Common tern - Knowledge

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circling her with his tail and neck raised, head pointing down, and wings partially open. If she responds, they may both adopt a posture with the head pointed skywards. The male may tease a female with the fish, not parting with his offering until she has displayed to him sufficiently. Once courtship is complete, the male makes a shallow depression in the sand, and the female scratches in the same place. Several trials may take place until the pair settle on a site for the actual nest. The eggs may be laid on bare sand, gravel or soil, but a lining of debris or vegetation is often added if available, or the nest may be rimmed with seaweed, stones or shells. The saucer-shaped scrape is typically 4 cm (1.6 in) deep and 10 cm (3.9 in) across, but may extend to as much as 24 cm (9.4 in) wide including the surrounding decorative material. Breeding success in areas prone to flooding has been enhanced by the provision of artificial mats made from

1498: 784: 1424: 992: 634: 40: 1351: 742: 1244: 1409: 700: 220: 1440: 931:, obvious on the closed wing and in flight. The South American tern is larger than the common, with a larger, more curved red bill, and has a smoother, more extensive black cap in non-breeding plumage. Like Antarctic, it lacks a strong carpal bar in non-breeding plumages, and it also shares the distinctive barring of the tertials in young birds. The white-fronted tern has a white forehead in breeding plumage, a heavier bill, and in non-breeding plumage is paler below than the common, with white underwings. The white-cheeked tern is smaller, has uniform grey upperparts, and in breeding plumage is darker above with whiter cheeks. 1382: 879:

similar in size, the two terns differ in structure and flight. The common tern has a larger head, thicker neck, longer legs, and more triangular and stiffer wings than its relative, and has a more powerful, direct flight. Arctic terns have greyer underparts than the common variety, which makes its white cheeks more obvious, whereas the rump of the common tern can be greyish in non-breeding plumage, compared to the white of its relative. The common tern develops a dark wedge on the wings as the breeding season progresses, but the wings of the Arctic stay white throughout the northern summer. All the

670: 1175:, or even large flat rocks may be suitable in an island environment. In mixed colonies, common terns will tolerate somewhat longer ground vegetation than Arctic terns, but avoid the even taller growth acceptable to roseate terns; the relevant factor here is the different leg lengths of the three species. Common terns adapt readily to artificial floating rafts, and may even nest on flat factory roofs. Unusual nest sites include hay bales, a stump 0.6 m (2 ft) above the water, and floating logs or vegetation. There is a record of a common tern taking over a 1216:

although 150–350 cm (59–138 in) is more typical. As with many birds, the same site is re-used year after year, with a record of one pair returning for 17 successive breeding seasons. Around ninety per cent of experienced birds reuse their former territory, so young birds must nest on the periphery, find a bereaved mate, or move to another colony. A male selects a nesting territory a few days after his arrival in the spring, and is joined by his previous partner unless she is more than five days late, in which case the pair may separate.

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flies head-down and with its bill held vertically. It may circle or hover before diving, and then plunges directly into the water, whereas the Arctic tern favours a "stepped-hover" technique, and the roseate tern dives at speed from a greater height, and submerges for longer. The common tern typically forages up to 5–10 km (3.1–6.2 mi) away from the breeding colony, sometimes as far as 15 km (9.3 mi). It will follow schools of fish, and its west African migration route is affected by the location of huge shoals of

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moult for birds that return north, but not for those that stay in the winter quarters. A major moult to adult breeding plumage occurs in the next February to June, between forty and ninety per cent of feathers being replaced. Old primary feathers wear away to reveal the blackish barbs beneath. The moult pattern means that the oldest feathers are those nearest the middle of the wing, so as the northern summer progresses, a dark wedge appears on the wing because of this feather ageing process.

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number of young per pair surviving to fledging can vary from zero in the event of the colony being flooded to over 2.5 in a good year. In North America, productivity was between 1.0 and 2.0 on islands, but less than 1.0 at coastal and inland sites. Birds become more successful at raising chicks with age. This continues throughout their breeding lives, but the biggest increase is in the first five years. The maximum documented lifespan in the wild is 23

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its head to expose the throat. Aerial trespassers are simply attacked, sometimes following a joint upward spiralling flight. Despite the aggression shown to adults, wandering chicks are usually tolerated, whereas in a gull colony they would be attacked and killed. The nest is defended until the chicks have fledged, and all the adults in the colony will collectively repel potential predators.

927:. The plumage differences due to "opposite" breeding seasons may aid in identification. The Antarctic tern is more sturdy than the common, with a heavier bill. In breeding condition, its dusky underparts and full black cap outline a white cheek stripe. In non-breeding plumages, it lacks, or has only an indistinct, carpal bar, and young birds show dark bars on the 1716: 459:. They are gull-like in appearance, but typically have a lighter build, long pointed wings (which give them a fast, buoyant flight), a deeply forked tail, slender legs, and webbed feet. Most species are grey above and white below, and have a black cap which is reduced or flecked with white in the non-breeding season. 1810:

apply. Parties to the AEWA agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan. The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, research, education, and implementation. The

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million mature individuals and a huge breeding range estimated at 84,300,000 km (32,500,000 sq mi). Breeding numbers have been estimated at a quarter to half a million pairs, the majority breeding in Asia. About 140 thousand pairs breed in Europe. Fewer than eighty thousand pairs breed

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birds, but unlike the more aggressive Arctic tern, it rarely hits the intruder, usually swerving off at the last moment. Adults can discriminate between individual humans, attacking familiar people more intensely than strangers. Nocturnal predators do not elicit similar attacks; colonies can be wiped

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The defence of the territory is mainly by the male, who repels intruders of either sex. He gives an alarm call, opens his wings, raises his tail and bows his head to show the black cap. If the intruder persists, the male stops calling and fights by bill grappling until the intruder submits by raising

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On their return to the breeding sites, the terns may loiter for a few days before settling into a territory, and the actual start of nesting may be linked to a high availability of fish. Terns defend only a small area, with distances between nests sometimes being as little as 50 cm (20 in),

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between common and roseate terns have been recorded, particularly from the US, and the intermediate plumage and calls shown by these birds is a potential identification pitfall. Such birds may have more extensive black on the bill, but confirmation of mixed breeding may depend on the exact details of

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Terns are expert at locating their nests in a large colony. Studies show that terns can find and excavate their eggs when they are buried, even if the nest material is removed and the sand smoothed over. They will find a nest placed 5 m (16 ft) from its original site, or even further if it

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are brown, and the forehead is ginger, wearing to white by autumn. The upper parts are ginger with brown and white scaling, and the tail lacks the adult's long outer feathers. Birds in their first post-juvenile plumage, which normally remain in their wintering areas, resemble the non-breeding adult,

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Differences between the North American and Eurasian populations are minimal. North American birds have a slightly shorter wing length on average, and the extent of the black tip on the upper mandible tends to be less than in birds from Scandinavia and further east in Eurasia. The proportion of black

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Common terns usually breed once a year. Second clutches are possible if the first is lost. Rarely, a second clutch may be laid and incubated while some chicks from the first clutch are still being fed. The first breeding attempt is usually at four years of age, sometimes at three years. The average

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of the Arctic tern are translucent against a bright sky, only the four innermost wing feathers of the common tern share this property. The trailing edge of the outer flight feathers is a thin black line in the Arctic tern, but thicker and less defined in the common. The bill of an adult common tern

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There are several terns of a similar size and general appearance to the common tern. A traditionally difficult species to separate is the Arctic tern, and until the key characteristics were clarified, distant or flying birds of the two species were often jointly recorded as "commic terns". Although

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Kress, Stephen W; Weinstein, Evelyn H; Nisbet, Ian C T; Shugart, Gary W; Scharf, William C; Blokpoel, Hans; Smith, Gerald A; Karwowski, Kenneth; Maxwell, George R; Chapdelaine, Gilles; Montevecchi, William A; Lock, Anthony R; Smith, Carol F; Miller, Eileen; Spendelow, Jeffrey A; Gochfeld, Michael;

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Threats come from habitat loss through building, pollution or vegetation growth, or disturbance of breeding birds by humans, vehicles, boats or dogs. Local natural flooding may lead to nest losses, and some colonies are vulnerable to predation by rats and large gulls. Gulls also compete with terns

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In the breeding areas, the roseate tern can be distinguished by its pale plumage, long, mainly black bill and very long tail feathers. The non-breeding plumage of roseate is pale above and white, sometimes pink-tinged, below. It retains the long tail streamers, and has a black bill. In flight, the

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trade was the main cause of large reductions in common tern populations in both Europe and North America, especially on the Atlantic coasts and inland. Sometimes entire stuffed birds were used to make hats. Numbers largely recovered early in the twentieth century mainly due to legislation and the

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in 22–28 days, usually 25–26. Fledged juveniles are fed at the nest for about five days, and then accompany the adults on fishing expeditions. The young birds may receive supplementary feeds from the parents until the end of the breeding season, and beyond. Common terns have been recorded feeding

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of Asia to tropical shores, and at altitudes up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in Armenia, and 4,800 m (15,700 ft) in Asia. It avoids areas which are frequently exposed to excessive rain or wind, and also icy waters, so it does not breed as far north as the Arctic tern. The common tern

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Most populations of the common tern are strongly migratory, wintering south of their temperate and subarctic Northern Hemisphere breeding ranges. First summer birds usually remain in their wintering quarters, although a few return to breeding colonies some time after the arrival of the adults. In

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picked from the ground or from the water surface. Prey is caught in the bill and either swallowed head-first, or carried back to the chicks. Occasionally, two or more small fish may be carried simultaneously. When adults take food back to the nest, they recognise their young by call, rather than

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terns, the common tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, from a height of 1–6 m (3.3–19.7 ft), either in the sea or in freshwater lakes and large rivers. The bird may submerge for a second or so, but to no more than 50 cm (20 in) below the surface. When seeking fish, this tern

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are replaced in stages; the innermost feathers moult first, then replacement is suspended during the southern winter (birds of this age staying in their wintering areas) and recommences in the autumn. In May to June of the second year, a similar moult sequence starts, with a pause during primary

