1360:
285:. The majority of the human cones are of the long type. The second most common type responds the most to light of yellow to green medium-wavelength, peaking at 530 nm. M cones make up about a third of cones in the human eye. The third type responds the most to blue short-wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and make up only around 2% of the cones in the human retina. The three types have peak wavelengths in the range of 564–580 nm, 534–545 nm, and 420–440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual. Such a difference is caused by the different
31:
1359:
499:, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range. At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish-green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish-green wavelength.
332:
446:
482:
The color yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the color red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. S Cones
432:
within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of
1395:
1:posterior segment 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:Schlemm's canal 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscule 15:inferior rectus muscule 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and
357:
can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark-adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark-adapt, making it appear white in contrast to the grey
502:
Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the
232:, respectively. These cones are sensitive to visible wavelengths of light that correspond to short-wavelength, medium-wavelength and longer-wavelength light respectively. Because humans usually have three kinds of cones with different
1396:
veins 18:optic disc 19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea 27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina
491:
of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human-visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called '
351:
long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 μm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.
525:
but this role is not clear yet. The exact contribution of S cone activation to circadian regulation is unclear but any potential role would be secondary to the better established role of
545:. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color – resulting in the
189:, a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. Conversely, they are absent from the
1199:
510:
The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the
339:
Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the
1379:
588:
1101:
604:
118:
1376:
836:
Equipped with four receptors instead of three, Mrs M - an
English social worker, and the first known human "tetrachromat" - sees rare subtleties of colour.
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The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colors, through the
347:-like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40–50
216:
are faster than those of rods. Cones are normally one of three types: S-cones, M-cones and L-cones. Each type expresses a different
197:. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye (vs ~92 million rods), with the highest concentration being towards the
574:
1374:
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849:
1367:
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vision. The three pigments responsible for detecting light have been shown to vary in their exact chemical composition due to
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Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, inner and outer segments, as well as an interior nucleus and various
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1207:
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of color. They are also able to perceive finer detail and more rapid changes in images because their response times to
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870:
A tetrachromat is a woman who can see four distinct ranges of color, instead of the three that most of us live with.
125:
1381:
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591:- poor visual acuity and impairment of cone function according to ERG, but without significant color vision loss.
1387:
1003:
1133:
Aboshiha, Jonathan; Dubis, Adam M; Carroll, Joseph; Hardcastle, Alison J; Michaelides, Michel (January 2016).
472:
have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)
316:
that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.
236:, which have different response curves and thus respond to variation in color in different ways, humans have
113:
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for long, medium and short wavelengths respectively. The first responds the most to light of the longer red
1941:
1830:
1798:
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can change this, and there have been some verified reports of people with four types of cones, giving them
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1744:
1424:
1946:
1579:
1569:
1390:
511:
1371:
1024:
Roorda A.; Williams D.R. (1999). "The arrangement of the three cone classes in the living human eye".
106:
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101:
76:
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919:(6th ed.). Chichester UK: Wiley–IS&T Series in Imaging Science and Technology. pp.
696:
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920:
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762:
568:
479:, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.
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Let the light shine in: You don't have to come from another planet to see ultraviolet light
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8:
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is an often-used model of spectral sensitivities of the three cells of an average human.
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150:
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and the cell's nucleus, while the outer segment contains the light-absorbing materials.
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cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8%
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dark-adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that
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Photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision made to function in bright light
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Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to
1930:
1843:
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763:"Richer color experience in observers with multiple photopigment opsin genes"
760:
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558:
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are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the
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64:
36:
252:; different individuals will have cones with different color sensitivity.
1895:
1764:
1721:
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1623:
751:
Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner, "Psychology", New York: Worth
Publishers,2009.
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in the retina (which support vision at low light levels), but allow the
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Strettoi, E; Novelli, E; Mazzoni, F; Barone, I; Damiani, D (Jul 2010).
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It is possible that S cones may play a role in the regulation of the
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414:
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233:
1603:
890:(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley Series in Pure and Applied Optics.
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Color
Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae
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cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the
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88:
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Jameson, K. A.; Highnote, S. M. & Wasserman, L. M. (2001).
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Other animals might have a different number of cone types (see
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While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of
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229:
225:
221:
198:
154:
53:
1132:
850:"Some women may see 100,000,000 colors, thanks to their genes"
814:"You won't believe your eyes: The mysteries of sight revealed"
549:. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.
