PLATO (computer system)

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of Illinois, Urbana/Champaign (UC). It was designed to assess the progress of the project relative to goals outlined in the contract; provide feedback to the Project and School personnel, as well as to the funding agent; and portray the Project as it had evolved since its inception. The techniques of responsive evaluation and portrayal were used combined with Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) and discrepancy evaluation. Significant results of the evaluation are reported under the headings: summary of data, major factors which impacted upon project functioning, project accomplishments, recommendations, and unresolved issues. Eight recommendations cover a variety of aspects including qualifications of staff, on-the-job training programs, and the need for a 6–12 month funded planning and recruitment phase. They provide insight into the diversity of factors that interact to influence the successful development and implementation of an educational program (VT).

273: 1672:, the online testing business exploded. Pearson VUE was founded by PLATO/Prometric veterans E. Clarke Porter, Steve Nordberg and Kirk Lundeen in 1994 to further expand the global testing infrastructure. VUE improved on the business model by being one of the first commercial companies to rely on the Internet as a critical business service and by developing self-service test registration. The computer-based testing industry has continued to grow, adding professional licensure and educational testing as important business segments. 1486:(Farsi), which uses the Arabic script. There was no funding for this work, which was undertaken only due to Sherwood's personal interest, and no curriculum development occurred for either Persian or Arabic. However, Peter Cole, Robert Lebowitz, and Robert Hart used the new system capabilities to re-do the Hebrew lessons. The PLATO hardware and software supported the design and use of one's own 8-by-16 characters, so most languages could be displayed on the graphics screen (including those written right-to-left). 2665:

to non-PLATO systems. It has successfully been transferred to other CDC 6000-series and Cyber-70 computers. This paper outlines the rationale for the creation of such a system, and gives the background of MULTI-TUTOR, its systems structure, and its compatibility problems with PLATO's Tutor. Current MULTI-TUTOR sites are listed along with an outline of the clearinghouses for lessons now being established at Northwestern. An analysis of current cost factors of the MULTI-TUTOR system is included.

1802:, most of them much smaller. In many ways Madadeni was very primitive. None of the classrooms had electricity and there was only one telephone for the whole college, which one had to crank for several minutes before an operator might come on the line. So an air-conditioned, carpeted room with 16 computer terminals was a stark contrast to the rest of the college. At times the only way a person could communicate with the outside world was through PLATO term-talk. 1040: 805:, a physicist at the University of Illinois, suggested a computerised learning system to William Everett, the engineering college dean, who, in turn, recommended that Daniel Alpert, another physicist, convene a meeting about the matter with engineers, administrators, mathematicians, and psychologists. After weeks of meetings they were unable to agree on a single design. Before conceding failure, Alpert mentioned the matter to laboratory assistant 43: 1806:

illiterate students could effectively use PLATO, but those concerns were not borne out. Within an hour or less most students were using the system proficiently, mostly to learn math and science skills, although a lesson that taught keyboarding skills was one of the most popular. A few students even used on-line resources to learn TUTOR, the PLATO programming language, and a few wrote lessons on the system in the Zulu language.

1122: 144: 3168: 3016:. Discusses his relationship with Control Data Corporation (CDC) during the development of PLATO, a computer-assisted instruction system. He describes the interest in PLATO of Harold Brooks, a CDC salesman, and his help in procuring a 1604 computer for Bitzer's use. Recalls the commercialization of PLATO by CDC and his disagreements with CDC over marketing strategy and the creation of courseware for PLATO. 704: 885: 1024:

that computer-based education would become a major market in the future. At the same time, Norris was troubled by the unrest of the late 1960s, and felt that much of it was due to social inequalities that needed to be addressed. PLATO offered a solution by providing higher education to segments of the population that would otherwise never be able to afford a university education.

1664:) in partnership with Novell, Inc. away from the mainframe model to a LAN-based client server architecture and changed the business model to deploy proctored testing at thousands of independent training organizations on a global scale. With the advent of a pervasive global network of testing centers and IT certification programs sponsored by, among others, 1071:

for access to their data center, in order to recoup some of their development costs, making it considerably more expensive than a human on a per-student basis. PLATO was, therefore, a failure as a profitable commercial enterprise, although it did find some use in large companies and government agencies willing to invest in the technology.

1656:), a private-sector regulator of the US securities markets. During the 1970s Michael Stein, E. Clarke Porter and PLATO veteran Jim Ghesquiere, in cooperation with NASD executive Frank McAuliffe, developed the first "on-demand" proctored commercial testing service. The testing business grew slowly and was ultimately spun off from 370: 1553:

posture, embouchure, hand placement, instrument position, etc.) and a set of 35mm slides of young players demonstrating those problems. In timed class exercises, trainees briefly viewed slides and recorded their diagnoses on the checklists which were reviewed and evaluated later in the training session.

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Significant findings of the comprehensive evaluation of a computer-based curriculum in the basic medical sciences using the PLATO IV computer system are presented. The study was conducted by the Office of Curriculum and Evaluation (OCE) of the School of Basic Medical Sciences (SBMS) at the University

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The South African subsidiary of CDC invested heavily in the development of an entire secondary school curriculum (SASSC) on PLATO, but unfortunately as the curriculum was nearing the final stages of completion, CDC began to falter in South Africa—partly because of financial problems back home, partly

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did most of the implementation. This was the first port of TUTOR to a minicomputer and was largely operational by 1976. In 1980, Chen founded Global Information Systems Technology of Champaign, Illinois, to market this as the Simpler system. GIST eventually merged with the Government Group of Adayana

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A number of smaller testing-related companies also evolved from the PLATO system. One of the few survivors of that group is The Examiner Corporation. Dr. Stanley Trollip (formerly of the University of Illinois Aviation Research Lab) and Gary Brown (formerly of Control Data) developed the prototype of

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In 1978, William H. Sanders adapted Froseth’s program for delivery using the PLATO IV system. Sanders transferred the slides to microfiche for rear-projection through the PLATO IV terminal’s plasma display. In timed drills, trainees viewed the slides, then filled in the checklists by touching them on

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PLATO's communication tools and games formed the basis for an online community of thousands of PLATO users, which lasted for well over twenty years. PLATO's games became so popular that a program called "The Enforcer" was written to run as a background process to regulate or disable game play at most

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Cyber1 offers free access to the system, which contains over 16,000 of the original lessons, in an attempt to preserve the original PLATO communities that grew up at CERL and on CDC systems in the 1980s. The load average of this resurrected system is about 10–15 users, sending personal and notesfile

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CDC eventually sold the "PLATO" trademark and some courseware marketing segment rights to the newly formed The Roach Organization (TRO) in 1989. In 2000 TRO changed their name to PLATO Learning and continue to sell and service PLATO courseware running on PCs. In late 2012, PLATO Learning brought its