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become exposed, and a grey wedge appears on the wings. The rump and tail are white, and on a standing bird the long tail extends no further than the folded wingtips, unlike the Arctic and roseate terns in which the tail protrudes beyond the wings. There are no significant differences between the

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As long-distance migrants, common terns sometimes occur well outside their normal range. Stray birds have been found inland in Africa (Zambia and Malawi), and on the Maldives and Comoros islands; the nominate subspecies has reached Australia, the Andes, and the interior of South America. Asian

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in which a male and a female fly in wide circles up to 200 m (660 ft) or more, calling all the while, before the two birds descend together in zigzag glides. If the male is carrying a fish, he may attract the attention of other males too. On the ground, the male courts the female by

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The common tern is an agile flyer, capable of rapid turns and swoops, hovering, and vertical take-off. When commuting with fish, it flies close to the surface in a strong head wind, but 10–30 m (33–98 ft) above the water in a following wind. Unless migrating, normally it stays below

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size is normally three eggs; larger clutches probably result from two females laying in the same nest. Egg size averages 41 mm × 31 mm (1.6 in × 1.2 in), although each successive egg in a clutch is slightly smaller than the first laid. The average egg weight is

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for commercial sale as food. Breeding success may be enhanced by the use of floating nest rafts, manmade islands or other artificial nest sites, and by preventing human disturbance. Overgrown vegetation may be burned to clear the ground, and gulls can be killed or discouraged by deliberate

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The common tern preferentially hunts fish 5–15 cm (2.0–5.9 in) long. The species caught depend on what is available, but if there is a choice, terns feeding several chicks will take larger prey than those with smaller broods. The proportion of fish fed to chicks may be as high as

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Juvenile common terns are easily separated from similar-aged birds of related species. They show extensive ginger colouration to the back, and have a pale base to the bill. Young Arctic terns have a grey back and black bill, and juvenile roseate terns have a distinctive scalloped "saddle".

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The nominate subspecies of the common tern is 31–35 cm (12–14 in) long, including a 6–9 cm (2.4–3.5 in) fork in the tail, with a 77–98 cm (30–39 in) wingspan. It weighs 110–141 g (3.9–5.0 oz). Breeding adults have pale grey upperparts, very pale grey

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regions. Breeding adults have light grey upperparts, white to very light grey underparts, a black cap, orange-red legs, and a narrow pointed bill. Depending on the subspecies, the bill may be mostly red with a black tip or all black. There are several similar species, including the partly

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sexes. In non-breeding adults, the forehead and underparts become white, the bill is all black or black with a red base, and the legs are dark red or black. The upper wings have an obvious dark area at the front edge of the wing, the carpal bar. Terns that have not bred successfully may

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Terns normally drink in flight, usually taking seawater in preference to freshwater, if both are available. Chicks do not drink before fledging, reabsorbing water, and, like adults, excreting excess salt in a concentrated solution from a specialised nasal gland. Fish bones and the hard

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New World birds winter along both coasts of Central and South America, to Argentina on the east coast and to northern Chile on the west coast. Records from South America and the Azores show that some birds may cross the Atlantic in both directions on their migration.

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Breeding in a wider range of habitats than any of its relatives, the common tern nests on any flat, poorly vegetated surface close to water, including beaches and islands, and it readily adapts to artificial substrates such as floating rafts. The nest may be a bare

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underparts, a black cap, orange-red legs, and a narrow pointed bill that can be mostly red with a black tip, or all black, depending on the subspecies. The common tern's upper wings are pale grey, but as the summer wears on, the dark feather shafts of the outer

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and refers here to the tern's superficial likeness to that unrelated bird, which has a similar light build and long forked tail. This resemblance also leads to the informal name "sea swallow", recorded from at least the seventeenth century. The

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in breeding plumage is obviously larger than the common, with relatively short wings, a heavy head and thick bill, and long, strong legs; in all non-breeding plumages, its white head and dark eye patch make the American species unmistakable.

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organizations. Although some Eurasian populations are stable, numbers in North America have fallen by more than seventy per cent in the last forty years, and there is an overall negative trend in the global estimates for this species.

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days. On hot days the incubating parent may fly to water to wet its belly feathers before returning to the eggs, thus affording the eggs some cooling. Except when the colony suffers disaster, ninety per cent of the eggs hatch. The

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but have a duskier crown, dark carpal bar, and often very worn plumage. By their second year, most young terns are either indistinguishable from adults, or show only minor differences such as a darker bill or white forehead.

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is given when an adult is approaching the nest while carrying a fish, and is possibly used for individual recognition (chicks emerge from hiding when they hear their parents giving this call). Another common call is a

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through the quality of their wing feathers. Rarely, a very early moult at the nesting colony is linked to breeding failure, both the onset of moult and reproductive behaviour being linked to falling levels of the

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Terns are unusual in the frequency in which they moult their primaries, which are replaced at least twice, occasionally three times in a year. The visible difference in feather age is accentuated in the greater

51: 1200:, but may occasionally number more than twenty thousand pairs. Colonies inland tend to be smaller than on the coast. Common terns often nest alongside other coastal species, such as Arctic, roseate and 1995: 1803: 1119:, in Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau, unusual in that they are within what is mainly a wintering area. Only a few common terns have been recorded in New Zealand, and this species' status in 428:, although numbers in North America have declined sharply in recent decades. Despite international legislation protecting the common tern, in some areas, populations are threatened by 49: 1212:. Especially in the early part of the breeding season, for no known reason, most or all of the terns will fly in silence low and fast out to sea. This phenomenon is called a "dread". 955:, stressed on the first syllable, in contrast to the second-syllable stress of the Arctic tern. The alarm call doubles up as a warning to intruders, although serious threats evoke a 1581:, roseate terns, or by other common terns while bringing fish back to its nest. In one study, two males whose mates had died spent much time stealing food from neighbouring broods. 1656:, which are quite different from those found in Arctic terns, despite the close relationship of the two birds. It may also be infected by parasitic worms, such as the widespread 1051:

The common tern breeds across most of Europe, with the highest numbers in the north and east of the continent. There are small populations on the north African coast, and in the

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20.2 g (0.71 oz), of which five per cent is shell. The egg weight depends on how well-fed the female is, as well as on its position in the clutch. The eggs are cream,

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has been found in common terns from Italy, North America and China. A study of 75 breeding common terns found that none carried blood parasites. Colonies have been affected by

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Olsen, Björn; Munster, Vincent J; Wallensten, Anders; Waldenström, Jonas; Osterhaus, D M E; Fouchier, Ron A M (2006). "Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds".

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Sonja C. Ludwig, Peter H. Becker (2011) Immigration prevents inbreeding in a growing colony of a long-lived and philopatric seabird. Ibis. volume 154, Issue 1, pgs. 74-84.

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into non-breeding adult plumage beginning in June, though late July is more typical, with the moult suspended during migration. There is also some geographical variation;

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roseate's heavier head and neck, long bill and faster, stiffer wingbeats are also characteristic. It feeds further out to sea than the common tern. In North America, the

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Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata

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Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata

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Fiorello, Christine V; Nisbet, Ian C T; Hatch, Jeremy J; Corsiglia, Carolyn; Pokras, Mark A (2009). "Hematology and absence of hemoparasites in breeding Common Terns (

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days if there are frequent disturbances at the colony which cause the adults to leave the eggs unattended; nocturnal predation may lead to incubation taking up to 34

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in sand or gravel, but it is often lined or edged with whatever debris is available. Up to three eggs may be laid, their dull colours and blotchy patterns providing

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in the cone oil drops than other avian species. The improved eyesight helps terns to locate shoals of fish, although it is uncertain whether they are sighting the

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reflectance of new primaries, and the freshness of the wing feathers is used by females in mate selection. Experienced females favour mates which best show their

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Juveniles moult into adult plumage in its first October; first the head, tail, and body plumage is replaced, mostly by February, then the wing feathers. The

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Ecological Indicators for the Assessment of the Quality of Air, Water, Soil and Ecosystems: Symposium Papers ("Environmental Monitoring & Assessment")

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or coloured yellow (but not red or blue). This ability to locate the eggs is an adaptation to life in an unstable, wind-blown and tidal environment.

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Common terns have a wide repertoire of calls, which have a lower pitch than the equivalent calls of Arctic terns. The most distinctive sound is the

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Burger, Joanna; Shealer, D A; Gochfeld, Michael (1993). "Defensive aggression in terns: discrimination and response to individual researchers".

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Stevenson, J G; Hutchison, R E; Hutchison, J B; Bertram B C R; Thorpe, W H (1970). "Individual recognition by auditory cues in the Common Tern (

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in North America, with most breeding on the northeast Atlantic coast and a declining population of less than ten thousand pairs breeding in the

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can also be a local problem. Because common terns nest on islands, the most common predators are normally other birds rather than mammals. The

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Braasch, Alexander; Garciá, Germán O (2012). "A case of aberrant post-breeding moult coinciding with nest desertion in a female Common Tern".

6335: 5247: 1479:, especially in hazy conditions. Birds that have to see through an air/water interface, such as terns and gulls, have more strongly coloured 1649:

may attack flying terns; as with other birds, it seems likely that one advantage of flocking behaviour is to confuse fast-flying predators.

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The peak time for egg production is early May, with some birds, particularly first-time breeders, laying later in the month or in June. The

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should apply to the common tern or the arctic tern as the species are very similar and both occur in Sweden. In 1913, the Swedish zoologist

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chick is yellowish with black or brown markings, and like the eggs, is similar to the equivalent stage of the Arctic tern. The chicks

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to which it is susceptible. In 1961 the common tern was the first wild bird species identified as infected with avian influenza, the

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100 m (330 ft), and averages 30 km/h (19 mph) in the absence of a tail wind. Its average flight speed during the

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on the bill is at its minimum in the west of Europe, so British breeders are very similar to North American birds in this respect.

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Varela, F J; Palacios, A G; Goldsmith T M (1993) "Vision, Brain, and Behavior in Birds" in Zeigler & Bischof (1993) pp. 77–94.

