
6458:Ngbandi
6391: ?
6379:Kulango
6314:Longuda
6261:Adamawa
6183:italics
6160:Pidgins
6145:Creoles
6095:Swedish
6063:Chinese
6010:Urarina
5995:Puinave
5949:Itonama
5943:Irantxe
5912:Chimane
5842:Chimuan
5747:Nadahup
5666:Cariban
5646:Aymaran
5607:America
5449:Waikuri
5442:Tonkawa
5435:Timucua
5428:Takelma
5421:Siuslaw
5410:Kutenai
5394:Esselen
5357:Wintuan
5318:Shastan
5289:Na-Dene
5277:Maiduan
5214:Caddoan
5188:America
5142:Wagiman
5140:(incl.
5111:Tangkic
5051:Garawan
5024:Bunuban
4985:Tambora
4952:Maybrat
4920:Abinomn
4843:Teberan
4804:Pauwasi
4794:Mairasi
4762:Kiwaian
4642:Tambora
4628:Shompen
4610:Kusunda
4603:Kenaboi
4589:Elamite
4561:Siangic
4543:Kho-Bwa
4537:Hrusish
4455:Kra–Dai
4439:Japonic
4348:Eurasia
4323:Sandawe
4306:Bangime
4271:Songhay
3816:4391154
2649:Bibcode
2453:, with
2401:pendeza
2390:pendana
2380:suffix
2356:people
2343:Azande.
2286:Swahili
2276:Kimwani
2235:Mambila
2193:Yukuben
2161:H, M, L
2155:Lingala
2143:Dagbani
2131:Maninka
2127:Bambara
1730:Plateau
1710:general
1690:Songhay
1674:Sudanic
1594:Bantoid
1460:Meinhof
1317:Bangime
1246:), the
1228:Senegal
1197:Plateau
1163:Jarawan
1138:Menchum
1038:linkage
1013:Idomoid
924:Nigeria
902:linkage
877:linkage
858:Supyire
783:Adamawa
697:Senegal
606:Bantoid
594:Adamawa
539:Adamawa
462:Khoisan
458:Bushmen
424:Nigeria
348:Congoid
334:Origin
286:Swahili
266:Sesotho
246:Lingala
7239:Degere
7172:Defaka
7165:Others
7148:Rashad
7141:Lafofa
7048:Mokole
6946:Tyenga
6942:Shanga
6884:Siamou
6771:Bijago
6724:Nupoid
6717:Igboid
6653:Tivoid
6625:Beboid
6586:Dakoid
6518:Kainji
6407:Tusian
6396:Senufo
6384:Miyobe
6327:Mumuye
6058:BANZSL
6020:Yamana
6005:Trumai
5974:Movima
5928:Fulniô
5891:Aikanã
5805:Tupian
5700:Chonan
5624:Arauan
5562:Xincan
5514:Lencan
5467:Yokuts
5364:Yukian
5329:Tanoan
5324:Siouan
5307:Pomoan
5248:Coosan
5074:Mirndi
4967:Porome
4962:Pawaia
4816:Senagi
4788:Madang
4737:Eleman
4692:Border
4623:Nihali
4616:Minoan
4596:Hattic
4578:Basque
4549:Mijiic
4531:Digaro
4515:Uralic
4501:Turkic
4352:Europe
4209:Africa
4020:
4010:
3991:
3948:. 2.2.