265:
Humans normally have three types of cones, usually designated
1490:
173:. Cones function best in relatively bright light, called the
162:
301:, respectively, the forms of which affect the absorption of
169:, and the combination of their responses is responsible for
1404:
445:
344:
571:- a rare form of monochromacy with only functional S-cones
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158:
635:- a type of cancer originating from cone precursor cells
420:
The outer segments of cones have invaginations of their
1023:
881:
719:
Kandel, E.R.; Schwartz, J.H; Jessell, T. M. (2000).
679:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
912:
883:
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531:Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell
433:the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by
409:. The inner and outer segments are connected by a
1928:
727:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
701:HyperPhysics Concepts - Georgia State University
1362:
995:
942:
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39:spectra of human cone cells, S, M, and L types
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185:region. Cone cells are densely packed in the
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937:
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204:Cones are less sensitive to light than the
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949:"Complexity of retinal cone bipolar cells"
29:
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1135:"The cone dysfunction syndromes: Table 1"
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847:
781:
475:All of the receptors contain the protein
181:, which work better in dim light, or the
1121:
882:Wyszecki, Günther; Stiles, W.S. (1981).
841:
714:
712:
710:
444:
424:that create stacks of membranous disks.
330:
326:
1187:Cell Centered Database – cone cell
875:
1929:
552:
1221:
707:
697:"The Rods and Cones of the Human Eye"
507:so that each connection is parallel.
1091:
953:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research
575:Congenital red–green color blindness
629:- a degenerative loss of cone cells
536:
13:
1358:
1208:Neuroscience Information Framework
1094:"S-cones and the circadian system"
601:cannot respond quickly to stimuli.
577:- partial color blindness include
343:. Structurally, cone cells have a
14:
1968:
1180:
1152:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2014-306505
1139:British Journal of Ophthalmology
1104:from the original on 2021-02-14.
965:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2010.03.005
848:Mark Roth (September 13, 2006).
401:. The synaptic terminal forms a
126:Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
1116:Psychology: the second edition.
1108:
1085:
1082:, David Hambling (May 30, 2002)
1068:
1017:
989:
770:Psychonomic Bulletin and Review
561:(Rod monochromacy) - a form of
904:
822:. 7 March 2007. Archived from
806:
745:
689:
161:. They respond differently to
1:
683:
413:. The inner segment contains
1886:Optical coherence tomography
1640:Photosensitive ganglion cell
1213:Model and image of cone cell
723:Principles of Neural Science
281:, peaking at about 560
255:
7:
1636:Giant retina ganglion cells
1425:Capillary lamina of choroid
1197:NIF Search – Cone Cell
639:
440:
10:
1973:
1580:Retinal pigment epithelium
1570:External limiting membrane
1192:Photoreceptors - Webvision
915:The Reproduction of Colour
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49:
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23:
1092:Soca, R (Feb 13, 2021).
996:Brian A. Wandel (1995).
565:with no functional cones
260:
1575:Layer of rods and cones
1531:Inner limiting membrane
854:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
394:in two male subjects).
1397:
911:R. W. G. Hunt (2004).
569:Blue cone monochromacy
512:Stiles–Crawford effect
461:
430:transmembrane proteins
336:
193:, contributing to the
177:region, as opposed to
1891:Eye care professional
1696:Foveal avascular zone
1558:Outer plexiform layer
1546:Inner plexiform layer
1501:Iris sphincter muscle
1394:
999:Foundations of Vision
607:- X-linked recessive
589:Oligocone trichromacy
521:and the secretion of
505:inner plexiform layer
495:' light. People with
448:
334:
327:Shape and arrangement
1911:Physiological Optics
1881:Ocular immune system
1620:Retina ganglion cell
1114:Schacter, Daniel L.
605:Bornholm eye disease
370:cones. The ratio of
307:CIE 1931 color space
1942:Photoreceptor cells
1735:Anatomical regions
1596:Photoreceptor cells
1563:Outer nuclear layer
1551:Inner nuclear layer
1541:Ganglion cell layer
1496:Iris dilator muscle
1291:Trabecular meshwork
1038:1999Natur.397..520R
860:on November 8, 2006
553:Associated diseases
335:Cone cell structure
238:trichromatic vision
151:photoreceptor cells
1398:
1202:2014-12-16 at the
783:10.3758/BF03196159
468:of color vision. (
462:
337:
107:H3.11.08.3.01046
1947:Human eye anatomy
1924:
1923:
1916:Visual perception
1864:
1863:
1831:Posterior segment
1799:Posterior chamber
1730:
1729:
1632:Bistratified cell
1536:Nerve fiber layer
1509:
1508:
1453:Ciliary processes
1354:
1353:
1032:(6719): 520–522.