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The goal of this system was to provide tools for music educators to use in the development of instructional materials, which might possibly include music dictation drills, automatically graded keyboard performances, envelope and timbre ear-training, interactive examples or labs in musical acoustics,

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In 1972, Robert W. Placek conducted a study that used computer-assisted instruction for rhythm perception. Placek used the random access audio device attached to a PLATO III terminal for which he developed music notation fonts and graphics. Students majoring in elementary education were asked to (1)

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Bitzer was more forthright about CDC's failure, blaming their corporate culture for the problems. He noted that development of the courseware was averaging $ 300,000 per delivery hour, many times what the CERL was paying for similar products. This meant that CDC had to charge high prices in order to

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Norris provided CERL with machines on which to develop their system in the late 1960s. In 1971, he set up a new division within CDC to develop PLATO "courseware", and eventually many of CDC's own initial training and technical manuals ran on it. In 1974, PLATO was running on in-house machines at CDC

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veterans, higher education was limited to a minority of the US population, though only 9% of the population was in the military. The trend towards greater enrollment was notable by the early 1950s, and the problem of providing instruction for the many new students was a serious concern to university

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The HYPERTUTOR incorporates the ideas of a "hypertext" and the TUTOR-IV programing language used on the PLATO-IV system. The HYPERTUTOR is a part of Northwestern University's MULTI-TUTOR system and runs on a non-PLATO, non-dedicated CDC 6400 computer. It allows the transfer of courseware from PLATO

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CDC continued development of the basic system under the name CYBIS (CYber-Based Instructional System) after selling the trademarks to Roach, in order to service their commercial and government customers. CDC later sold off their CYBIS business to University Online, which was a descendant of IMSATT.

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In 1979, Williams used a digitally controlled cassette tape recorder that had been interfaced to a minicomputer (Williams, M.A. "A comparison of three approaches to the teaching of auditory-visual discrimination, sight singing and music dictation to college music students: A traditional approach, a

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In 1969, Ned C. Deihl and Rudolph E. Radocy conducted a computer-assisted instruction study in music that included discriminating aural concepts related to phrasing, articulation, and rhythm on the clarinet. They used a four-track tape recorder interfaced to a computer to provide pre-recorded audio

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Study participants were interviewed about the experience and found it both valuable and enjoyable. Of particular value was PLATO’s immediate feedback. Though participants noted shortcomings in the quality of the audio, they generally indicated that they were able to learn the basic skills of rhythm

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In 1969, G. David Peters began researching the feasibility of using PLATO to teach trumpet students to play with increased pitch and rhythmic precision. He created an interface for the PLATO III terminal. The hardware consisted of (1) filters that could determine the true pitch of a tone, and (2) a

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A PLATO-compatible music language known as OPAL (Octave-Pitch-Accent-Length) was developed for these synthesizers, as well as a compiler for the language, two music text editors, a filing system for music binaries, programs to play the music binaries in real time, and print musical scores, and many

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A PLATO V terminal in 1981, displaying RankTrek application, one of the first to combine simultaneous local microprocessor-based computing with remote mainframe computing. The monochromatic plasma display's characteristic orange glow is illustrated. Infrared sensors mounted around the display watch

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Norris continued to praise PLATO, announcing that it would be only a few years before it represented a major source of income for CDC as late as 1984. In 1986, Norris stepped down as CEO, and the PLATO service was slowly killed off. He later claimed that Micro-PLATO was one of the reasons PLATO got

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was unconvinced by their ad copy and started an investigation of the claims. In the end, they concluded that while it was not proven to be a better education system, everyone using it nevertheless enjoyed it, at least. An official evaluation by an external testing agency ended with roughly the same

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As PLATO IV reached production quality, William Norris (CDC) became increasingly interested in it as a potential product. His interest was twofold. From a strict business perspective, he was evolving Control Data into a service-based company instead of a hardware one, and was increasingly convinced

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By the mid-1970s, James O. Froseth (University of Michigan) had published training materials that taught instrumental music teachers to visually identify typical problems demonstrated by beginning band students. For each instrument, Froseth developed an ordered checklist of what to look for (i.e.,

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Work in the School of Music continued on other platforms after the CERL PLATO system shutdown in 1994. Over the 24-year life of the music project, its many participants moved into educational institutions and into the private sector. Their influence can be traced to numerous multimedia pedagogies,

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Of course, a computerized system equal to a human should have been a major achievement, the very concept for which the early pioneers in CBT were aiming. A computer could serve all the students in a school for the cost of maintaining it, and wouldn't go on strike. However, CDC charged $ 50 an hour

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Sanders and Froseth subsequently conducted a study to compare traditional classroom delivery of the program to delivery using PLATO. The results showed no significant difference between the delivery methods for a) student post-test performance and b) their attitudes toward the training materials.

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recoup their costs, prices that made the system unattractive. The reason, he suggested, for these high prices was that CDC had set up a division that had to keep itself profitable via courseware development, forcing them to raise the prices in order to keep their headcount up during slow periods.

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Watanabe’s computer-based drill-and-practice program taught elementary music education students to identify musical instruments by sound. Students listened to randomly selected instrument sounds, identified the instrument they heard, and received immediate feedback. Watanabe found no significant

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of the original CDC hardware called Desktop Cyber. Within six months, by word of mouth alone, more than 500 former users had signed up to use the system. Many of the students who used PLATO in the 1970s and 1980s felt a special social bond with the community of users who came together using the

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difference in learning between the group who learned through computer-assisted drill programs and the group receiving traditional instruction in instrument identification. The study did, however, demonstrate that use of random-access audio in computer-assisted instruction in music was feasible.

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CDC announced the acquisition soon after, claiming that by 1985, 50% of the company's income would be related to PLATO services. Through the 1970s, CDC tirelessly promoted PLATO, both as a commercial tool and one for re-training unemployed workers in new fields. Norris refused to give up on the

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received several grants from CDC to implement computer language interpreters and associated programming instruction. Royalties received from the PLATO computer-aided instruction materials developed at Evergreen support technology grants and an annual lecture series on computer-related topics.

