Fall of the Western Roman Empire

3280:

from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities. Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot-archer without cuirass or helmet, who cannot hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who cannot at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.

3285:

and are unaccustomed too, if I may say so, to the nauseous odor of the bodies and clothing of the barbarians, yet they prefer the strange life they find there to the injustice rife among the Romans. So you find men passing over everywhere, now to the Goths, now to the Bagaudae, or whatever other barbarians have established their power anywhere ... We call those men rebels and utterly abandoned, whom we ourselves have forced into crime. For by what other causes were they made Bagaudae save by our unjust acts, the wicked decisions of the magistrates, the proscription and extortion of those who have turned the public exactions to the increase of their private fortunes and made the tax indictions their opportunity for plunder?"

2411: 3268:"the vices of a declining empire, of which he had so long been the victim; the cruel absurdity of the Roman princes, unable to protect their subjects against the public enemy, unwilling to trust them with arms for their own defence; the intolerable weight of taxes, rendered still more oppressive by the intricate or arbitrary modes of collection; the obscurity of numerous and contradictory laws; the tedious and expensive forms of judicial proceedings; the partial administration of justice; and the universal corruption, which increased the influence of the rich, and aggravated the misfortunes of the poor." 2659:, where he was probably waiting for Alaric. His army of barbarian troops, including a guard of Huns and many Goths under Sarus, discussed attacking the forces of the coup, but Stilicho prevented them when he heard that the Emperor had not been harmed. Sarus's Gothic troops then massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and Stilicho withdrew from the quarreling remains of his army to Ravenna. He ordered that his former soldiers should not be admitted into the cities in which their families were billeted. Stilicho was forced to flee to a church for sanctuary, promised his life, and killed. 2522: 2806: 5857:. pp. 217–233 in Produktion und Recyceln von Münzen in der Spätantike / Produire et recycler la monnaie au Bas-Empire. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Leibniz-Forschungsinstitut für Archäologie und Centre Michel de Boüard CRAHAM (UMR 6273) Université de Caen Normandie. 2016 Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz SONDERDRUCK / TIRÉ À PART RGZM – TAGUNGEN Band 29 Jérémie Chameroy · Pierre-Marie Guihard (dir.) 1. Internationales Numismatikertreffen / 1ères Rencontres internationales de numismatique (15–16 mai 2014, Mainz) 3812: 1287: 1210: 57: 799: 3352:; at this heavily fortified Eastern end of the Mediterranean there were no significant barbarian invasions across the sea into the rich southerly areas of Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Despite internal and external threats, and more religious discord than the West, these provinces remained prosperous contributors to tax revenue; despite the ravages of Attila's armies and the extortions of his peace treaties, tax revenue generally continued to be adequate for the essential state functions of the Eastern empire. 2279:. Alaric's ambitions for long-term Roman office were never quite acceptable to the Roman imperial courts, and his men could never settle long enough to farm in any one area. They showed no inclination to leave the Empire and face the Huns from whom they had fled in 376. Meanwhile, the Huns were still stirring up further migrations, with migrating tribes often attacking the Roman Empire in turn. Alaric's group was never destroyed nor expelled from the Empire, nor acculturated under effective Roman domination. 1902:

restored. But they were generally tolerant of other beliefs. Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in Christian controversy. In the East, Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy, and persecution formed part of his response. He tolerated paganism, even keeping some of Julian's associates in their trusted positions. He confirmed the rights and privileges of the pagan priests, and confirmed the right of pagans to be the exclusive caretakers of their temples.

3606: 3340:, but the planned counter-attack never happened. Huns attacked the Eastern empire, and "the troops, which had been sent against Genseric, were hastily recalled from Sicily; the garrisons, on the side of Persia, were exhausted; and a military force was collected in Europe, formidable by their arms and numbers, if the generals had understood the science of command, and the soldiers the duty of obedience. The armies of the Eastern empire were vanquished in three successive engagements ... From the 1079: 2991: 3878: 5894:, book XVI, chapter V: "what good he did to Gaul, labouring as it was in utmost destitution, appears most clearly from this fact: when he first entered those parts, he found that twenty-five pieces of gold were demanded by way of tribute from every one as a poll and land tax; but when he left, seven only for full satisfaction of all duties. And on account of this (as if clear sunshine had beamed upon them after ugly darkness), they expressed their joy in gaiety and dances." 1409:, many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins. Soldiers are recorded as using possibly-barbarian rituals, such as elevating a claimant on shields. Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness. Others disagree, seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army, at least while that army was effectively led, disciplined, trained, paid, and supplied by officers who identified as Roman. 2186: 3084:. The Italian areas which had been compelled to support the Goths had most of their taxes remitted for several years. Even in southern Gaul and Hispania large barbarian groups remained, with thousands of warriors, in their own non-Roman military and social systems. Some occasionally acknowledged a degree of Roman political control, but without the local application of Roman leadership and military power they and their individual subgroups pursued their own interests. 3712: 12624: 976:

republic, and afterwards violated the majesty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their personal safety and the public peace, were reduced to the base expedient of corrupting the discipline which rendered them alike formidable to their sovereign and to the enemy; the vigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally dissolved, by the partial institutions of Constantine; and the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of Barbarians.