1996:"A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution" 6283: 3679: 783: 3549: 3174: 2786: 3611: 2930: 2891: 2232: 1429:

This autumn juvenile in Massachusetts has a white forehead, having lost the ginger colouration characteristic of younger birds.

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Birds of the Pacific Northwest Mountains: The Cascade Range, the Olympic Mountains, Vancouver Island, and the Coast Mountains

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Burger, Joanna; Erwin, R Michael (1983). "The status of tern populations in northeastern United States and adjacent Canada".

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also recognise each other's vocalisations from about the twelfth day from hatching, which helps to keep the brood together.

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is by both sexes, and the eggs hatch in around 21–22 days, longer if the colony is disturbed by predators. The downy chicks

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Kirkham, Ian R; Nisbet, Ian C T (1987). "Feeding techniques and field identification of Arctic, Common and Roseate Terns".

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their offspring on migration and in the wintering grounds, at least until the adults move further south in about December.

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in 22–28 days. Like most terns, this species feeds by plunge-diving for fish, either in the sea or in freshwater, but

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Bridge, Eli S; Eaton, Muir D (2005). "Does ultraviolet reflectance accentuate a sexually selected signal in terns?".

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In the wintering regions, there are also confusion species, including the Antarctic tern of the southern oceans, the

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evidence suggests that the common tern may have diverged from an ancestral stock earlier than its relatives. No

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Birds of Ontario: Habitat Requirements, Limiting Factors, and Status Nonpasserines, Waterfowl Through Cranes: 1

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migration flight is 43–54 km/h (27–34 mph) at a height of 1,000–3,000 m (3,300–9,800 ft).

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appear to be rare. Its large population and huge breeding range mean that this species is classed as being of

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Darker grey than the nominate subspecies, with shorter black bill, darker red-brown legs, and longer wings.

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in male embryos, which seemed to disappear prior to fledging, with no effect on colony productivity, but

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Gonzalez-Solis, J; Becker, P H; Wendeln, H (1999). "Divorce and asynchronous arrival in Common Terns (

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Schulenberg, Thomas S; Stotz, Douglas F; Lane, Daniel F; O'Neill, John P; Parker, Theodore A (2010).

5259:. U S Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Fort Snelling, Minnesota. Archived from 2083: 1971: 1638: 1304:

Like many terns, this species is very defensive of its nest and young, and will harass humans, dogs,

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and other European birds moving further south. The breeding range continues across the temperate and

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Nisbet, Ian C T; Cam, Emmanuelle (2002). "Test for age-specificity in survival of the Common Tern".

2787:"Recovery in Punta Rasa, Argentina of Common Terns banded in the Azores archipelago, North Atlantic" 6541: 6348: 6037: 5999: 5874: 5260: 2059: 1784: 1490:

on which the fish feed, or observing other terns diving for food. Tern's eyes are not particularly

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The common tern breeds over a wider range of habitats than any of its relatives, nesting from the

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Raffaele, Herbert A; Raffaele, Janis I; Wiley, James; Garrido, Orlando H; Keith, Allan R (2003).

4896: 4672:"Characteristics of predators and offspring influence on nest defense by Arctic and Common Terns" 2088: 20: 6438: 4037: 3163:

de Wolf, P. "BioIndicators and the Quality of the Wadden Sea" in Best & Haeck (1984) p. 362.

2125: 1024:. In the United States, some breeding populations can also be found in the states bordering the 366: 6275: 6068: 5961: 4844: 3928: 1788: 1737: 1037: 734: 692: 6301: 3064:

DiCostanzo, Joseph (1978). "Occurrences of the Common Tern in the interior of South America".

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Alerstam, T (1985). "Strategies of migratory flight, illustrated by Arctic and common terns,

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The common tern may attempt to steal fish from Arctic terns, but might itself be harassed by

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are known from North America, and those claimed in Europe are of uncertain age and species.

6459: 6073: 6019: 4836: 4826: 4243: 3950: 3845: 2983: 2962: 2704: 2437:"Wing molt and assortative mating in Common Terns: a test of the molt-signaling hypothesis" 2010: 1811:

North American legislation is similar, although there is a greater emphasis on protection.

1590: 1041: 4228: 1699:, and it is possible that the common tern may be threatened in the future by outbreaks of 1099:

during the Northern Hemisphere winter. Birds from further north and east in Asia, such as

8: 1843: 1664: 1163:

breeds close to freshwater or the sea on almost any open flat habitat, including sand or

909: 846: 669: 510: 60: 4840: 4779: 4247: 3849: 3255:

Fuchs, Eduard (1977). "Predation and anti-predator behaviour in a mixed colony of terns

2708: 2014: 928: 6236: 6081: 6024: 5558: 4978: 4915: 4870: 4809: 4691: 4621: 4504: 4456: 4448: 4397: 4346: 4309: 4259: 4151: 4126: 3861: 3757: 3706: 3455: 3326: 3284: 3081: 2809: 2728: 2658: 2458: 2228: 1758: 1687: 1633:

will take eggs from unattended nests, and gulls may take chicks. Great horned owls and

1622: 920: 916: 816:

Juvenile common terns have pale grey upper wings with a dark carpal bar. The crown and

261: 90: 1223:

relatives appears to be avoided passively by immigration and dispersal rather than by

999: 6420: 6130: 5842: 5823: 5804: 5785: 5766: 5747: 5728: 5709: 5690: 5671: 5652: 5633: 5616: 5602: 5583: 5564: 5545: 5526: 5507: 5488: 5428: 5409: 5390: 5371: 5352: 5333: 5314: 5295: 5276: 5232: 5213: 5194: 5175: 5145: 4970: 4862: 4801: 4156: 4084: 3530: 3447: 3197: 2720: 2421: 2026: 1443:

Flying over a pond in England. The head and bill point down during a search for fish.

1415: 1388: 1252: 1205: 1176: 901: 859: 350: 6122: 4982: 4948:): evidence that ovotestes in male embryos do not persist to the prefledgling stage" 4813: 4695: 4460: 3865: 3738:"Seasonal variations in breeding success of Common Terns: consequences of predation" 3599: 3459: 2813: 2462: 2208: 2204: 1075:

and the coast of Iran. Small populations breed on islands off Sri Lanka, and in the

552: 6363: 6135: 5107: 4962: 4907: 4874: 4854: 4793: 4683: 4613: 4496: 4444: 4440: 4389: 4336: 4305: 4251: 4146: 4138: 4080: 4067:

Bugoni, Leandro; Vooren, Carolus Maria (2004). "Feeding ecology of the Common Tern

3853: 3803: 3749: 3675: 3473: 3439: 3393: 3318: 3276: 3073: 2978: 2801: 2732: 2712: 2650: 2448: 2417: 2224: 2018: 1861: 1658: 1646: 1574: 1373: 1314: 936: 6086: 5112:

Digest of Federal Resource Laws of Interest to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

5085: 4944:"Gonadal feminization and halogenated environmental contaminants in Common Terns ( 2690: 2500:

Hume, Rob A (1993). "Common, Arctic and Roseate Terns: an identification review".

2077: 1893: 6546: 6381: 6187: 6109: 2183: 2165: 1700: 1670: 1634: 1630: 1224: 1021: 662: 147: 6490: 6327: 2914: 2875: 2022: 6208: 6195: 5937: 5925: 5863: 5160: 1679: 1597:, and even small chicks walk a short distance from the scrape to deposit their 1457: 1128: 1056: 1029: 1017: 880: 801: 776: 711: 683:

Like the nominate subspecies, but with a shorter bill and a broader black tip.

578: 528: 463: 452: 413: 326: 5139: 4966: 4941: 4427:

Hughes, M R (1968). "Renal and extrarenal sodium excretion in the Common Tern

4229:"Foraging group size: models and a test with jaegers kleptoparasitizing terns" 3857: 6520: 6296: 5471: 5451:(in Portuguese and English). Bahia: Atualidades Ornitológicas. Archived from 5019:

Agreement on the conservation of African-Eurasian migratory Waterbirds (AEWA)

4723:"Ruddy Turnstones, Great Horned Owls, and egg loss from Common Tern clutches" 2051: 1852: 1749: 1745: 1642: 1614: 1578: 1487: 1277: 1272: 1209: 1201: 1197: 1196:

The common tern breeds in colonies which do not normally exceed two thousand

1164: 1112: 486: 425: 393: 318: 219: 206: 80: 75: 5741: 5452: 4858: 3807: 3695:"Nocturnal predation by a Black-Crowned Night Heron at a Common Tern colony" 3397: 2654: 1494:

sensitive, an adaptation more suited to terrestrial feeders like the gulls.

767: 358: 6174: 5984: 5949: 5920: 4974: 4866: 4805: 4160: 4142: 3451: 3443: 2724: 2030: 1692: 1514: 1293: 1124: 1080: 1072: 949: 924: 540: 471: 429: 382: 5897: 5582:. Washington DC and Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. 5142:

The Handbook of Bird Identification: For Europe and the Western Palearctic

4942:

Hart, Constance A; Nisbet, Ian C T; Kennedy, Sean W; Hahn, Mark E (2003).

1617:

is an important predator of hatched chicks, both in North America, and in

1079:

region of the Tibetan plateau. Western Asian birds winter in the northern

6446: 6309: 6257: 5993: 5836: 5245: 3172: 2632: 2397:(supplement on migration: mechanisms and adaptive significance): 580–603. 1696: 1586: 1517:

prey may form a significant part of the diet elsewhere. This may include

1491: 1476: 1228: 1116: 1096: 1025: 913: 855: 707: 544: 514:, written around 1000 A.D. Linnaeus adopted this word for the genus name 501: 433: 342: 6060: 5249:

Status Assessment and Conservation Recommendations for the Common Tern (

4797: 4452: 3680:

10.1002/1098-2337(1993)19:4<303::AID-AB2480190406>3.0.CO;2-P

6485: 6226: 5188: 4919: 4625: 4508: 4401: 4350: 3761: 3710: 3330: 3288: 3085: 2662: 1653: 1594: 1558: 1534: 1480: 1357: 1309: 1265: 1168: 810: 646: 421: 378: 362: 334: 314: 6386: 4263: 1804:

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds

1799:, led to very low levels of successful breeding in some US locations. 1115:

as far as southern Australia. There are small and erratic colonies in

565:

Four subspecies of the common tern are generally recognized, although

6156: 5684: 5422: 4525: 4375: 3216:"Nest-site selection by Roseate Terns and Common Terns in the Azores" 2716: 1779: 1765: 1764:

In the nineteenth century, the use of tern feathers and wings in the

1546: 1468: 1313:

out by rats, and adults desert the colony for up to eight hours when

1290: 1120: 1033: 867: 826: 677: 322: 107: 16:

Migratory seabird in the family Laridae with circumpolar distribution

6262: 5955: 4911: 4617: 4500: 4393: 4341: 4124: 3753: 3531:"Use of artificial eelgrass mats by saltmarsh-nesting Common Terns ( 3322: 3280: 3099:

Darby, Chris (2011). "Eastern Common Terns in Suffolk and Belgium".