3935:
3927:
3908:
3882:
3814:
3714:
3676:
3651:
3527:
3501:
3421:
3251:
3205:
3162:
3133:
3091:
3007:
2889:p. 717
2593:
2566:
2519:
2488:inside
2394:pendea
2354:(zuri)
2249:Ashuku
2189:Dangme
2181:Yoruba
2165:Yakuba
2069:Yoruba
1779:Vowels
1323:Siamou
1193:Kainji
1114:Esimbi
1110:Tivoid
1058:Dakoid
991:Nupoid
970:Igboid
949:Yoruba
854:Senari
833:Senufo
822:Mooré)
792:Mumuye
768:, and
766:Nyabwa
699:, and
649:, and
635:Heiban
631:Talodi
627:Lafofa
608:, and
573:, and
571:Yoruba
502:Rashad
500:, and
490:Defaka
350:, and
321:Rashad
319:, and
280:, and
234:Yoruba
198:, the
118:Siamou
99:Lafofa
49:Africa
7261:Rimba
7254:Omaio
7216:Komta
7208:Jalaa
7185:Ijoid
7178:Dogon
7134:Katla
6990:Yaure
6922:Bissa
6898:Mande
6839:Dompo
6825:Ghana
6783:Limba
6735:Ukaan
6696:Edoid
6682:Akpes
6676:Akoko
6639:Ekoid
6632:Bendi
6618:Bantu
6599:Tikar
6559:Ogoni
6471:Zande
6438:Gbaya
6431:Banda
6412:Viemo
6402:Tiefo
6015:Warao
5984:Nukak
5955:Kunza
5933:Guató
5922:Cofán
5902:Camsá
5695:Choco
5656:Boran
5605:South
5586:Huave
5521:Mayan
5472:Yuchi
5455:Washo
5405:Karuk
5400:Haida
5339:Utian
5271:Keres
5208:Alsea
5201:Algic
5186:North
4978:Taiap
4972:Sulka
4827:Sepik
4742:Engan
4483:Ongan
4466:Nivkh
4334:Shabo
4317:Jalaa
4311:Hadza
4265:Mande
4116:(LLA)
3970:(2).
3893:(PDF)
3876:(PDF)
3812:JSTOR
3753:(PDF)
3739:(PDF)
3732:(PDF)
3367:(PDF)
3352:(PDF)
3312:(PDF)
3289:(PDF)
3278:(PDF)
3245:(PDF)
3189:(pdf)
3035:(PDF)
2905:(PDF)
2755:(PDF)
2429:Dogon
2425:Ijoid
2421:Mande
2386:penda
2272:Wolof
2231:Igede
2185:Jukun
2177:Banda
2173:Kasem
2147:Gbaya
2139:Dogon
2135:Temne
2123:Dyula
2111:Tones
2085:tonal
2073:Zialo
2065:Kasem
1840:Wolof
1464:Bantu
1456:Bleek
1386:Jalaa
1307:Mande
1289:Ijoid
1275:Dogon
1264:Mandé
1258:(the
1252:Ijoid
1244:Dogon
1240:Mande
1232:Niger
1222:Other
1203:Ukaan
1173:Bantu
1153:Mamfe
1144:Ekoid
1098:from
1083:Bendi
1070:Tikar
1017:Idoma
965:Akoko
955:Edoid
920:Benin
912:Ghana
886:Ghana
850:Ghana
705:Sahel
693:Wolof
682:Wolof
651:Dogon
647:Mande
643:Ijoid
610:Bantu
498:Katla
494:Ijoid
482:Mande
478:Dogon
454:Pygmy
416:Benue
397:Sudan
362:Sahel
317:Katla
309:Mande
305:Dogon
282:Mooré
270:Xhosa
262:Shona
174:Bantu
93:Ijoid
87:Mande
81:Dogon
7277:Wawu
7223:Laal
7088:Bobo
7034:Jogo
7017:West
6995:Mano
6986:Guro
6981:Beng
6977:Gban
6972:Tura
6931:Boko
6927:Busa
6877:Mpra
6871:Mbre
6828:and
6795:Nalu
6778:Gola
6296:Fali
6190:bold
6117:See
6053:Arab
6039:Sign
5990:Páez
5967:Maku
5961:Leco
5477:Zuni
5461:Yana
5415:Seri
5172:Tiwi
4992:Wiru
4957:Mpur
4947:Kuot
4930:Anêm
4925:Abun
4892:Yuat
4887:Yawa
4833:Skou
4810:Ramu
4661:and
4555:Miju
4377:Ainu
4357:Asia
4355:and
4328:Laal
4289:Kadu
4277:Ijaw
4240:Kx'a
4018:OCLC
4008:ISBN
3989:ISBN
3933:OCLC
3925:ISSN
3906:ISBN
3880:ISBN
3712:ISBN
3674:ISBN
3649:ISBN
3525:ISBN
3499:ISBN
3419:ISBN
3249:ISBN
3203:ISBN
3160:ISBN
3131:ISBN
3089:ISBN
3041:: 2.