930:978-0-470-02425-6
897:978-0-471-02106-3
543:neural adaptation
140:
139:
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1964:
1901:Refractive error
1839:Vitreous chamber
1784:Anterior chamber
1745:Anterior segment
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1740:
1521:
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1430:Bruch's membrane
1413:
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1405:Uvea / vascular
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1281:Episcleral layer
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1002:. Archived from
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537:Color afterimage
519:circadian system
466:opponent process
250:genetic mutation
157:of vertebrates'
132:edit on Wikidata
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1814:Capsule of lens
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1681:Perifoveal area
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1608:Horizontal cell
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826:on 6 July 2008
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633:Retinoblastoma
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627:Cone dystrophy
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619:and red-green
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422:cell membranes
405:with a neuron
355:Photobleaching
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1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1616:Amacrine cell
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
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1568:
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1564:
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1310:
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1298:
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1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1262:Fibrous tunic
1259:
1255:
1251:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1224:
1223:
1220:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
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1184:
1172:
1168:
1163:
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1153:
1148:
1144:
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1136:
1129:
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1125:
1117:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1081:
1078:
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1071:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1046:10.1038/17383
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1020:
1006:on 2016-03-05
1005:
1001:
1000:
992:
984:
980:
975:
970:
966:
962:
959:(4): 272–83.
958:
954:
950:
943:
941:
932:
926:
922:
917:
916:
907:
899:
893:
888:
887:
878:
871:
859:
855:
851:
844:
837:
825:
821:
820:
815:
809:
801:
797:
793:
789:
784:
779:
775:
771:
764:
757:
748:
740:
738:9780838577011
734:
730:
725:
724:
715:
713:
711:
702:
698:
692:
688:
681:
680:
673:
670:
668:
665:
663:
662:Tetrachromacy
660:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
647:Disc shedding
645:
644:
634:
631:
628:
625:
622:
618:
617:visual acuity
614:
610:
606:
603:
600:
596:
593:
590:
587:
584:
580:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
560:
559:Achromatopsia
557:
556:
550:
548:
544:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
513:
508:
506:
500:
498:
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490:
486:
480:
478:
473:
471:
467:
459:
455:
451:
447:
438:
436:
431:
427:
426:Photopigments
423:
418:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
395:
393:
389:
386:versus 50.6%
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
356:
352:
350:
346:
342:
333:
324:
322:
317:
315:
314:bipolar cells
310:
308:
304:
303:retinaldehyde
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
253:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
165:of different
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
133:
127:
123:
120:
117:
115:
111:
108:
105:
103:
99:
96:
95:sao1103104164
93:
90:
86:
83:
80:
78:
74:
69:
66:
63:
59:
55:
52:
48:
43:
38:
32:
27:
22:
19:
1937:Color vision
1910:
1804:Ciliary body
1644:Diencephalon
1643:
1628:Parasol cell
1612:Bipolar cell
1599:
1463:Pars plicata
1445:Ciliary body
1313:
1142:
1138:
1118:Chapter 4.9.