3077: 1012:

North America, the common tern breeds along the Atlantic coast from

837: 6161: 6148: 5978: 5932: 5760: 5577: 5246:

Cuthbert, Francesca J; Wires, Linda R; Timmerman, Kristina (2003).

5162:

Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns: Order Longipennes

5140:

Beaman, Mark; Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary; Zetterstrom, Dan (1998).

4255: 3665: 3425: 2784: 1993: 1618: 1526: 1502: 1013: 1004: 806: 505: 374: 339: 127: 5742:

Stephens, David W; Brown, Joel Steven; Ydenberg, Ronald C (2007).

5327: 4671: 4601: 4377: 3737: 1131:, New Zealand, five months later, having flown an estimated 25,000 1032:

coast. There are small, only partially migratory, colonies in the

283: 6498: 6045: 5482: 4324: 3694: 2634: 2453: 2436: 1675: 1626: 1518: 1483: 1461: 1453: 1305: 1257: 1064: 1060: 980: 864: 642: 519: 467: 346: 330: 306: 302: 157: 6399: 5727:((2 volume) Concise ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4127:"Ultraviolet vision and foraging in dip and plunge diving birds" 2635:"Experimental evidence for sibling recognition in Common Terns ( 5615: 3183:

nest-site characteristics on Coquet Island, north-east England"

3173:

Robinson, James A; Chivers, Lorraine S; Hamer, Keith C (2001).

1554: 1550: 1542: 1472: 1297: 1264:

is moved in several stages. Eggs are accepted if reshaped with

1076: 1052: 750: 479: 370: 167: 117: 5837:

Zimmerman, Dale A; Pearson, David J; Turner, Donald A (2010).

2633:

Burger, Joanna; Gochfeld, Michael; Boarman, William I (1988).

1837: 1835: 1609:

Rats will take tern eggs, and may even store large numbers in

1329:

years in Europe, but twelve years is a more typical lifespan.

1036:; these are in The Bahamas and Cuba, and off Venezuela in the 388:

Eggs and young are vulnerable to predation by mammals such as

6143: 1598: 1566: 1538: 1530: 1522: 1180: 1172: 1159: 1068: 968:

uttered during social contact. Other vocalizations include a

715: 405: 5817: 5189:

Blomdahl, Anders; Breife, Bertil; Holmstrom, Niklas (2007).

4599: 2785:

Neves, Verónica C; Bremer, R Esteban; Hays, Helen W (2002).

1475:

of their eyes. This improves contrast and sharpens distance

385:

prey may form a significant part of the diet in some areas.

5012:"Annex 2: Waterbird species to which the Agreement applies" 4688:

10.1650/0010-5422(2000)102[0301:COPAOI]2.0.CO;2

4651:

Houde, P (1977). "Gull-tern interactions on Hicks Island".

4376:

Nisbet, Ian C T; Wilson, Karen J; Broad, William A (1978).

4066: 3375:"Prey dynamics and the breeding phenology of Common Terns ( 2806:

10.1675/1524-4695(2002)025[0459:RIPRAO]2.0.CO;2

1832: 1707:

variant being found in an outbreak of South African birds.

1683: 1562: 817: 475: 456: 448: 444: 417: 409: 397: 137: 5820:

Vision, Brain, and Behavior in Birds: A Comparative Review

5423:

Karleskint, George; Turner, Richard; Small, James (2009).

813:

birds are often in non-breeding plumage during migration.

447:

are small to medium-sized seabirds closely related to the

325:

regions of Europe, Asia and North America. It is strongly

1796: 401: 389: 5596: 5328:

Grimmett, Richard; Inskipp, Carol; Inskipp, Tim (2002).

5761:

Vinicombe, Keith; Tucker, Laurel; Harris, Alan (1990).

5685:

Sinclair, Ian; Hockey, Phil; Tarboton, Warwick (2002).

4558: 4125:

Håstad, Olle; Ernstdotter, Emma; Ödeen, Anders (2005).

2475: 1994:

Bridge, Eli S; Jones, Andrew W; Baker, Allan J (2005).

979:

Parents and chicks can locate one another by call, and

884:

is orange-red with a black tip, except in black-billed

5818:

Zeigler, Harris Philip; Bischof, Hans-Joachim (1993).

5289: 4006: 1841: 5909: 5670:(8th ed.). Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin Books. 5651:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 5483:

Lloyd, Clare; Tasker, Mark L; Partridge, Ken (2010).

4378:"Common Terns raise young after death of their mates" 3927:. British Trust for Ornithology (BTO). Archived from 3921:"Longevity records for Britain & Ireland in 2010" 3835: 3692: 3610:. British Trust for Ornithology (BTO). 16 July 2010. 2434: 1892:. International Ornithologists' Union. Archived from 1456:

off the coast of Ghana; it will also track groups of

462:

The common tern's closest relatives appear to be the

5779: 5621:

Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A Study of Bird Parasites

3372: 5864:

Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds

5665: 5632:. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 4669: 2407: 1802:The common tern is one of the species to which the 1020:, and inland throughout much of Canada east of the 5801:A Guide to the Birds of Fiji and Western Polynesia 5723:Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M, eds. (1998). 5539: 5403: 5308: 4720: 4483:Austin, O L (1948). "Predation by the common rat ( 2270:. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). 2076: 1970: 1867:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22694623A155537726.en 1251:Pairs are established or confirmed through aerial 5273:Advanced Bird ID Handbook: The Western Palearctic 4185: 3789:"Common Terns raise young from successive broods" 2915:"Confirmation of the breeding of the Common Tern 2912: 2873: 2058:(in Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 6518: 5763:The Macmillan Field Guide to Bird Identification 5330:Pocket Guide to Birds of the Indian Subcontinent 5052:Birds protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act 3474:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2011.01199.x 2517: 2515: 2075: 1171:, or, most commonly, islands. Flat grassland or 539:and their many variants are also believed to be 5580:Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2 4653:Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New York 4602:"Common Tern egg predation by Ruddy Turnstones" 4536:. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, (JNCC). 3735: 1111:, move through Japan, Thailand and the western 5894:– USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter 5578:Rasmussen, Pamela C; Anderton, John C (2005). 5270: 4764: 4755: 4487:) in the Cape Cod colonies of nesting terns". 4188:"Food parasitism and competition in two terns" 1589:of crustaceans or insects are regurgitated as 1565:. Adult insects may be caught in the air, and 1071:zones of Asia, with scattered outposts on the 5485:The Status of Seabirds in Britain and Ireland 5165:. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 4292:Hatch, J J (1975). "Piracy by laughing gulls 3643: 3641: 3304:"Black Skimmer breeding ecology and behavior" 3213: 2971:Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 2923:Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 2884:Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 2512: 1778:for nest sites. Some birds are hunted in the 1414:Hovering and screaming to deter intruders on 5540:Olsen, Klaus Malling; Larsson, Hans (1995). 5169: 4600:Farraway, A; Thomas, K; Blokpoel, H (1986). 3263:with special reference to the Sandwich Tern 2951:Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) pp. 194–195. 2744: 2742: 2686: 2684: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2343: 1969:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Archived from 1887: 508:for the birds. "Stearn" appears in the poem 5722: 5706:How Animals See: Other Visions of Our World 5599:The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand 5561:Field Guide to the Birds of the West Indies 5226: 5040: 4467: 4038:"BirdLife International Species factsheet: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 3035:"BirdLife International Species factsheet: 2584: 2554: 2401: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 1795:(DDE), which results from the breakdown of 1402:A chick on an island off the coast of Maine 1179:nest and laying its eggs with those of the 986: 641:Europe, North Africa, Asia east to western 5627: 5191:Flight Identification of European Seabirds 5070: 4926: 4820: 4181: 4179: 3693:Hunter, Rodger A; Morris, Ralph D (1976). 3638: 3631: 3629: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3063: 3009: 2967:from Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India" 2848: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2598: 2596: 2428: 1604: 218: 69: 47: 38: 5803:. Suva, Fiji: Environmental Consultants. 5725:The Birds of the Western Palearctic (BWP) 5597:Robertson, Hugh; Heather, Barrie (2005). 5311:Sea‑Birds (Collins New Naturalist series) 4881: 4848: 4773: 4770:Rothschild & Clay (1953) pp. 194–197. 4559:Parkes, K C; Poole, A; Lapham, H (1971). 4340: 4150: 4071:in a wintering area in southern Brazil". 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3495: 3493: 3483: 3481: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3027: 3000: 2991: 2982: 2906: 2860: 2858: 2739: 2681: 2619: 2617: 2529: 2527: 2452: 2340: 2333: 2331: 2321: 2319: 2309: 2213:Linn. and on the name of the Common Tern" 2134:Royal Society for the Protection of Birds 1960: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1865: 1752:. It has a large population of 1.6 to 3.3 972:when attacking intruders, and a staccato 5746:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5703: 5478:(in Latin). Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii. 5470: 5346: 5084:. UNEP/ AEWA Secretariat. Archived from 5021:. UNEP/ AEWA Secretariat. Archived from 4663: 4561:"The Ruddy Turnstone as an egg predator" 4520: 4518: 4476: 4167: 4091: 4019: 3528: 3522: 3138:Fisher & Lockley (1989) pp. 252–260. 3057: 3041:. BirdLife International. Archived from 2867: 2605: 2536: 2380: 2374: 2356: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2203: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2050: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1913: 1911: 1714: 1513:ninety-five per cent in some areas, but 1496: 1438: 1242: 1155:has recent records from western Europe. 1127:at the nest in Sweden was found dead on 998: 990: 836: 782: 766: 282: 5822:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 5798: 5501: 4714: 4552: 4420: 4369: 4226: 4220: 4176: 4109: 3872: 3829: 3729: 3650: 3626: 3502: 3141: 2835: 2626: 2593: 2577: 2575: 2551:Olsen & Larrson (1995) pp. 103–110. 2495: 2493: 2491: 2435:Bridge, Eli S; Nisbet, Ian C T (2004). 2044: 485:The common tern was first described by 6519: 5780:Wassink, Jan L; Ort, Kathleen (1995). 5520: 5290:Enticott, Jim; Tipling, David (2002). 5207: 4890: 4644: 4482: 4426: 4285: 4118: 4100: 4060: 3973: 3878: 3686: 3659: 3647:Hume & Pearson (1993) pp. 121–124. 3594: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3490: 3478: 3366: 3352: 3127: 3111: 3018: 3006:Robertson & Heather (2005) p. 126. 2855: 2614: 2545: 2524: 2328: 2316: 2247: 2194:Cocker & Mabey (2005) pp. 246–247. 2188: 1920: 1787:(PCBs) resulted in enhanced levels of 1637:will kill both adults and chicks, and 5960: 5959: 5784:. Missoula, Montana: Mountain Press. 5668:Field Guide to the Birds of Australia 5365: 5227:Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). 5004: 4935: 4761:Rothschild & Clay (1953 ) p. 135. 4650: 4593: 4515: 4316: 4291: 3943: 3913: 3881:"A Common Tern at least 23 years old" 3567: 3419: 3373:Safina, Carl; Burger, Joanna (1988). 3301: 3295: 3254: 3248: 3207: 3098: 2852:Snow & Perrin (1998) pp. 779–782. 2778: 2760: 2590:Enticott & Tipling (2002) p. 192. 2563: 2560:Enticott & Tipling (2002) p. 196. 2533:Olsen & Larsson (1995) pp. 69–76. 2469: 2313:Olsen & Larsson (1995) pp. 77–89. 2286: 2104: 2071: 2069: 2003:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 1987: 1929: 1908: 619: 616: 613: 610: 547:. There was some uncertainty whether 504:, and a similar word was used by the 255: Vagrant (seasonality uncertain) 6504:D75DCA1D-42A9-4002-9209-62AC6A6752E2 6374:912941b5-3ce4-48b4-b309-21c833af189f 6214:0939b541-e1ac-498b-85a1-d29633ce81d6 5839:Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania 5441: 5384: 5309:Fisher, James; Lockley, R M (1989). 5158: 5118:from the original on 14 January 2012 5100: 5082:African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement 4786:Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 4702:from the original on 21 October 2020 4632:from the original on 21 October 2020 4322: 4296:: an example of the selfish group". 4048:from the original on 15 October 2016 4000: 3786: 3780: 3614:from the original on 18 January 2012 3576: 3157: 2960: 2894:from the original on 26 October 2020 2769: 2751: 2669:from the original on 21 October 2020 2572: 2499: 2488: 2353:Vinicombe et al. (1990) pp. 133–138. 2274:from the original on 18 October 2011 2140:from the original on 15 October 2016 2118: 2097:participating institution membership 6527:IUCN Red List least concern species 5666:Simpson, Ken; Day, Nicolas (2010). 5427:. Florence, Kentucky: Brooks/Cole. 5114:. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 5108:"Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918" 4670:Whittam, R M; Leonard, M L (2000). 4325:"Robbing behavior of Roseate Terns" 3736:Nisbet, Ian C T; Welton, M (1984). 3585: 3166: 2945: 2611:Grimmett et al. (1999) pp. 140–141. 2235:from the original on 16 August 2021 1881: 1853:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1674:species carried initially by fish. 1467:Terns have red oil droplets in the 1434: 1343:Elliston, Newfoundland and Labrador 1003:A pair of juveniles in Marjaniemi, 496:under its current scientific name, 432:, pollution, or the disturbance of 13: 5404:Hume, Rob; Pearson, Bruce (1993). 5294:. London: New Holland Publishers. 4721:Morris, R D; Wiggins, D A (1986). 4408:from the original on 21 April 2014 4357:from the original on 21 April 2014 4310:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1975.tb04222.x 4273:from the original on 21 April 2014 4208:from the original on 21 April 2014 3092: 2823:from the original on 9 August 2017 2521:van Duivendijk (2011) pp. 200–202. 2229:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1913.tb06553.x 2066: 1682:may also infect this species. The 1507:Nantucket National Wildlife Refuge 873: 793:Nantucket National Wildlife Refuge 408:. Common terns may be infected by 14: 6563: 5856: 5542:Terns of Europe and North America 4992:from the original on 21 July 2012 4784:) from Cape Cod, Massachusetts". 4743:from the original on 18 July 2015 4540:from the original on 7 March 2012 4186:Hopkins, C D; Wiley, R H (1972). 3901:from the original on 1 March 2014 3817:from the original on 18 July 2015 3407:from the original on 18 July 2015 3214:Ramos, Jaime A; Adrian J (1995). 2581:Schulenberg et al. (2010) p. 154. 1808:Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 349:details, leg and bill colour, or 5943: 5931: 5919: 5601:. Auckland: Penguin Group (NZ). 5058:from the original on 7 June 2019 5054:. US Fish and Wildlife Service. 4581:from the original on 27 May 2014 4085:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00277.x 3961:from the original on 11 May 2015 3768:from the original on 28 May 2014 3717:from the original on 28 May 2014 3555:from the original on 27 May 2014 3340:from the original on 27 May 2014 3236:from the original on 28 May 2014 2984:10.17087/jbnhs/2015/v112i1/92329 2933:from the original on 3 July 2022 2602:Simpson & Day (2010) p. 110. 2422:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2005.03470.x 1917:Snow & Perrin (1998) p. 764. 