3005:ISBN
2591:ISBN
2564:ISBN
2517:ISBN
2480:SOVX
2465:and
2427:and
2358:(tu)
2282:none
2268:Fula
2260:PA/S
2223:Wobe
2219:Gban
2209:Igbo
2201:Anyi
2197:Akan
2151:Efik
2119:H, L
2079:Tone
1732:and
1599:The
1384:and
1382:Mpre
1378:Laal
1293:Ijaw
1283:Mali
1268:Ijaw
1266:and
1230:and
1211:Tita
1167:Mbam
1134:Buru
1130:Furu
1126:Momo
974:Igbo
937:YEAI
922:and
916:Togo
882:Akan
856:and
846:Mali
844:and
770:Dida
762:Bété
701:Fula
680:and
678:Fula
672:The
633:and
575:Igbo
545:and
516:and
456:and
444:The
418:and
278:Akan
274:Zulu
242:Fula
238:Igbo
160:None
7004:Wan
7000:Mwa
6968:Goo
6964:Dan
6857:Kwa
6850:Kru
6844:Ega
6814:Sua
6789:Mel
6765:Bak
6730:Oko
6703:Gbe
6445:Mba
6364:Gur
6303:Kim
6290:Day
6284:Bua
4942:Kol
4936:Ata
4882:Yam
4747:Fas
4260:Tuu
3972:doi
3833:doi
3804:doi
3783:doi
3574:doi
3546:doi
3475:doi
3448:doi
3394:doi
3193:doi
3081:doi
2997:doi
2657:doi
2645:101
2417:SOV
2382:-na
2239:Fon
2205:Ewe
1882:-al
1879:-əl
1860:-lɛ
1857:-le
1281:of
1148:Mbe
1136:?,
1132:?,
1128:?,
1124:?,
1064:Fam
1004:Oko
987:":
984:NOI
959:Edo
928:Ewe
908:Gbe
890:Twi
872:Kwa
817:Gur
756:in
749:Kru
602:Kwa
555:Kwa
551:Kru
547:Gur
496:),
492:as
486:Ijo
313:Ijo
254:Fon
250:Ewe
147:nic
112:Kru
7322::
5144:)?
4016:.
3968:23
3966:.
3931:.
3862:11
3860:.
3827:.
3810:.
3800:12
3798:.
3777:.
3766:12
3764:.
3695:.
3691:.
3636:^
3620:.
3570:23
3568:.
3540:.
3469:.
3442:.
3390:28
3388:.
3384:.
3360:29
3358:.
3354:.
3339:^
3329:.
3297:^
3280:.
3263:^
3230:^
3201:.
3154:.
3125:.
3087:.
3079:.
3075:.
3056:.
3037:.
3003:.
2995:.
2991:.
2964:^
2941:.
2845:^
2757:.
2699:^
2690:,
2655:.
2643:.
2639:.
2535:^
2525:.
2461:,
2457:,
2423:,
2411:A
2364:.
2274:,
2270:,
2266:,
2237:,
2233:,
2229:,
2225:,
2221:,
2207:,
2203:,
2199:,
2195:,
2191:,
2187:,
2183:,
2179:,
2175:,
2171:,
2167:,
2153:,
2149:,
2145:,
2141:,
2137:,
2133:,
2129:,
1871:-ɔ
1868:-o
1380:,
1291::
1270:.
1242:,
1209:,
1205:,
1195:,
1191:,
1120:,
1116:,
1112:,
1100:c.
1054::
995:c.
918:,
914:,
810:".
778::
764:,
645:,
629:,
604:,
600:,
596:,
569:,
553:,
541:,
504:.
484:,
480:,
368:.
346:,
342:,
315:,
311:,
307:,
292:.
276:,
272:,
268:,
264:,
260:,
256:,
252:,
248:,
244:,
240:,
236:,
139:/
126:?
107:?)
101:?
7266:"
7002:–
6988:–
6979:–
6970:–
6966:–
6944:–
6929:–
6832:)
6226:e
6219:t
6212:v
6192:.
6102:?
5986:?
5945:?
5924:?
5893:?
5874:?
5868:?
5862:?
5856:?
5850:?
5844:?
5838:?
5107:?
5070:?
5033:?
5020:?
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