1115:
1110:
1097:
1087:
1080:The Guardian
1079:
1075:
1070:
1029:
1025:
1019:
1008:. Retrieved
1004:the original
998:
991:
956:
952:
914:
906:
885:
877:
869:
862:. Retrieved
858:the original
853:
843:
835:
828:. Retrieved
824:the original
817:
808:
773:
769:
756:
747:
722:
700:
691:
677:
672:Color vision
652:Double cones
583:deuteranopia
563:monochromacy
540:
516:
509:
501:
481:
474:
463:
419:
407:bipolar cell
399:mitochondria
396:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
353:
338:
321:Color vision
318:
311:
289:they carry,
274:
270:
266:
264:
203:
171:color vision
146:
142:
141:
65:Color vision
37:responsivity
18:
1952:Human cells
1896:Eye disease
1876:Keratocytes
1765:Conjunctiva
1722:Ora serrata
1660:Muller glia
1624:Midget cell
1344:Endothelium
1334:Dua's layer
615:, impaired
613:astigmatism
493:ultraviolet
390:with 44.2%
382:with 20.0%
279:wavelengths
242:color blind
167:wavelengths
71:Identifiers
35:Normalized
1931:Categories
1737:of the eye
1710:Optic disc
1468:Pars plana
1339:Descemet's
1319:Epithelium
1010:2015-07-31
864:August 22,
684:References
667:Melanopsin
621:dichromacy
595:Bradyopsia
579:protanopia
547:afterimage
529:(see also
527:melanopsin
460:cone cells
435:phagocytic
415:organelles
234:photopsins
210:perception
195:blind spot
191:optic disc
143:Cone cells
24:Cone cells
1715:Optic cup
1600:Cone cell
1254:human eye
830:22 August
523:melatonin
477:photopsin
470:Rod cells
458:monotreme
454:reptilian
428:exist as
256:Structure
206:rod cells
179:rod cells
1604:Rod cell
1409:(middle)
1324:Bowman's
1206:via the
1200:Archived
1171:25770143
1102:Archived
1054:10028967
983:20362067
792:11495112
640:See also
441:Function
240:. Being
183:scotopic
175:photopic
89:NeuroLex
61:Function
50:Location
1957:Neurons
1856:Choroid
1757:Eyebrow
1701:Foveola
1517:(inner)
1417:Choroid
1265:(outer)
1252:of the
1162:4717370
1062:4432043
1034:Bibcode
974:2878852
800:2389566
729:507–513
497:aphakia
437:cells.
403:synapse
214:stimuli
155:retinas
153:in the
82:D017949
45:Details
1851:Retina
1761:Eyelid
1753:Adnexa
1676:Macula
1656:K cell
1652:M cell
1648:P cell
1524:Layers
1515:Retina
1486:Stroma
1329:Stroma
1314:layers
1309:Limbus
1301:Cornea
1273:Sclera
1169:
1159:
1098:Keldik
1060:
1052:
1026:Nature
981:
971:
927:
894:
798:
790:
735:
609:myopia
585:, etc.
489:cornea
456:, and
411:cilium
305:. The
299:OPN1SW
297:, and
295:OPN1MW
291:OPN1LW
287:opsins
230:OPN1LW
228:, and
226:OPN1MW
222:OPN1SW
199:macula
54:Retina
1869:Other
1773:Orbit
1691:Fovea
1669:Other
1606:) → (
1589:Cells
1491:Pupil
1407:tunic
1250:globe
1058:S2CID
921:11–12
796:S2CID
766:(PDF)
341:fovea
261:Types
218:opsin
163:light
147:cones
130:[
119:67748
1809:Lens
1794:Iris
1642:) →
1618:) →
1610:) →
1478:Iris
1167:PMID
1050:PMID
979:PMID
925:ISBN
892:ISBN
866:2009
832:2009
788:PMID
733:ISBN
533:).
487:and
485:lens
450:Bird
374:and
366:and
345:cone
273:and
159:eyes
149:are
77:MeSH
1614:→ (
1157:PMC
1147:doi
1143:100
1042:doi
1030:397
969:PMC
961:doi
778:doi
323:).
145:or
114:FMA
1933::
1771:,
1767:,
1763:,
1759:,
1658:,
1654:,
1650:,
1646::
1638:,
1634:,
1630:,
1626:,
1602:,
1165:.
1155:.
1141:.
1137:.
1123:^
1100:.
1096:.
1056:.
1048:.
1040:.
1028:.
977:.
967:.
957:29
955:.
951:.
939:^
923:.
868:.
852:.
834:.
816:.
794:.
786:.
772:.
768:.
731:.
709:^
699:.
611:,
597:-
581:,
514:.
452:,
349:μm
293:,
283:nm
269:,
224:,
220::
201:.
102:TH
91:ID
1775:)
1755:(
1622:(
1598:(
1241:e
1234:t
1227:v
1173:.
1149::
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1044::
1036::
1013:.
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963::
933:.
900:.
802:.
780::
774:8
741:.
703:.
623:.
392:M
388:L
384:M
380:L
376:L
372:M
368:L
364:M
360:S
275:S
271:M
267:L
134:]
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