1793:dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene 1783:disturbance. Contamination with 1422: 1407: 1395: 1380: 1365: 1349: 1334: 1247:Fledgling, Danube delta, Romania 740: 721:Paler upper body and wings than 698: 680:to southern Mongolia and China. 668: 632: 94: 6537:Birds of the Dominican Republic 5708:. Beckenham, Kent: Croom Helm. 5231:. London: Chatto & Windus. 5159:Bent, Arthur Cleveland (1921). 3991: 3466: 2997:Zimmerman et al. (2010) p. 354. 2954: 2391:Contributions to Marine Science 2256: 2197: 2170: 2152: 1926:Wassink & Ort (1995) p. 78. 1890:"IOC World Bird Names (v 2.11)" 1842:BirdLife International (2019). 995:Non-breeding adult in Australia 749:Central Siberia to China, also 5744:Foraging: Behavior and Ecology 5687:SASOL Birds of Southern Africa 5445:Aves do litoral norte da Bahia 5425:Introduction to Marine Biology 5170:Best, E P H; Haeck, J (1984). 5133: 4445:10.1086/physzool.41.2.30155452 4173:Stephens et al. (2007) p. 295. 3154:Sandilands (2005) pp. 157–160. 2961:Khan, Asif N. (1 April 2015). 2757:Raffaele et al. (2003) p. 292. 2569:Sinclair et al. (2002) p. 212. 2542:Blomdahl et al. (2007) p. 340. 2101:Library subscription required. 1744:The common tern is classed as 1549:). In freshwater areas, large 762: 1: 5271:van Duivendijk, Nils (2011). 3838:Journal of Applied Statistics 3175:"A comparison of Arctic Tern 2876:"Breeding of the Common Tern 1724:Dark-billed Asian subspecies 1593:. Adults fly off the nest to 1360:, Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain 1325:years in North America and 33 725:, black-tipped crimson bill. 5906:at VIREO (Drexel University) 5885:– Cornell Lab of Ornithology 5841:. London: Christopher Helm. 5628:Sandilands, Allan P (2005). 5563:. London: Christopher Helm. 5544:. London: Christopher Helm. 5370:. London: Christopher Helm. 5351:. London: Christopher Helm. 5332:. London: Christopher Helm. 5313:. London: Bloomsbury Books. 5212:. London: Christopher Helm. 5193:. London: Christopher Helm. 5144:. London: Christopher Helm. 3997:Beaman et al. (1998) p. 440. 3951:"European Longevity Records" 3879:Austin, Oliver L Sr (1953). 2371:Harrison (1998) pp. 370–374. 1826: 1641:will also eat small chicks. 1191: 1186: 940:individual flight feathers. 562:applied to the common tern. 396:, and large birds including 345:, which can be separated on 7: 6552:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus 5883:Common Tern Species Account 5506:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 5253:) in the Great Lakes Region 4115:Lythgoe (1979) pp. 180–183. 3573:Lloyd et al. (2010) p. 207. 3259:sp. and Black-Headed Gulls 3015:Watling (2003) pp. 204–205. 2023:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.010 1888:Gill, F; Donsker D (eds.). 1814: 1662:species, the duck parasite 1238: 577:is sometimes considered an 439: 10: 6568: 6250:common-tern-sterna-hirundo 4097:Sinclair (1985) pp. 93–95. 4044:. BirdLife International. 3529:Palestis, Brian G (2009). 3196:(2): 49–58. Archived from 3024:Newton (2010) pp. 150–151. 2913:Hoffmann, Thilo W (1992). 2874:Hoffmann, Thilo W (1990). 1639:black-crowned night herons 18: 5968: 5904:Common tern photo gallery 5704:Sinclair, Sandra (1985). 5048:"List of Migratory Birds" 4473:Karleskint (2009) p. 317. 3858:10.1080/02664760120108467 3302:Erwin, Michael R (1977). 3039:, additional information" 2084:Oxford English Dictionary 1860:: e.T22694623A155537726. 1806:(AEWA) and the US–Canada 1785:polychlorinated biphenyls 1710: 1095:appears to be common off 841:Detail of primary feather 729: 687: 657: 624: 267: 260: 226: 217: 196: 189: 91:Scientific classification 89: 67: 58: 46: 37: 32: 5875:Internet Bird Collection 5619:; Clay, Theresa (1953). 5366:Hilty, Steven L (2002). 5347:Harrison, Peter (1988). 4534:Latest population trends 3656:Hume (1993) pp. 120–123. 3635:Hume (1993) pp. 112–119. 3519:Hume (1993) pp. 100–111. 2410:Journal of Avian Biology 1387:Three eggs in a nest on 987:Distribution and habitat 943: 832: 674:Kathmandu Valley, Nepal 311:circumpolar distribution 19:Not to be confused with 6532:Birds described in 1758 6038:Sterna_(Sterna)_hirundo 5275:. London: New Holland. 5174:. Dordrecht: D Reidel. 4967:10.1023/A:1022505424074 4887:Enticott (2002) p. 194. 4859:10.1126/science.1122438 2963:"Record of Common Tern 2089:Oxford University Press 1605:Predators and parasites 1570:visual identification. 1553:may be caught, such as 1219:Inbreeding among close 791:in breeding plumage at 500:. "Stearn" was used in 329:, wintering in coastal 5799:Watling, Dick (2003). 4143:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0320 3988:Hume (1993) pp. 55–67. 3499:Hume (1993) pp. 91–99. 3487:Hume (1993) pp. 79–85. 3444:10.1006/anbe.1999.1235 3363:Hume (1993) pp. 86–90. 3124:Hume (1993) pp. 30–37. 2864:Hume (1993) pp. 39–41. 2623:Hume (1993) pp. 68–75. 2337:Hume (1993) pp. 21–29. 2253:Hume (1993) pp. 88–89. 2115:Hume (1993) pp. 12–13. 1741: 1652:The common tern hosts 1509: 1444: 1248: 1008: 996: 842: 796: 780: 288: 6434:Paleobiology Database 5765:. London: Macmillan. 5689:. Cape Town: Struik. 5504:The Ecology of Vision 5502:Lythgoe, J N (1979). 5292:Seabirds of the World 5208:Brazil, Mark (2008). 4932:Cuthbert (2003) p. 1. 4433:Physiological Zoology 3925:Online ringing report 3808:10.1093/auk/101.2.274 3398:10.1093/auk/105.4.720 2748:Cuthbert (2003) p. 4. 2655:10.1093/auk/105.1.142 2325:Brazil (2008) p. 220. 1821:Lake Bant tern colony 1723: 1500: 1442: 1246: 1042:Las Aves archipelagos 1028:, and locally on the 1002: 994: 976:from fighting males. 840: 786: 770: 649:, and North America. 620:Distinctive features 489:in his landmark 1758 286: 6209:Fauna Europaea (new) 5900:– Madeira Wind Birds 5521:Newton, Ian (2010). 5458:on 23 September 2015 5442:Lima, Pedro (2006). 5266:on 27 November 2014. 2766:Hilty (2002) p. 310. 1501:An adult bringing a 704:Novosibirsk, Russia 5898:Common Tern Profile 5870:"Common tern media" 5525:. London: Collins. 5088:on 11 February 2012 4900:Colonial Waterbirds 4841:2006Sci...312..384O 4798:10.1638/2006-0067.1 4248:1998Ecol...79.1922B 4227:Bélisle, M (1998). 3931:on 28 February 2012 3850:2002JApSt..29...65N 3668:Aggressive Behavior 3582:Bent (1921) p. 252. 3265:Sterna sandvicensis 3045:on 4 September 2011 2919:Linn. in Sri Lanka" 2775:Lima (2006) p. 132. 2709:1970Natur.226..562S 2182:30 May 2013 at the 2164:30 May 2013 at the 2087:(Online ed.). 2015:2005MolPE..35..459B 1975:on 7 September 2011 1665:Ligula intestinalis 1167:, firm dune areas, 1123:is unclear. A bird 910:South American tern 638:Northumberland, UK 555:concluded that the 365:on the open beach. 61:Conservation status 6082:BirdLife-Australia 5623:. London: Collins. 5617:Rothschild, Miriam 5487:. London: Poyser. 5408:. London: Hamlyn. 5389:. London: Hamlyn. 5385:Hume, Rob (1993). 5368:Birds of Venezuela 5210:Birds of East Asia 4323:Dunn, E K (1973). 3269:Ornis Scandinavica 1896:on 5 December 2013 1759:Great Lakes region 1742: 1688:Reighardia sternae 1621:where it has been 1510: 1445: 1253:courtship displays 1249: 1225:kin discrimination 1206:black-headed gulls 1009: 997: 921:white-cheeked tern 917:white-fronted tern 843: 797: 781: 775:in the harbour of 466:, followed by the 309:. This bird has a 289: 271:Sterna fluviatilis 243: Non-breeding 6514: 6513: 6421:Open Tree of Life 5962:Taxon identifiers 5848:978-0-7136-7550-4 5753:978-0-226-77264-6 5677:978-0-670-07231-6 5658:978-0-691-13023-1 5532:978-0-00-730731-9 5494:978-1-4081-3800-7 5434:978-0-495-56197-2 5282:978-1-78009-022-1 5219:978-0-7136-7040-0 5200:978-0-7136-8616-6 4835:(5772): 384–388. 4485:Rattus norvegicus 3604:(Linnaeus, 1758)" 3190:Atlantic Seabirds 3177:Sterna paradisaea 2703:(5245): 562–563. 2383:Sterna paradisaea 2095:(Subscription or 2052:Linnaeus, Carolus 2040:on 19 April 2011. 1721: 1647:peregrine falcons 1505:to a juvenile at 1416:Great Gull Island 1389:Great Gull Island 1315:great horned owls 1177:spotted sandpiper 760: 759: 731:S. h. longipennis 723:S. h. longipennis 712:northern Mongolia 689:S. h. minussensis 434:breeding colonies 281: 280: 84: 52: 6559: 6507: 6506: 6494: 6493: 6481: 6480: 6468: 6467: 6455: 6454: 6442: 6441: 6429: 6428: 6416: 6415: 6403: 6402: 6390: 6389: 6377: 6376: 6367: 6366: 6357: 6356: 6344: 6343: 6331: 6330: 6328:NBNSYS0000000138 6318: 6317: 6305: 6304: 6292: 6291: 6279: 6278: 6266: 6265: 6253: 6252: 6240: 6239: 6230: 6229: 6217: 6216: 6204: 6203: 6191: 6190: 6178: 6177: 6165: 6164: 6152: 6151: 6139: 6138: 6126: 6125: 6113: 6112: 6103: 6102: 6090: 6089: 6077: 6076: 6064: 6063: 6054: 6053: 6051:4D2FF6F13790ED7E 6041: 6040: 6028: 6027: 6015: 6014: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5957: 5956: 5948: 5947: 5946: 5936: 5935: 5924: 5923: 5915: 5879: 5852: 5833: 5814: 5795: 5776: 5757: 5738: 5719: 5700: 5681: 5662: 5643: 5624: 5612: 5593: 5574: 5555: 5536: 5517: 5498: 5479: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5457: 5450: 5438: 5419: 5400: 5381: 5362: 5343: 5324: 5305: 5286: 5267: 5265: 5258: 5242: 5229:Birds Britannica 5223: 5204: 5185: 5166: 5155: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5123: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5044: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5027: 5016: 5008: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4997: 4991: 4961:(1–4): 125–140. 4952: 4939: 4933: 4930: 4924: 4923: 4894: 4888: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4852: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4777: 4771: 4768: 4762: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4742: 4727: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4648: 4642: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4580: 4565: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4522: 4513: 4512: 4480: 4474: 4471: 4465: 4464: 4424: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4344: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4272: 4242:(6): 1922–1938. 4233: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4207: 4192: 4183: 4174: 4171: 4165: 4164: 4154: 4122: 4116: 4113: 4107: 4104: 4098: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4034: 4017: 4016: 4004: 3998: 3995: 3989: 3986: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3917: 3911: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3900: 3885: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3816: 3793: 3787:Hays, H (1984). 3784: 3778: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3733: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3648: 3645: 3636: 3633: 3624: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3596: 3583: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3554: 3539: 3526: 3520: 3517: 3500: 3497: 3488: 3485: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3438:(5): 1123–1129. 