1429:, and land fell out of use in the East just as it had in the West. Yet the East stood its ground in the fifth century, fought back in the sixth, and even recovered some territory in the seventh. The East had only one apparent advantage: geography. It was less vulnerable, strategically, than the West. The narrowest sea crossing to its core territories was protected from the northern barbarians by the fortifications and the sea and land forces of 1829:, restored and reopened temples, and dismantled the privileged tax status and revenue concessions of the Christians. He gave generous tax remissions to the cities which he favored, and disfavor to those who remained Christian. Julian ordered toleration of varieties of Christianity banned as heretical by Constantius; possibly, he would not have been able to persecute effectively such a large and powerful group as Christians had now become. 2288: 1784: 3533: 2462:

Roman rank and his entitlement to legal provisioning for his men, leaving his army—the only significant force in the ravaged Balkans—as a problem for Stilicho. In 400, the citizens of Constantinople revolted against Gainas and massacred as many of his people, soldiers and their families, as they could catch. Some Goths at least built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe; the

3201:, which left Aetius's forces defeated and Boniface mortally wounded. Aetius temporarily retired to his estates, but after an attempt to murder him he raised another Hunnic army (probably by conceding parts of Pannonia to them) and in 433 he returned to Italy, overcoming all rivals. He never threatened to become an Augustus himself and thus maintained the support of the Eastern court, where Valentinian's cousin 2033:

later accounts, and widely in recent work, this is regarded as a treaty settlement, the first time that barbarians were given a home within the Empire, in which they retained their political and military cohesion. No formal treaty is recorded, nor details of whatever agreement was actually made. When the Goths are next mentioned in Roman records, they have different leaders and are soldiers of a sort. In 391,

3971: 2798:" ultimately rejected the pagan and Christian idea that religion should have worldly benefits. He instead developed the doctrine that the City of God in heaven, undamaged by mundane disasters, was the true objective of Christians. More practically, Honorius was briefly persuaded to set aside the laws forbidding pagans to be military officers, so that one Generidus could re-establish Roman control in 2390:, the new supreme minister and the only eunuch consul of Rome. Eutropius reportedly controlled Arcadius "as if he were a sheep". Stilicho obtained a few more troops from the German frontier and continued to campaign ineffectively against the Eastern empire; again he was successfully opposed by Alaric and his men. During the next year, 397, Eutropius personally led his troops to victory over some 1636:, who were mostly ignored, was based on the contempt that accompanied Christianity's sense of triumph after Constantine. Christianity opposed sacrifice and magic, and Christian emperors made laws that favored Christianity. Constantine's successors generally continued this approach, and by the end of the fourth century, Christianity had become the religion of any ambitious civil official. 2579:, and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them. His forces, including Huns and Alans, may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men. Radagaisus was defeated and executed, while 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho's service. Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric; 2952:

sometimes with short-term supplies from the Romans. All usurpers had been defeated, but large barbarian groups remained un-subdued in both Gaul and Hispania. The imperial government was quick to restore the Rhine frontier. The invading tribes of 407 moved into Hispania at the end of 409; the Visigoths left Italy at the beginning of 412 and settled themselves around

1390:. Meanwhile, the richest senatorial families, immune from most taxation, engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence. One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold, two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century. This may be an index of growing 2802:. Generidus did this with unusual effectiveness. His techniques were remarkable for this period, in that they included training his troops, disciplining them, and giving them appropriate supplies even if he had to use his own money. The penal laws were reinstated no later than 25 August 410, meaning that the overall trend of repression of paganism continued. 3299:, wrote that "In the respite from devastation, the island was so flooded with abundance of goods that no previous age had known the like of it. Alongside there grew luxury." Nevertheless, effective imperial protection from barbarian ravages was eagerly sought. About this time authorities in Britannia asked Aetius for help: "'To Aetius, thrice consul: the 1298:(r. 337–361) their endowments of property. This worsened the existing difficulty in keeping the city councils up to strength, and the services provided by the cities were scamped or abandoned. Public building projects had declined since the second century. There is no evidence of state participation in, or support for, restoration and maintenance of 1507:, a standardized series of military and civil posts organised for ambitious aristocratic men, ensured that powerful noblemen had the opportunity to become familiar with military and civil command and administration. At a lower level within the army, connecting the aristocrats at the top with the private soldiers, a large number of 3468:, and plundered it for two weeks. Despite the shortage of money for the defence of the state, considerable private wealth had accumulated since the previous sack in 410. The Vandals sailed away with large amounts of treasure and also with the princess Eudocia. She became the wife of one Vandal king and the mother of another, 3093:

instability. Initially Galla Placidia sought Honorius's favour in the hope that her son might ultimately inherit. Other court interests managed to defeat her, and she fled with her children to the Eastern court in 422. Honorius himself died, shortly before his thirty-ninth birthday, in 423. After some months of intrigue, the