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and functioned for four decades, offering coursework (elementary through university) to UIUC students, local schools, prison inmates, and other universities. Courses were taught in a range of subjects, including Latin, chemistry, education, music, Esperanto, and primary mathematics. The system

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For many of the Madadeni students, most of whom came from very rural areas, the PLATO terminal was the first time they encountered any kind of electronic technology. Many of the first-year students had never seen a flush toilet before. There initially was skepticism that these technologically

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Although PLATO was designed for computer-based education, perhaps its most enduring legacy is its place in the origins of online community. This was made possible by PLATO's groundbreaking communication and interface capabilities, features whose significance is only lately being recognized by

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A hard drive for Audio snippets: The random-access audio device used a magnetic disc with a capacity to hold 17 total minutes of pre-recorded audio. It could retrieve for playback any of 4096 audio clips within 0.4 seconds. By 1980, the device was being commercially produced by Education and

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Between 1974 and 1988, 25 U of I music faculty participated in software curriculum development and more than 40 graduate students wrote software and assisted the faculty in its use. In 1988, the project broadened its focus beyond PLATO to accommodate the increasing availability and use of

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From 1970 to 1994, the University of Illinois (U of I) School of Music explored the use of the Computer-based Education Research Laboratory (CERL) PLATO computer system to deliver online instruction in music. Led by G. David Peters, music faculty and students worked with PLATO’s technical

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off-track. They had started on the TI-99/4A, but then Texas Instruments pulled the plug and they moved to other systems like the Atari, who soon did the same. He felt that it was a waste of time anyway, as the system's value was in its online nature, which Micro-PLATO lacked initially.

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Random-access audio devices interfaced to PLATO IV terminals were also available. There were issues with sound quality due to dropouts in the audio. Regardless, Watanabe deemed consistent fast access to audio clips critical to the study design and selected this device for the study.

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In 1972, with the introduction of PLATO IV, Bitzer declared general success, claiming that the goal of generalized computer instruction was now available to all. However, the terminals were very expensive (about $ 12,000). The PLATO IV terminal had several major innovations:

1851:, by permission of Syntegra (now British Telecom ), which had acquired the remainder of CDC's mainframe business. Cyber1 runs this software on the Desktop Cyber emulator. Desktop Cyber accurately emulates in software a range of CDC Cyber mainframe models and many peripherals. 2296:

Findings of an evaluation of the use of PLATO IV in support of a computer-based medical sciences curriculum indicate that PLATO IV can be used effectively in the creation and implementation of lessons and that it is an excellent host for lessons developed on another system

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system, and invested in several non-mainstream courses, including a crop-information system for farmers, and various courses for inner-city youth. CDC even went as far as to place PLATO terminals in some shareholder's houses, to demonstrate the concept of the system.

1427:. Eventually, over 12,000 contact hours of courseware was developed, much of it developed by university faculty for higher education. PLATO courseware covers a full range of high-school and college courses, as well as topics such as reading skills, family planning, 1495:

debugging and compositional aids. A number of interactive compositional programs have also been written. Gooch's peripherals were heavily used for music education courseware as created, for example, by the University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project.

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counting device to measure tone duration. The device accepted and judged rapid notes, two notes trilled, and lip slurs. Peters demonstrated that judging instrumental performance for pitch and rhythmic accuracy was feasible in computer-assisted instruction.

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In much the same way that the PLATO hardware and development platform inspired advances elsewhere (such as at Xerox PARC and MIT), many popular commercial and Internet games ultimately derived their inspiration from PLATO's early games. As one example,

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PLATO's plasma panels were well suited to games, although its I/O bandwidth (180 characters per second or 60 graphic lines per second) was relatively slow. By virtue of 1500 shared 60-bit variables per game (initially), it was possible to implement

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PLATO I, II, and III were funded by small grants from a combined Army-Navy-Air Force funding pool. By the time PLATO III was in operation, everyone involved was convinced it was worthwhile to scale up the project. Accordingly, in 1967, the

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planned to make PLATO a force in the computer world, but found that marketing the system was not as easy as hoped. PLATO nevertheless built a strong following in certain markets, and the last production PLATO system was in use until 2006.

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passages. Messages were recorded on three tracks and inaudible signals on the fourth track with two hours of play/record time available. This research further demonstrated that computer-controlled audio with four-track tape was possible.

864:. The only remote PLATO III terminal was located near the state capitol in Springfield, Illinois at Springfield High School. It was connected to the PLATO III system by a video connection and a separate dedicated line for keyboard data. 1775:. Mainly this computer was used for management and data processing tasks related to power generation and distribution, but it also ran the PLATO software. The largest PLATO installation in South Africa during the early 1980s was at the 1137:

microprocessors were introduced in the new PLATO V terminals. They could download small software modules and execute them locally. It was a way to augment the PLATO courseware with rich animation and other sophisticated capabilities.

909:, incorporated both memory and bitmapped graphics into one display. The display was a 512×512 bitmap, with both character and vector plotting done by hardwired logic. It included fast vector line drawing capability, and ran at 1260 347:

included a number of features useful for pedagogy, including text overlaying graphics, contextual assessment of free-text answers, depending on the inclusion of keywords, and feedback designed to respond to alternative answers.

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and composition and theory exercises with immediate feedback. One ear-training application, Ottaviano, became a required part of certain undergraduate music theory courses at Florida State University in the early 1980s.

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recognize elements of rhythm notation, and (2) listen to rhythm patterns and identify their notations. This was the first known application of the PLATO random-access audio device to computer-based music instruction.

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In the early 1980s, CDC started heavily advertising the service, apparently due to increasing internal dissent over the now $ 600 million project, taking out print and even radio ads promoting it as a general tool.

1735:. CERL was closed in 1994, with the maintenance of the PLATO code passing to UCI. UCI was later renamed NovaNET Learning, which was bought by National Computer Systems (NCS). Shortly after that, NCS was bought by 816:

computer. It included a television set for display and a special keyboard for navigating the system's function menus; PLATO II, in 1961, featured two users at once, one of the first implementations of multi-user

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Between 1973 and 1980, a group under the direction of Thomas T. Chen at the Medical Computing Laboratory of the School of Basic Medical Sciences at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign ported PLATO's

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In 1981, Nan T. Watanabe researched the feasibility of computer-assisted music instruction using computer-controlled pre-recorded audio. She surveyed audio hardware that could interface with a computer system.

3032:. A program officer at the National Science Foundation (NSF) describes the impact of Don Bitzer and the PLATO system, grants related to the classroom use of computers, and NSF's Regional Computing Program. 3122: 1679:

In the early 1970s, James Schuyler developed a system at Northwestern University called HYPERTUTOR as part of Northwestern's MULTI-TUTOR computer assisted instruction system. This ran on several

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speech synthesizer, and a "say" instruction (with "saylang" instruction to choose the language) was added to the Tutor programming language to support text-to-speech synthesis using the Votrax.

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Peters began his work on PLATO III. By 1972, the PLATO IV system made it technically possible to introduce multimedia pedagogies that were not available in the marketplace until years later.

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However, students using the computer appreciated the flexibility to set their own practice hours, completed significantly more practice exercises, and did so in significantly less time.