3432:Animal Behaviour 3423: 3417: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3406: 3383: 3370: 3364: 3361: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3339: 3308: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3261:Larus ridibundus 3252: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3235: 3220: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3202: 3187: 3179:and Common Tern 3170: 3164: 3161: 3155: 3152: 3139: 3136: 3125: 3122: 3109: 3108: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3031: 3025: 3022: 3016: 3013: 3007: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2958: 2952: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2853: 2850: 2833: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2822: 2791: 2782: 2776: 2773: 2767: 2764: 2758: 2755: 2749: 2746: 2737: 2736: 2717:10.1038/226562a0 2688: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2630: 2624: 2621: 2612: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2591: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2570: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2549: 2543: 2540: 2534: 2531: 2522: 2519: 2510: 2509: 2497: 2486: 2485: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2456: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2378: 2372: 2369: 2354: 2351: 2338: 2335: 2326: 2323: 2314: 2311: 2284: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2268:Linnaeus (1758)" 2260: 2254: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2242: 2240: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2186: 2174: 2168: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2122: 2116: 2113: 2102: 2100: 2092: 2080: 2073: 2064: 2063: 2048: 2042: 2041: 2039: 2033:. Archived from 2000: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1974: 1958: 1927: 1924: 1918: 1915: 1906: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1869: 1839: 1755: 1733: 1729: 1722: 1659:Diphyllobothrium 1635:short-eared owls 1435:Food and feeding 1426: 1411: 1399: 1384: 1374:Museum Wiesbaden 1372:Egg, Collection 1369: 1353: 1338: 1328: 1324: 1287: 1283: 1152: 1148: 1138: 1134: 1108: 1104: 1092: 1088: 893: 889: 744: 702: 672: 636: 608: 607: 602: 598: 590: 586: 574: 570: 518:. The Latin for 491:10th edition of 275: 254: 248: 242: 236: 230: 222: 202: 99: 98: 78: 73: 72: 54: 53: 42: 30: 29: 6567: 6566: 6562: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6557: 6556: 6542:Holarctic birds 6517: 6516: 6515: 6510: 6502: 6497: 6489: 6484: 6476: 6471: 6463: 6458: 6450: 6445: 6437: 6432: 6424: 6419: 6411: 6406: 6398: 6393: 6385: 6382:Observation.org 6380: 6372: 6370: 6362: 6360: 6352: 6347: 6339: 6334: 6326: 6321: 6313: 6308: 6300: 6295: 6287: 6282: 6274: 6269: 6261: 6256: 6248: 6243: 6235: 6233: 6225: 6220: 6212: 6207: 6199: 6194: 6186: 6181: 6173: 6168: 6160: 6155: 6147: 6142: 6134: 6129: 6121: 6116: 6108: 6106: 6098: 6093: 6085: 6080: 6072: 6067: 6059: 6057: 6049: 6044: 6036: 6031: 6023: 6018: 6012: 6007: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5983: 5982: 5977: 5964: 5954: 5944: 5942: 5930: 5918: 5910: 5868: 5859: 5849: 5830: 5811: 5792: 5773: 5754: 5735: 5716: 5697: 5678: 5659: 5640: 5609: 5590: 5571: 5552: 5533: 5514: 5495: 5461: 5459: 5455: 5448: 5435: 5416: 5397: 5387:The Common Tern 5378: 5359: 5340: 5321: 5302: 5283: 5263: 5256: 5239: 5220: 5201: 5182: 5152: 5136: 5131: 5121: 5119: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5091: 5089: 5076: 5075: 5071: 5061: 5059: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5031: 5029: 5028:on 28 July 2011 5025: 5014: 5010: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4993: 4989: 4950: 4940: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4912:10.2307/1520976 4895: 4891: 4886: 4882: 4850:10.1.1.177.8707 4825: 4821: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4765: 4760: 4756: 4746: 4744: 4740: 4730:Wilson Bulletin 4725: 4719: 4715: 4705: 4703: 4668: 4664: 4649: 4645: 4635: 4633: 4618:10.2307/1368282 4598: 4594: 4584: 4582: 4578: 4568:Wilson Bulletin 4563: 4557: 4553: 4543: 4541: 4524: 4523: 4516: 4501:10.2307/4510014 4481: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4425: 4421: 4411: 4409: 4394:10.2307/1367802 4374: 4370: 4360: 4358: 4342:10.2307/4084163 4321: 4317: 4294:Larus atricilla 4290: 4286: 4276: 4274: 4270: 4231: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4209: 4205: 4190: 4184: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4131:Biology Letters 4123: 4119: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4049: 4036: 4035: 4020: 4005: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3974: 3964: 3962: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3919: 3918: 3914: 3904: 3902: 3898: 3883: 3877: 3873: 3834: 3830: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3771: 3769: 3754:10.2307/1367345 3734: 3730: 3720: 3718: 3691: 3687: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3639: 3634: 3627: 3617: 3615: 3598: 3597: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3558: 3556: 3552: 3537: 3527: 3523: 3518: 3503: 3498: 3491: 3486: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3424: 3420: 3410: 3408: 3404: 3381: 3371: 3367: 3362: 3353: 3343: 3341: 3337: 3323:10.2307/4085267 3306: 3300: 3296: 3281:10.2307/3675984 3253: 3249: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3218: 3212: 3208: 3203:on 27 May 2014. 3200: 3185: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3142: 3137: 3128: 3123: 3112: 3097: 3093: 3078:10.2307/4512366 3062: 3058: 3048: 3046: 3033: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2936: 2934: 2911: 2907: 2897: 2895: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2856: 2851: 2836: 2826: 2824: 2820: 2789: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2689: 2682: 2672: 2670: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2580: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2559: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2525: 2520: 2513: 2498: 2489: 2474: 2470: 2433: 2429: 2406: 2402: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2357: 2352: 2341: 2336: 2329: 2324: 2317: 2312: 2287: 2277: 2275: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2238: 2236: 2205:Lönnberg, Einar 2202: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2184:Wayback Machine 2175: 2171: 2166:Wayback Machine 2157: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2124: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2105: 2094: 2074: 2067: 2049: 2045: 2037: 1998: 1992: 1988: 1978: 1976: 1961:Nisbet, Ian C. 1959: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1909: 1899: 1897: 1886: 1882: 1872: 1870: 1840: 1833: 1829: 1817: 1753: 1731: 1727: 1715: 1713: 1701:avian influenza 1671:Schistocephalus 1631:ruddy turnstone 1607: 1575:kleptoparasitic 1437: 1430: 1427: 1418: 1412: 1403: 1400: 1391: 1385: 1376: 1370: 1361: 1354: 1345: 1339: 1326: 1322: 1285: 1281: 1241: 1194: 1189: 1165:shingle beaches 1150: 1146: 1136: 1132: 1106: 1102: 1090: 1086: 1022:Rocky Mountains 989: 946: 891: 887: 881:flight feathers 876: 874:Similar species 835: 802:flight feathers 795:, Massachusetts 765: 745: 733: 703: 691: 673: 661: 637: 629:Linnaeus, 1758 628: 617:Breeding range 600: 596: 588: 584: 572: 568: 493:Systema Naturae 442: 422:blood parasites 414:parasitic worms 274:(Naumann, 1839) 273: 256: 252: 250: 246: 244: 240: 238: 234: 232: 228: 213: 204: 198: 185: 182:S. hirundo 148:Charadriiformes 93: 85: 74: 70: 63: 48: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6565: 6555: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6508: 6495: 6491:Sterna-hirundo 6482: 6469: 6456: 6443: 6430: 6417: 6404: 6391: 6378: 6368: 6358: 6345: 6332: 6319: 6306: 6293: 6280: 6267: 6254: 6241: 6231: 6218: 6205: 6196:Fauna Europaea 6192: 6179: 6166: 6153: 6140: 6127: 6114: 6104: 6091: 6078: 6065: 6055: 6042: 6029: 6025:Sterna_hirundo 6016: 6005: 6000:Sterna hirundo 5990: 5974: 5972: 5970:Sterna hirundo 5966: 5965: 5953: 5952: 5940: 5928: 5908: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5891:Sterna hirundo 5889:Common tern – 5886: 5880: 5866: 5862:Common tern – 5858: 5857:External links 5855: 5854: 5853: 5847: 5834: 5828: 5815: 5809: 5796: 5790: 5777: 5771: 5758: 5752: 5739: 5733: 5720: 5714: 5701: 5695: 5682: 5676: 5663: 5657: 5644: 5638: 5625: 5613: 5607: 5594: 5588: 5575: 5569: 5556: 5550: 5537: 5531: 5523:Bird Migration 5518: 5512: 5499: 5493: 5480: 5468: 5439: 5433: 5420: 5414: 5401: 5395: 5382: 5376: 5363: 5357: 5344: 5338: 5325: 5319: 5306: 5300: 5287: 5281: 5268: 5251:Sterna hirundo 5243: 5237: 5224: 5218: 5205: 5199: 5186: 5180: 5167: 5156: 5150: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5099: 5078:"Introduction" 5069: 5039: 5003: 4946:Sterna hirundo 4934: 4925: 4889: 4880: 4819: 4792:(3): 409–413. 4782:Sterna hirundo 4772: 4763: 4754: 4713: 4682:(2): 301–306. 4662: 4643: 4612:(4): 521–522. 4592: 4551: 4528:Sterna hirundo 4514: 4475: 4466: 4439:(2): 210–219. 4429:Sterna hirundo 4419: 4388:(1): 106–109. 4368: 4335:(3): 641–651. 4315: 4304:(3): 357–365. 4284: 4256:10.2307/176699 4219: 4175: 4166: 4137:(3): 306–309. 4117: 4108: 4099: 4090: 4079:(3): 438–453. 4069:Sterna hirundo 4059: 4040:Sterna hirundo 4018: 3999: 3990: 3972: 3942: 3912: 3871: 3844:(1–4): 65–83. 3828: 3802:(2): 274–280. 3779: 3728: 3705:(3): 629–633. 3685: 3674:(4): 303–311. 3658: 3649: 3637: 3625: 3602:Sterna hirundo 3584: 3575: 3566: 3533:Sterna hirundo 3521: 3501: 3489: 3477: 3465: 3428:Sterna hirundo 3418: 3392:(4): 720–726. 3377:Sterna hirundo 3365: 3351: 3317:(4): 709–717. 3294: 3247: 3229:(3): 580–589. 3206: 3165: 3156: 3140: 3126: 3110: 3107:(12): 511–512. 3091: 3072:(3): 248–251. 3056: 3037:Sterna hirundo 3026: 3017: 3008: 2999: 2990: 2965:Sterna hirundo 2953: 2944: 2929:(2): 251–252. 2917:Sterna hirundo 2905: 2878:Sterna hirundo 2866: 2854: 2834: 2800:(4): 459–461. 2777: 2768: 2759: 2750: 2738: 2693:Sterna hirundo 2680: 2649:(1): 142–148. 2637:Sterna hirundo 2625: 2613: 2604: 2592: 2583: 2571: 2562: 2553: 2544: 2535: 2523: 2511: 2487: 2468: 2447:(2): 336–343. 2427: 2400: 2387:Sterna hirundo 2373: 2355: 2339: 2327: 2315: 2285: 2266:Sterna hirundo 2255: 2246: 2223:(2): 301–303. 2211:Sterna hirundo 2196: 2187: 2169: 2159:SND: Pictarnie 2151: 2117: 2103: 2065: 2043: 2009:(2): 459–469. 