3040:. It does not give strengths for these units, but A. H. M. Jones used the Notitia to estimate the total strength of the field armies in the West at 113,000 : Gaul, "about" 35,000; Italy, "nearly" 30,000; Britain 3,000; in Spain, 10–11,000, in the diocese of Illyricum 13–14,000, and in the diocese of Africa 23,000. 2255:

or to offer their own workers as army recruits. They did, however, pass large amounts of money to the Christian Church. At a local level, from the early fourth century, the town councils lost their property and their power, which often became concentrated in the hands of a few local despots beyond the reach of the law.

3422:, the invasion was stopped by the combined forces of the barbarians within the Western empire. They were coordinated by Aetius, and supported by what troops he could muster. The next year, Attila invaded Italy and proceeded to march upon Rome. An outbreak of disease in his army, lack of supplies, reports that 1398:. "Formerly, says Ammianus, Rome was saved by her austerity, by solidarity between rich and poor, by contempt for death; now she is undone by her luxury and greed (Amm. xxxi. 5. 14 and xxii. 4.). Salvianus backs up Ammianus by affirming that greed (avaritia) is a vice common to nearly all Romans". However, 3336:, an independent state with a powerful navy. This brought immediate financial crisis to the Western Empire. The diocese of Africa was prosperous, normally required few troops to keep it secure, contributed large tax revenues, and exported wheat to feed Rome and many other areas. Roman troops assembled in 3120:

to raise help from the Huns. An Eastern army landed in Italy, captured Joannes, cut his hand off, abused him in public, and killed him with most of his senior officials. Aetius returned, three days after Joannes' death, at the head of a substantial Hunnic army which made him the most powerful general

3092:

Constantius died in 421, after only seven months as Augustus. He had been careful to make sure that there was no successor in waiting, and his own children were far too young to take his place. Honorius was unable to control his own court, and the death of Constantius initiated more than ten years of

2969:

In January 414 Roman naval forces blockaded Athaulf in Narbo, where he married Galla Placidia. The choir at the wedding included Attalus, a puppet emperor without revenues or soldiers. Athaulf famously declared that he had abandoned his intention to set up a Gothic empire, because of the irredeemable

2734:

in Gaul and arranged to bring Hunnic forces into Italy, Alaric ravaged Italy outside the fortified cities (which he could not garrison), and the Romans refused open battle (for which they had inadequate forces). Late in the year, Alaric sent bishops to express his readiness to leave Italy if Honorius

2725:

In 409 Olympius fell to further intrigue, having his ears cut off before he was beaten to death. Alaric tried again to negotiate with Honorius, but his demands (now even more moderate, only frontier land and food) were inflated by the messenger and Honorius responded with insults, which were reported

1779:

Magnentius marched against Constantius with as many troops as he could mobilize, stripping the Rhine frontier of its most effective troops. Magnentius died and so did many of his men. Meanwhile, Constantius sent messages to the German tribes east of the Rhine, inviting them to attack Gaul, which they

3519:

valley, while the Vandals took the remains of the Diocese of Africa. In 456, the Visigothic army was too heavily engaged in Hispania to be an effective threat to Italy. Ricimer had just destroyed a pirate fleet of sixty Vandal ships. Majorian and Ricimer marched against Avitus, and defeated him near

3446:

In 454, Aetius was personally stabbed to death by Valentinian. " thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne." Valentinian himself was murdered by the dead general's supporters a

3012:

and reducing the Alans to the point where the survivors sought the protection of the king of the Asding Vandals. (After retrenchment they formed another barbarian supergroup, but for the moment they were reduced in numbers and effectively cowed.) In 418, by agreement with Constantius, Wallia's Goths

2454:, Alamannus, Sarmatian, vagrant, son of a veteran" or any other person liable to serve. He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool. Though personally not corrupt, he was very active in confiscating assets; the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army. 2246:

or of adequate training, discipline, pay, or supply for the barbarians who formed most of the available troops. Local defence was occasionally effective, but was often associated with withdrawal from central control and taxes. In many areas, barbarians under Roman authority attacked culturally-Roman

2032:

admitting that these Goths could not be expelled or exterminated, nor reduced to unfree status. Instead they were either recruited into the imperial forces, or settled in the devastated provinces along the south bank of the Danube, where the regular garrisons were never fully re-established. In some

1968:

and Huns. Valens was in Asia with his main field army preparing for an assault on the Sasanian Empire. Redirection of the army and its logistic support would have required time, and Gratian's armies were distracted by Germanic invasions across the Rhine. In 378, Valens attacked the invaders with the

991:

After a diligent inquiry, I can discern four principal causes of the ruin of Rome, which continued to operate in a period of more than a thousand years. I. The injuries of time and nature. II. The hostile attacks of the Barbarians and Christians. III. The use and abuse of the materials. And, IV. The

3279:

From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave

2927:

arrived from Italy with an army (possibly, composed mainly of Hun mercenaries). Gerontius's troops deserted him, and he committed suicide. Constantius continued the siege, defeating a relieving army. Constantine surrendered in 411 with a promise that his life would be spared, and was then executed.