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Bitzer, Donald D.L.; Johnson, Roger L.; Skaperdas, Dominic (August 1970). A Digitally Addressable Random-Access Image Selector and Random-Access Audio System (Report). CERL Report A-13.

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as Drake Training and Technologies in 1990. Applying many of the PLATO concepts used in the late 1970s, E. Clarke Porter led the Drake Training and Technologies testing business (today

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Kodaly approach, and a Kodaly approach augmented by computer-assisted instruction," University of Illinois, unpublished). This device worked, yet was slow with variable access times.

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This was perhaps the most unusual PLATO installation anywhere. Madadeni had about 1,000 students, all of them who were original inhabitants i.e. native population and 99.5% of

1439:) devised a large number of basic science lessons and a self-testing system for first-year students. However the most popular "courseware" remained their multi-user games and 1423:

By early 1976, the original PLATO IV system had 950 terminals giving access to more than 3500 contact hours of courseware, and additional systems were in operation at CDC and

958: 1447:, although it appears CDC was uninterested in this market. As the value of a CDC-based solution disappeared in the 1980s, interested educators ported the engine first to the 3083:. The CBE series documents CDC’s objective of creating, marketing and distributing PLATO courseware internally within various CDC departments and divisions, and externally. 1101:. Micro-PLATO could be used stand-alone for normal courses, or could connect to a CDC data center for multiuser programs. To make the latter affordable, CDC introduced the 873: 17: 1732: 1844:

The PLATO software used on Cyber1 is the final release (99A) of CYBIS, by permission of VCampus. The underlying operating system is NOS 2.8.7, the final release of the

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the display. The program gave immediate feedback and kept aggregate records. Trainees could vary the timing of the exercises and repeat them whenever they wished.

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PLATO Project gained early hands-on experience in computing and media technologies and moved into influential positions in both education and the private sector.

714: 2191: 3411: 1817:(SAA) used PLATO simulations for cabin attendant training, and there were a number of other large companies as well that were exploring the use of PLATO. 832: 824: 2713: 1569:

In 1967, Allvin and Kuhn used a four-channel tape recorder interfaced to a computer to present pre-recorded models to judge sight-singing performances.

3129: 3068:. Archival collection containing internal reports and external reports and publications related to the development of PLATO and the operations of CERL. 2819: 1780: 1324:(later ported to the PDP-10/11 by Lawrence, who earlier had visited PLATO). and is believed to be the first dungeon crawl game and was followed by: 1472: 1067:

conclusions, suggesting that everyone enjoyed using it, but it was essentially equal to an average human teacher in terms of student advancement.

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granted the team steady funding, allowing Alpert to set up the Computer-based Education Research Laboratory (CERL) at the University of Illinois

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The effect of computer-based instructional materials in a program for visual diagnostic skills training of instrumental music education students

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sites and times – a precursor to parental-style control systems that regulate access based on content rather than security considerations.

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By 1988, with the spread of micro-computers and their peripherals, the University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project was renamed

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In August 2004, a version of PLATO corresponding to the final release from CDC was resurrected online. This version of PLATO runs on a

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that offered four-voice music synthesis to provide sound in PLATO courseware. This was later supplanted on the PLATO V terminal by the

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In the early 1970s, some people working in the modern foreign languages group at the University of Illinois began working on a set of

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were given a tour of the PLATO system at the University of Illinois. At this time, they were shown parts of the system, such as the

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artificial satellite energized the United States' government into spending more on science and engineering education. In 1958, the

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CSL Quarterly Report for June, July, August 1960 (Report). Coordinated Science Laboratory, University of Illinois. September 1960.

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communications programs. Many of the new technologies they saw were adopted and improved upon, when these researchers returned to

79: 2406:(EdD). University of Illinois, Dissertation Abstracts International, 1974, 35, 1478A-1479a, University Microfilms No. 74-14, 598. 1653: 343: 304: 319:. Many modern concepts in multi-user computing were first developed on PLATO, including forums, message boards, online testing, 1876: 3059:

University of Illinois Computer-based Education Research Laboratory PLATO Reports, PLATO Documents, and CERL Progress Reports

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because of growing opposition in the United States to doing business in South Africa, and partly due to the rapidly evolving

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Researchers subsequently explored the use of emerging, commercially available technologies for music instruction until 1994.

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The PLATO system was re-designed, between 1963 and 1969; PLATO III allowed "anyone" to design new lesson modules using their

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The University of Illinois also continued development of PLATO, eventually setting up a commercial on-line service called

2443:(EdD). University of Illinois, Dissertation Abstracts International, 1973, 34, 813A, University Microfilms No. 73-17-362. 2334:

Cole, Peter; Lebowitz, Robert; Hart, Robert (1984). "Teaching Hebrew with the Aid of Computers: The Illinois Program".

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capabilities to produce music-related instructional materials and experimented with their use in the music curriculum.

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https://archives.evergreen.edu/1976/1976-26/Alumn_Office_Publications/Evergreen_Review/EvergreenReviewV01N3May1980.pdf

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Deihl, Ned C.; Radocy, Rudolf E. (1969). "Computer-Assisted Instruction: Potential for Instrumental Music Education".

3115: 913:, rendering 60 lines or 180 characters per second. . Users could provide their own characters to support rudimentary 743: 126: 2725: 1384: 687:

an ambitious ICAI programming system featuring partial-order plans, used to train Con Edison steam plant operators.

538: 277: 258: 2097:"MISCELLANEOUS: 2. The University of Illinois, Coordinated Science Laboratory, PLATO II and III, Urbana, Illinois" 1867:-like game), which had both accumulated more than 1.0 million contact hours on the original PLATO system at UIUC. 1489: 75: 2618:(PhD). University of Illinois, Dissertation Abstracts International, A-42/09, University Microfilms, AAI 8203628. 2420:

Watanabe, Nan (February 1980). "Review of Audio Interfacing Literature for Computer-Assisted Music Instruction".

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Educators and students used the PLATO System for music instruction at other educational institutions including

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Kuhn, Wolfgang E.; Allvin, Raynold (1967). "Computer-Assisted Teaching: A New Approach to Research in Music".

1388:, PLATO's most popular game, is one of the world's first MUDs and has over 1 million hours of use.. The games 1834: 1166:. Because it was an educational computer system, most of the user community were keenly interested in games. 931:

image selector that permitted colored images to be projected on the back of the screen under program control.