1986: 1965:Sterna hirundo 1963:"Common Tern ( 1928: 1919: 1907: 1880: 1846:Sterna hirundo 1830: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1823: 1816: 1813: 1712: 1709: 1680:Cyclophyllidea 1678:of the family 1606: 1603: 1579:laughing gulls 1529:such as small 1458:predatory fish 1436: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1421: 1419: 1413: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1394: 1392: 1386: 1379: 1377: 1371: 1364: 1362: 1355: 1348: 1346: 1340: 1333: 1240: 1237: 1210:black skimmers 1202:Sandwich terns 1193: 1190: 1188: 1185: 1129:Stewart Island 1057:Canary Islands 1018:North Carolina 988: 985: 945: 942: 902:Forster's tern 875: 872: 834: 831: 764: 761: 758: 757: 754: 747: 738: 727: 726: 719: 705: 696: 685: 684: 681: 675: 666: 659:S. h. tibetana 655: 654: 650: 639: 630: 622: 621: 618: 615: 612: 560:Sterna hirundo 553:Einar Lönnberg 549:Sterna hirundo 498:Sterna hirundo 464:Antarctic tern 441: 438: 305:in the family 298:Sterna hirundo 279: 278: 277: 276: 265: 264: 258: 257: 251: 245: 239: 237: Resident 233: 231: Breeding 227: 224: 223: 215: 214: 205: 200:Sterna hirundo 194: 193: 187: 186: 179: 177: 173: 172: 165: 161: 160: 155: 151: 150: 145: 141: 140: 135: 131: 130: 125: 121: 120: 115: 111: 110: 105: 101: 100: 87: 86: 68: 65: 64: 59: 56: 55: 44: 43: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6564: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6522: 6505: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6369: 6365: 6359: 6355: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6232: 6228: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6105: 6101: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6056: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6021: 6017: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5995: 5991: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5958: 5951: 5941: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5916: 5913: 5905: 5902: 5899: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5884: 5881: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5867: 5865: 5861: 5860: 5850: 5844: 5840: 5835: 5831: 5829:0-262-24036-X 5825: 5821: 5816: 5812: 5810:982-9030-04-0 5806: 5802: 5797: 5793: 5791:0-87842-308-7 5787: 5783: 5778: 5774: 5772:0-333-42773-4 5768: 5764: 5759: 5755: 5749: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5734:0-19-854099-X 5730: 5726: 5721: 5717: 5715:0-7099-3336-3 5711: 5707: 5702: 5698: 5696:1-86872-721-1 5692: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5650: 5649:Birds of Peru 5645: 5641: 5639:0-7748-1066-1 5635: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5608:0-14-302040-4 5604: 5600: 5595: 5591: 5589:84-87334-67-9 5585: 5581: 5576: 5572: 5570:0-7136-5419-8 5566: 5562: 5557: 5553: 5551:0-7136-4056-1 5547: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5528: 5524: 5519: 5515: 5513:0-19-854529-0 5509: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5490: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5454: 5447: 5446: 5440: 5436: 5430: 5426: 5421: 5417: 5415:0-600-57951-4 5411: 5407: 5402: 5398: 5396:0-540-01266-1 5392: 5388: 5383: 5379: 5377:0-7136-6418-5 5373: 5369: 5364: 5360: 5358:0-7470-1410-8 5354: 5350: 5345: 5341: 5339:0-7136-6304-9 5335: 5331: 5326: 5322: 5320:1-870630-88-2 5316: 5312: 5307: 5303: 5301:1-84330-327-2 5297: 5293: 5288: 5284: 5278: 5274: 5269: 5262: 5255: 5254: 5250: 5244: 5240: 5238:0-7011-6907-9 5234: 5230: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5211: 5206: 5202: 5196: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5181:90-277-1708-7 5177: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5163: 5157: 5153: 5151:0-7136-3960-1 5147: 5143: 5138: 5137: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5073: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5043: 5024: 5020: 5013: 5007: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4955:Ecotoxicology 4949: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4893: 4884: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4776: 4767: 4758: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4724: 4717: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4647: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4596: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4562: 4555: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4529: 4526:"Common Tern 4521: 4519: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4372: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4223: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4182: 4180: 4170: 4162: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4121: 4112: 4103: 4094: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4047: 4043: 4041: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 4014: 4010: 4009:British Birds 4003: 3994: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3916: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3882: 3875: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3783: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3662: 3653: 3644: 3642: 3632: 3630: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3603: 3600:"Common Tern 3595: 3593: 3591: 3589: 3579: 3570: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3536: 3534: 3525: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3496: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3475: 3469: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3378: 3369: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3210: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3169: 3160: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3106: 3102: 3101:Birding World 3095: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3044: 3040: 3038: 3030: 3021: 3012: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2966: 2957: 2948: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2918: 2909: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2880:in Sri Lanka" 2879: 2870: 2861: 2859: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2788: 2781: 2772: 2763: 2754: 2745: 2743: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2685: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2638: 2629: 2620: 2618: 2608: 2599: 2597: 2587: 2578: 2576: 2566: 2557: 2548: 2539: 2530: 2528: 2518: 2516: 2507: 2503: 2502:British Birds 2496: 2494: 2492: 2483: 2479: 2478:British Birds 2472: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2404: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2334: 2332: 2322: 2320: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2273: 2269: 2267: 2259: 2250: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2212: 2206: 2200: 2191: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2173: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2155: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2126:"Common tern" 2121: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2098: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2079: 2072: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1997: 1990: 1973: 1968: 1966: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1923: 1914: 1912: 1895: 1891: 1884: 1868: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1854: 1849: 1847: 1838: 1836: 1831: 1822: 1819: 1818: 1812: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1775: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1760: 1751: 1750:IUCN Red List 1747: 1746:least concern 1739: 1735: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1693:avian cholera 1690: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1672: 1667: 1666: 1661: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1615:American mink 1612: 1602: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1488:phytoplankton 1485: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1441: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1410: 1405: 1398: 1393: 1390: 1383: 1378: 1375: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1337: 1332: 1331: 1330: 1318: 1317:are present. 1316: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1292: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1267: 1261: 1259: 1254: 1245: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1213: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1140: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1098: 1094: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1006: 1001: 993: 984: 982: 977: 975: 971: 967: 962: 958: 954: 951: 941: 938: 932: 930: 926: 922: 918: 915: 911: 906: 903: 897: 895: 882: 871: 869: 866: 861: 857: 851: 848: 839: 830: 828: 822: 819: 814: 812: 808: 803: 794: 790: 789:S. h. hirundo 785: 778: 774: 773:S. h. hirundo 769: 755: 752: 748: 746:Hebei, China 743: 739: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 717: 714:and southern 713: 709: 706: 701: 697: 694: 690: 686: 682: 679: 676: 671: 667: 664: 660: 656: 651: 648: 644: 640: 635: 631: 627: 626:S. h. hirundo 623: 609: 606: 604: 592: 580: 576: 563: 561: 558: 557:binomial name 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 525: 521: 517: 513: 512: 507: 503: 499: 495: 494: 488: 487:Carl Linnaeus 483: 481: 477: 473: 472:roseate terns 469: 465: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 437: 435: 431: 427: 426:least concern 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 394:American mink 391: 386: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 354: 352: 351:vocalisations 348: 344: 341: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 299: 294: 285: 272: 269: 268: 266: 263: 259: 249: Passage 225: 221: 216: 212: 208: 203: 201: 195: 192: 191:Binomial name 188: 184: 183: 178: 175: 174: 171: 170: 166: 163: 162: 159: 156: 153: 152: 149: 146: 143: 142: 139: 136: 133: 132: 129: 126: 123: 122: 119: 116: 113: 112: 109: 106: 103: 102: 97: 92: 88: 82: 77: 76:Least Concern 66: 62: 57: 45: 41: 36: 31: 28: 26: 22: 5969: 5890: 5873: 5838: 5819: 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Retrieved 1857: 1851: 1845: 1801: 1789:feminisation 1776: 1771:conservation 1763: 1743: 1725: 1686: 1669: 1663: 1657: 1654:feather lice 1651: 1608: 1587:exoskeletons 1583: 1572: 1515:invertebrate 1511: 1466: 1448: 1446: 1356:Nest in the 1319: 1303: 1270: 1262: 1250: 1233: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1195: 1157: 1144: 1141: 1100: 1084: 1081:Indian Ocean 1073:Persian Gulf 1050: 1046: 1010: 978: 973: 969: 965: 960: 956: 952: 947: 933: 925:Indian Ocean 914:Australasian 907: 898: 885: 877: 852: 844: 823: 815: 798: 788: 772: 730: 722: 688: 658: 625: 594: 582: 566: 564: 559: 548: 541:onomatopoeic 536: 532: 523: 515: 511:The Seafarer 509: 497: 492: 484: 461: 443: 430:habitat loss 387: 383:invertebrate 355: 317:breeding in 297: 296: 292: 290: 287:Twisted head 270: 199: 197: 181: 180: 168: 33:Common tern 27: 25: 6447:SeaLifeBase 6413:common-tern 6364:common-tern 6349:Neotropical 6310:NatureServe 6258:iNaturalist 6237:common-tern 6087:common-tern 5994:Wikispecies 5472:Linnaeus, C 5462:17 February 5134:Cited texts 4996:19 February 4747:22 February 4736:: 101–109. 4706:22 February 4636:22 February 4585:22 February 4574:: 306–307. 4412:22 February 4361:22 February 4212:22 February 4201:: 583–594. 4015:(2): 41–47. 3965:11 February 3935:11 February 3905:22 February 3821:22 February 3772:22 February 3721:22 February 3411:22 February 3344:22 February 3240:22 February 2937:27 December 2898:27 December 2827:17 February 2673:22 February 1873:12 November 1740:, Australia 1734:longipennis 1559:cockchafers 1535:crustaceans 1492:ultraviolet 1341:Nest site, 1229:mate choice 1153:longipennis 1117:West Africa 1109:longipennis 1097:East Africa 1026:Great Lakes 974:kek-kek-kek 894:longipennis 856:ultraviolet 811:Californian 763:Description 708:Lake Baikal 611:Subspecies 603:longipennis 575:minussensis 545:Arctic tern 502:Old English 470:Arctic and 420:, although 379:crustaceans 343:Arctic tern 335:subtropical 313:, its four 293:common tern 6521:Categories 6486:Xeno-canto 5122:25 January 5092:25 January 5062:25 January 5032:25 January 4906:: 84–106. 4544:25 January 4382:The Condor 4052:23 January 3957:. 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