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Project PLATO was established soon afterwards, and in 1960, the first system, PLATO I, operated on the local

782: 300: 263: 2827: 2001:"Computers, Teaching Machines, and Programmed Learning - Computer Teaching Machine Project: PLATO on ILLIAC" 674:(set of about 25 commands in TUTOR that made it easy to test a student's understanding of a complex concept) 3291: 1287: 841: 1150:

computer historians. PLATO Notes, created by David R. Woolley in 1973, was among the world's first online

992:(ID/SD) application generator for pictures on PLATO (later translated into a graphics-draw program on the 961:, which had sixteen voices that could be programmed individually, or combined to make more complex sounds. 272: 2000: 1742: 1467:

lessons, originally without good system support for leftward writing. In preparation for a PLATO demo in

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Computer-assisted music instruction utilizing compatible audio hardware in computer-assisted aural drill

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would participate in, Sherwood worked with Don Lee to implement support for leftward writing, including

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Two users limit was caused by ILLIAC memory limitation, program could handle more users (pp. 19, 23).

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An attempt to mass-market the PLATO system was introduced in 1980 as Micro-PLATO, which ran the basic

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successfully used PLM (PLATO learning management) and simulations to train power plant operators,

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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.

354:(CDC), the manufacturer on whose mainframe computers the PLATO IV system was built. CDC President 1932: 1881: 1788: 1440: 1281: 1192:

were developed on PLATO from around 1970 through the 1980s, with the following notable examples:

721: 603: 149: 53: 1176:

by PLATO alum Silas Warner was inspired by PLATO's dungeon games (see below), in turn inspiring

3318: 1845: 1618: 1490:

University of Illinois School of Music PLATO Project (Technology and Research-based Chronology)

1432: 1356: 1178: 969: 489:

Common Computer Game Genres, including many of the early (first?) real time multi-player games

336: 222: 31: 1078:

system on a CDC "Viking-721" terminal and various home computers. Versions were built for the

3353: 1814: 1759:

During the period when CDC was marketing PLATO, the system began to be used internationally.

1645: 1314: 1098: 1083: 1009: 856:, PLATO III could simultaneously run up to 20 terminals, and was used by local facilities in 809:, who had been thinking about the problem, suggesting he could build a demonstration system. 512: 2454:

Placek, Robert (April 1, 1974). "Design and trial of a computer-assisted lesson in rhythm".

1408:

retired its PLATO system, the last system that ran the PLATO software system on a CDC Cyber

3152: 2886: 2379:

The Friendly Orange Glow: The untold story of the PLATO System and the dawn of cyberculture

857: 853: 355: 1544:

These PLATO IV terminal included many new devices and yielded two notable music projects:

1000:

for "painting" new characters (later translated into a "Doodle" program at PARC); and the

8: 2311: 2283: 1320: 802: 481: 2890: 1841:

powerful communications tools (talk programs, records systems and notesfiles) on PLATO.

3087: 2527:(PhD). University of Illinois, Dissertation Abstracts International, 1979, DAI-A-41/06. 2479: 2471: 2359: 2351: 1980: 1610: 1409: 1362: 1347: 1332: 1234:, and also adapted (without permission) for the Apple II computer by fellow PLATO alum 1184: 1172: 520: 316: 229: 2874: 2853: 2178: 3271: 2902: 2844: 2759: 2483: 2382: 2158: 1968: 1958: 1736: 1661: 1477: 1378: 1310: 889: 861: 657: 328: 312: 2313:

Evaluation of a Three Year Health Sciences PLATO IV Computer-Based Education Project

3229: 2894: 2463: 2363: 2343: 1848: 1696: 1483: 324: 217: 1511:

products, and services in use today, especially by musicians and music educators.

382:

PLATO was either the first or an earlier example of many now-common technologies:

3202: 3197: 2936: 2559:

Development and Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Instrumental Music

2213: 1464: 1235: 466:(real-time text-based chat, with six rooms each allowing five participants), 1973 242: 2809:

Darrack, Arthur (Sep–Oct 1977). "Yes... Computers Can Revolutionize Education".

2595:

Eddins, John M. (1978). "Random-access Audio in Computer-Assisted Instruction".

1809:

PLATO was also used fairly extensively in South Africa for industrial training.

3187: 2096: 2080: 2064: 2047: 1700: 1452: 906: 559:(30 person multi-player inter-terminal 2-D real-time space simulation), c. 1974 390: 332: 2697: 2081:"MISCELLANEOUS: 4. University of Illinois, PLATO II and III, Urbana, Illinois" 2065:"MISCELLANEOUS: 3. University of Illinois, PLATO II and III, Urbana, Illinois" 3405: 3242: 2404:

Feasibility of computer-assisted instruction for instrumental music education

1972: 1957:. Mark J. P. Wolf. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 2012. p. 211. 1822: 1768: 1326: 1267: 1151: 806: 774:

increased factory production, it could do the same for academic instruction.

623: 586: 3167: 1547: 1533:

By 1970, a random access audio device was available for use with PLATO III.

3237: 3157: 3107: 2988: 2930:. CERL Report (revised ed.). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois. X-20. 2898: 1772: 1767:, the South African electrical power company, had a large CDC mainframe at 1760: 1739:, and after several name changes now operates as Pearson Digital Learning. 1127: 1062: 924:, allowing students to answer questions by touching anywhere on the screen. 818: 766: 2679: 1952: 1032:, and in 1976, they purchased the commercial rights in exchange for a new 935:

Information Systems, Incorporated with a capacity of just over 22 minutes.

3376: 2956: 2937:"PLATO: From Computer-Based Education to Corporate Social Responsibility" 2906: 2236: 1795: 1163: 1155: 1091: 1029: 954: 921: 401: 2355: 2253: 1798:

ancestry. The college was one of 10 teacher preparation institutions in

1012:. They subsequently transferred improved versions of this technology to 3313: 2475: 2347: 1134: 1013: 993: 985: 928: 771: 462: 157: 2036:"MISCELLANEOUS: 2. University of Illinois, Plato II, Urbana, Illinois" 1506:

microcomputers. The broader scope resulted in renaming the project to

1396:

can trace part of their lineage back to PLATO programmer Silas Warner.

1354:(MUDs, Object Oriented) as well as popular first-person shooters like 1039: 378:

played on the Gooch Synthetic Woodwind, a four-voice square wave synth

3390: 3330: 3255: 2155:

Adding Sense: Context and Interest in a Grammar of Multimodal Meaning

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distributed worldwide, running on nearly a dozen different networked

2467: 42: 3348: 3219: 3214: 3207: 3192: 3182: 2558: 2121: 1837: 1784: 1713: 1262: 1253: 1210: 1079: 849: 813: 648: 590: 578: 308: 238: 234: 876:. The system was capable of supporting 20 time-sharing terminals. 3281: 1927:

Hosch, William L.; Tikkanen, Amy; Lowood, Henry E. (2023-05-09).

1799: 1692: 1214:

is the first networked multiplayer action game. It was ported to

1121: 143: 785:

had a conference about the topic of computer instruction at the

350:

Rights to market PLATO as a commercial product were licensed by

3323: 1665: 1633: 1468: 1448: 1428: 1367: 1094: 939: 914: 564: 527: 1592: 3381: 3296: 3286: 3037: 3021: 3005: 2984:"How to make almost any computer a modern-day PLATO terminal" 1810: 1764: 1705: 1688: 1644:

One of CDC's greatest commercial successes with PLATO was an

1075: 973: 543:(60-player 2.5-D graphical Multi-User Dungeon (MUD)), c. 1978 320: 3072: 3057: 2263: 1412:, from active duty. Existing PLATO-like systems now include 1285:(a vector graphics-based tankwar game, anticipating Atari's 3047: 2562: 2125: 910: 884: 715:

personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay

311:

computer. By the late 1970s, it supported several thousand

1763:

was one of the biggest users of PLATO in the early 1980s.

927:

Microfiche images: Compressed air powered a piston-driven

3098: 2742: 1548:

Visual diagnostic skills for instrumental music educators

1431:

training and home budgeting. In addition, authors at the

1351: 790: 2441:

Design and trial of a computer-assisted lesson in rhythm

1519: 1318:, including the original Rutherford/Whisenhunt and Wood 2284:"Basic Medical Sciences PLATO IV Project—An Evaluation" 2662:(RIE), ED ERIC, Northwestern University IL, ED111398, 2141: 1370:(Massively multiplayer online role-playing game) like 569:(32-player first-person 3D space battle game), c. 1974 2873:

Smith, Stanley G; Sherwood, Bruce Arne (April 1976).

2726:"Computer Science | the Evergreen State College" 2565:

Document Reproduction Service. ERIC Number: ED035314.

2317:(Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Assoc…) 2122:

Critical Incidents in the Evolution of PLATO Projects

480:, used by instructors to help students, precursor of 2660:(paper presented at the Association for the Develop) 1564: 879: 1926: 1712:online learning solutions to market under the name 1266:, probably the direct inspiration for (PLATO alum) 534:, likely the first graphical dungeon computer game. 67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2319:(RIE), ED Eric, University of Illinois, ED161424, 2137: 2135: 1154:, and years later became the direct progenitor of 636:(2-D outdoor wilderness quest simulation), c. 1977 289:Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations 1825:, a paradigm shift that CDC failed to recognize. 1528: 3403: 2333: 1954:Before the crash : early video game history 1855:notes, and playing inter-terminal games such as 844:, conceived in 1967 by biology graduate student 2875:"Educational Uses of the PLATO Computer System" 2132: 2310:Sorlie, William E; Essex, Diane L (Mar 1978), 2194:, J. E. Stifle, CERL Report X-50, August 1977. 979: 860:that could enter the system with their custom 783:U.S. Air Force's Office of Scientific Research 453:(General-purpose computer message board), 1973 439:(graphics application generator (TUTOR)), 1975 3123: 2872: 2269: 2152: 3412:Computer-based Education Research Laboratory 3137: 2854:"PLATO Rising: Online learning for Atarians" 2282:Sorlie, William; Essex, Diane L (Feb 1979), 1929:"Virtual reality - Living in virtual worlds" 1621:. Many alumni of the University of Illinois 1599:The Illinois Technology-based Music Project. 1514: 1508:The Illinois Technology-based Music Project. 18:Computer-based Education Research Laboratory 2575: 2415: 2413: 2309: 2281: 2206:"The History of Microsoft Flight Simulator" 1699:, A.B. Baskin, Tom Szolyga, Vincent Wu and 1593:The Illinois Technology-based music project 1435:School of Basic Medical Sciences (now, the 1202:a top-view multiplayer space game based on 457:Notesfiles (precursor to newsgroups), 1973. 3130: 3116: 3104:: online preservation of the PLATO system. 2957:"PLATO: The Emergence of Online Community" 2851: 2537: 2157:. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. 2120:Steinberg, Esther R., ed. (June 3, 1977). 1650:National Association of Securities Dealers 1437:University of Illinois College of Medicine 601: 142: 3089:Historic PLATO Manuals & Publications 2842: 2737: 2735: 2146: 2119: 1604: 744:Learn how and when to remove this message 626:, the first PLATO 3-D walkthru maze game. 127:Learn how and when to remove this message 2935:Van Meer, Elisabeth (November 5, 2003). 2934: 2852:Small, David; Small, Sandy (July 1984). 2817: 2652: 2613: 2419: 2410: 2238:PLATO: The Emergence of Online Community 1458: 1120: 1038: 883: 831: 823: 770:administrators. To wit, if computerized 765:that provided free college education to 501:(Multiplayer space battle game), c. 1969 417:(music device for the terminal), c. 1972 366: 303:system. Starting in 1960, it ran on the 271: 2954: 2808: 2522: 1720:University Online was later renamed to 1704:Inc. Vincent Wu went on to develop the 1654:Financial Industry Regulatory Authority 655: 646: 614: 576: 14: 3404: 3019: 3003: 2981: 2920: 2732: 2594: 2588: 2578:Council of Research in Music Education 2540:Council of Research in Music Education 2456:Journal of Research in Music Education 2453: 2447: 2438: 2401: 1877:Category:PLATO (computer system) games 1116: 585:; this probably inspired UIUC student 3228: 3111: 3004:Bitzer, Donald L (19 February 1988), 2860:. Vol. 3, no. 3. p. 36 2628: 2597:Journal of Computer-based Instruction 2556: 2422:Journal of Computer-based Instruction 2288:Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 1520:Pitch recognition/performance judging 680: 3020:Gallie, Thomas Muir (11 July 1990), 2381:. Pantheon Books. pp. 186–187. 2376: 2153:Kalantzis, Mary; Cope, Bill (2020). 2046:(2): 18–24. Apr 1962. Archived from 1346:(a medical variation)—all presaging 697: 593:which was acquired and later became 342:PLATO was designed and built by the 65:adding citations to reliable sources 36: 2982:Kaiser, Cameron (25 October 2023). 2796:(revised ed.). CDC. April 1981 2234: 2128:. p. 1. ERIC Number: ED148298. 1144: 972:in 1972, created the first digital 920:Touch panel: A 16×16 grid infrared 892:for a PLATO IV terminal, circa 1976 683:The Procedure Logic Simulator (PLS) 430:(bitmapped picture drawing program) 24: 3077:, Computer-based education (CBE), 3035: 2822:. The History of Computer Gaming. 2781: 2757: 2498:"Visual Diagnostic Skills Program" 2203: 1900: 1754: 1257:by Alfille (from Baker's concept). 685:(intelligent CAI authoring system) 276:A working PLATO V terminal at the 25: 3438: 3427:History of electronic engineering 3422:Control Data Corporation software 3417:Control Data Corporation hardware 2975: 2955:Woolley, David R (January 1994). 2820:"Part 5 – PLATO Ain't Just Greek" 2695: 2677: 1749: 1565:Musical instrument identification 1342:(a western-style variation), and 880:Multimedia experiences (PLATO IV) 777:The USSR's 1957 launching of the 3166: 3074:Control Data Corporation records 2845:"A Little History of e-Learning" 1639: 1309:Countless games inspired by the 984:Early in 1972, researchers from 702: 642:with monsters, trees, treasures. 41: 2751: 2718: 2707: 2689: 2671: 2646: 2622: 2607: 2569: 2550: 2531: 2516: 2490: 2432: 2395: 2370: 2327: 2303: 2275: 2246: 2228: 2197: 2185: 2171: 1406:Federal Aviation Administration 1306:, believed to be the first FPS. 278:Living Computers: Museum + Labs 52:needs additional citations for 2656:Hypertext + Tutor = Hypertutor 2653:Schuyler, James A (Aug 1975), 2113: 2056: 2025: 1993: 1945: 1920: 1909: 1894: 1777:University of the Western Cape 1733:University Communications, Inc 1529:Rhythm notation and perception 1050:-1980, with an IST-II terminal 789:; interested parties, notably 432:storing in downloadable fonts. 362: 148:PLATO running a simulation of 13: 1: 2843:Cope, Bill; Kalantzis, Mary. 2629:Gooch, Sherwin (March 1978). 2504:. GIA Publications, Inc. 2018 1888: 1835:free and open-source software 1683:mainframes at various sites. 1676:The Examiner System in 1984. 1044: 1043:Using the CDC Plato network, 517:(dungeon crawl game), 1974–75 301:computer-assisted instruction 264:Computer-assisted instruction 2523:Sanders, William H. (1979). 2336:Computers and the Humanities 2179:"CDC Viking 721 - Terminals" 1771:in the northwest suburbs of 1208:. Either Empire or Colley's 1018: 959:Gooch Cybernetic Synthesizer 299:, was the first generalized 76:"PLATO" computer system 7: 2101:Digital Computer Newsletter 2085:Digital Computer Newsletter 2069:Digital Computer Newsletter 2040:Digital Computer Newsletter 1870: 1743:The Evergreen State College 1632:Another peripheral was the 1417: 990:Insert Display/Show Display 980:Influence on PARC and Apple 870:National Science Foundation 199:; 52 years ago 174:; 64 years ago 10: 3443: 1689:TUTOR programming language 1273:Microsoft Flight Simulator 842:TUTOR programming language 796: 787:University of Pennsylvania 756: 693: 595:Microsoft Flight Simulator 29: 3367: 3341: 3309:Chippewa Operating System 3264: 3175: 3164: 3145: 3081:, University of Minnesota 3079:Charles Babbage Institute 3066:, University of Minnesota 3064:Charles Babbage Institute 3030:, University of Minnesota 3028:Charles Babbage Institute 3014:, University of Minnesota 3012:Charles Babbage Institute 2924:The Plato IV Architecture 2847:– via ResearchGate. 2614:Watanabe, Nan T. (1981). 2402:Peters, G. David (1974). 2270:Smith & Sherwood 1976 1828: 1515:Significant early efforts 1350:(Multi-User Domains) and 1105:service for $ 5 an hour. 602:Haefeli, John (c. 1975), 473:Screen software sharing: 257: 249: 228: 216: 212: 190: 186: 168: 156: 141: 27:Mainframe computer system 3139:Control Data Corporation 3049:PLATO History Foundation 2818:Goldberg, Marty (2000). 2760:"Desktop CYBER Emulator" 2210:Flight Simulator History 2008:Computers and Automation 1615:Florida State University 1441:role-playing video games 1425:Florida State University 1298:, most notably Bowery's 1244:fame), as a game called 1190:multiplayer online games 976:on the PLATO IV system. 947:Gooch Synthetic Woodwind 672:Answer Judging Machinery 656:Lockard, Brodie (1981), 414:Gooch Synthetic Woodwind 352:Control Data Corporation 3359:PLATO (computer system) 2439:Placek, Robert (1973). 1933:Encyclopedia Britannica 1882:The Mother of All Demos 1279:Haefeli and Bridwell's 874:Urbana–Champaign campus 615:Wallace, Bruce (1975), 577:Fortner, Brand (1974), 337:multiplayer video games 150:fractional distillation 3023:Oral history interview 3007:Oral history interview 2899:10.1126/science.769165 2824:Midwest Classic Review 1985:: CS1 maint: others ( 1787:township just outside 1619:University of Delaware 1605:Influences and impacts 1541:notation recognition. 1433:University of Illinois 1404:In September 2006 the 1315:Dungeons & Dragons 1302:and Witz and Boland's 1131: 1051: 970:University of Illinois 949:(named after inventor 893: 837: 829: 724:by rewriting it in an 647:Alfille, Paul (1979), 622:, based on a story by 600:Military simulations: 583:(3-D flight simulator) 379: 344:University of Illinois 305:University of Illinois 281: 163:University of Illinois 32:Plato (disambiguation) 3354:Storage Module Device 2921:Stifle, Jack (1972). 2294:(3): 50–6, EJ209808, 2107:(4): 41–43. Oct 1964. 2091:(3): 14–17. Jul 1964. 2075:(2): 24–26. Apr 1964. 2014:(2): 16, 18. Feb 1962 1815:South African Airways 1648:system developed for 1459:Custom character sets 1296:first-person shooters 1124: 1099:IBM Personal Computer 1084:Atari 8-bit computers 1042: 1010:Palo Alto, California 901:Plasma Display Screen 887: 835: 827: 793:, presented studies. 608:(3-D tank simulation) 519:. Included the first 374: 275: 3368:Affiliated companies 2557:Deihl, N.C. (1969). 2502:Music for the Church 2377:Dear, Brian (2017). 2192:The Plato V Terminal 1731:in partnership with 681:Kaven, Luke (1979), 470:Term-talk (1:1 chat) 61:improve this article 30:For other uses, see 2891:1976Sci...192..344S 2632:PLATO Music Systems 1117:PLATO V: multimedia 1063:Minneapolis Tribune 968:, a student at the 852:, given to them by 803:Chalmers W. Sherwin 575:Flight Simulation: 446:Online communities 406:(PLATO IV), c. 1964 395:(PLATO IV), c. 1964 317:mainframe computers 2790:PLATO User's Guide 2348:10.1007/BF02274163 1611:Indiana University 1173:Castle Wolfenstein 1132: 1052: 996:workstation); the 894: 838: 836:PLATO III keyboard 830: 828:PLATO III terminal 726:encyclopedic style 713:is written like a 679:Training systems; 629:Quest Simulation: 492:Multiplayer Games 380: 313:graphics terminals 282: 197:PLATO IV / 1972 3399: 3398: 3251: 3250: 2388:978-1-101-87155-3 2290:(CIJE), ED ERIC, 2258:, Pearson digital 2164:978-1-108-49534-9 1964:978-0-8143-3722-6 1708:PLATO cartridge. 1695:IV minicomputer. 1662:Thomson Prometric 1379:World of Warcraft 1311:role-playing game 942:voice synthesizer 754: 753: 746: 659:Mahjong solitaire 437:Show Display Mode 423:Display Graphics 376:Minuet in G major 372: 329:instant messaging 325:picture languages 291:), also known as 270: 269: 137: 136: 129: 111: 16:(Redirected from 3434: 3226: 3225: 3170: 3132: 3125: 3118: 3109: 3108: 3103: 3093: 3082: 3067: 3052: 3042: 3031: 3015: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2931: 2929: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2885:(4237): 344–52. 2869: 2867: 2865: 2848: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2830:on July 19, 2013 2826:. 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Jones 1481: 1455:-based systems. 1145:Online community 1049: 1046: 1028:headquarters in 905:Bitzer's orange 858:Champaign–Urbana 761:Before the 1944 749: 742: 738: 735: 729: 706: 705: 698: 686: 675: 662: 653: 637: 621: 609: 584: 570: 560: 544: 533: 518: 502: 479: 467: 454: 440: 431: 418: 407: 396: 373: 218:Operating system 207: 205: 200: 182: 180: 175: 146: 139: 138: 132: 125: 121: 118: 112: 110: 69: 45: 37: 21: 3442: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3435: 3433: 3432: 3431: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3395: 3369: 3363: 3337: 3260: 3247: 3224: 3203:CDC 6000 series 3198:CDC 3000 series 3171: 3162: 3141: 3136: 3097: 3086: 3071: 3056: 3046: 2994: 2992: 2978: 2965: 2963: 2945: 2943: 2927: 2911: 2909: 2863: 2861: 2833: 2831: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2784: 2782:Further reading 2779: 2769: 2767: 2756: 2752: 2741: 2740: 2733: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2708: 2694: 2690: 2676: 2672: 2659: 2651: 2647: 2638: 2636: 2627: 2623: 2612: 2608: 2593: 2589: 2574: 2570: 2555: 2551: 2536: 2532: 2521: 2517: 2507: 2505: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2468:10.2307/3344614 2452: 2448: 2437: 2433: 2418: 2411: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2375: 2371: 2332: 2328: 2316: 2308: 2304: 2280: 2276: 2268: 2264: 2252: 2251: 2247: 2233: 2229: 2219: 2217: 2204:Havlik, Josef. 2202: 2198: 2190: 2186: 2177: 2176: 2172: 2165: 2151: 2147: 2140: 2133: 2118: 2114: 2095: 2079: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2017: 2015: 2003: 1999: 1998: 1994: 1978: 1977: 1965: 1951: 1950: 1946: 1937: 1935: 1925: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1873: 1831: 1757: 1755:In South Africa 1752: 1642: 1623:School of Music 1607: 1595: 1567: 1550: 1531: 1522: 1517: 1492: 1475: 1461: 1451:, and later to 1246:Galactic Attack 1236:Robert Woodhead 1188:. Thousands of 1147: 1141: 1119: 1047: 1021: 982: 882: 799: 759: 750: 739: 733: 730: 722:help improve it 719: 707: 703: 696: 670: 630: 613:3D Maze games: 563: 553: 537: 526: 521:video game boss 511: 495: 474: 460: 449: 435: 426: 411: 408:. Donald Bitzer 400: 397:. Donald Bitzer 389: 367: 365: 243:CDC 6000 series 237:(PLATO I, II), 208: 203: 201: 198: 178: 176: 173: 169:Initial release 152: 133: 122: 116: 113: 70: 68: 58: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3440: 3430: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3385: 3384: 3373: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3345: 3343: 3342:Other products 3339: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3334: 3333: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3316: 3311: 3302: 3301: 3300: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3275: 3274: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3258: 3252: 3249: 3248: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3234: 3232: 3223: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3211: 3210: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3188:CDC 160 series 3185: 3179: 3177: 3173: 3172: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3160: 3155: 3153:William Norris 3149: 3147: 3143: 3142: 3135: 3134: 3127: 3120: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3084: 3069: 3054: 3044: 3033: 3017: 3001: 2977: 2976:External links 2974: 2973: 2972: 2952: 2932: 2918: 2870: 2849: 2840: 2815: 2806: 2783: 2780: 2778: 2777: 2750: 2731: 2717: 2706: 2688: 2670: 2645: 2621: 2606: 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Built on a 847: 843: 834: 826: 822: 820: 815: 810: 808: 807:Donald Bitzer 804: 801:Around 1959, 794: 792: 788: 784: 780: 775: 773: 768: 764: 748: 745: 737: 727: 723: 717: 716: 711:This section 709: 700: 699: 684: 678: 673: 669: 668: 666: 661: 660: 652: 651: 644: 641: 635: 634: 628: 625: 624:J. G. Ballard 620: 619: 612: 607: 606: 599: 596: 592: 588: 587:Bruce Artwick 582: 581: 574: 568: 567: 562: 558: 557: 552: 551: 550:Space combat 549: 542: 541: 536: 531: 530: 525: 522: 516: 515: 510: 509: 507: 503:. 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Retrieved 2828:the original 2823: 2810: 2798:. Retrieved 2789: 2768:. Retrieved 2766:. Tom Hunter 2763: 2753: 2743: 2720: 2709: 2698: 2691: 2680: 2673: 2663: 2655: 2648: 2637:. Retrieved 2631: 2624: 2615: 2609: 2600: 2596: 2590: 2581: 2577: 2571: 2552: 2543: 2539: 2533: 2524: 2518: 2506:. Retrieved 2501: 2492: 2462:(1): 13–23. 2459: 2455: 2449: 2440: 2434: 2425: 2421: 2403: 2397: 2378: 2372: 2342:(2): 87–99. 2339: 2335: 2329: 2320: 2312: 2305: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2265: 2254: 2248: 2237: 2230: 2218:. Retrieved 2214:the original 2209: 2199: 2187: 2173: 2154: 2148: 2115: 2104: 2100: 2088: 2084: 2072: 2068: 2058: 2048:the original 2043: 2039: 2027: 2016:. Retrieved 2011: 2007: 1995: 1953: 1947: 1936:. 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