2461:

in Asia Minor allowed Gainas to accumulate a significant army (mostly Goths), become supreme in the Eastern court, and execute Eutropius. He now felt that he could dispense with Alaric's services and he nominally transferred Alaric's province to the West. This administrative change removed Alaric's

2254:

Corruption, in this context the diversion of finance from the needs of the army, may have contributed greatly to the Fall. The rich senatorial aristocrats in Rome itself became increasingly influential during the fifth century; they supported armed strength in theory, but did not wish to pay for it

3901:

of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer never returned any territory or real power, but he did issue coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 (Glycerius may have been

3540:

Majorian and Ricimer were now in control of Italy. Ricimer was the son of a Suevic king, and his mother was the daughter of a Gothic one, so he could not aspire to an imperial throne. After some months, allowing for negotiation with the new emperor of Constantinople and the defeat of 900 Alamannic

3284:

A religious polemic of about this time complains bitterly of the oppression and extortion suffered by all but the richest Romans. Many wished to flee to the Bagaudae or even to foul-smelling barbarians. "Although these men differ in customs and language from those with whom they have taken refuge,

2746:

as his puppet emperor, and he marched on Ravenna. Honorius was planning to flee to Constantinople when a reinforcing army of 4,000 soldiers from the East disembarked in Ravenna. These garrisoned the walls and Honorius held on. He had Constantine's principal court supporter executed and Constantine

2705:

in 408 caused dreadful famine within the walls. It was ended by a payment that, though large, was less than one of the richest senators could have produced. The super-rich aristocrats made little contribution; pagan temples were stripped of ornaments to make up the total. With promises of freedom,

1824:

who had invaded Gaul. He launched a drive against official corruption, which allowed the tax demands in Gaul to be reduced to one-third of their previous amount, while all government requirements were still met. In civil legislation, Julian was notable for his pro-pagan policies. Julian lifted the

1523:

who each adopted a mature and capable successor, the Empire did not require civil wars to regulate the imperial succession. Requests could be submitted directly to the better emperors, and the answers had the force of law, putting the imperial power directly in touch with even humble subjects. The

1035:

from about 200 BCE to 150 CE, when lands around the Mediterranean were generally warm and well-watered. This made agriculture prosperous, army recruitment easy, and the collection of taxes straightforward. From about 150, the climate became on average somewhat worse for most of the inhabited lands

902:

Gibbon was uncertain about when decline began. "In the first paragraph of his text, Gibbon wrote that he intended to trace the decline from the golden age of the Antonines"; later text has it beginning about A.D. 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius; while in chapter 7, he pushes the start of the

1832:

Julian prepared for civil war against Constantius, who again encouraged the Germans to attack Gaul. However Julian's campaigns had been effective and only one small Alemannic raid, speedily dealt with by Julian, resulted. Constantius died before any serious fighting and Julian was acknowledged as

1747:

were often given land rather than pay. As they farmed for themselves, their direct costs diminished, but so did their effectiveness, and their pay gave much less stimulus to the frontier economy. However, except for the provinces along the lower Rhine, the agricultural economy was generally doing

1445:

and could be crossed with much less difficulty. "The devastations of the barbarians impoverished and depopulated the frontier provinces, and their unceasing pressure imposed on the empire a burden of defense which overstrained its administrative machinery and its economic resources. ... a major

975:

The story of its ruin is simple and obvious; and, instead of inquiring why the Roman empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it had subsisted so long. The victorious legions, who, in distant wars, acquired the vices of strangers and mercenaries, first oppressed the freedom of the

947:

When Gibbon published his landmark work, it quickly became the standard. Peter Brown has written that "Gibbon's work formed the peak of a century of scholarship which had been conducted in the belief that the study of the declining Roman Empire was also the study of the origins of modern Europe".

3438:

gives glimpses of the general insecurity, and ultimate retreat of the Romans on the Upper Danube in the aftermath of Attila's death. The Romans were without adequate forces; the barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion, murder, kidnap, and plunder on the Romans and on each other. "So long as the

2835:

At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Roma had perished. And he cried out and said, "And yet it has just eaten from my hands!" For he had a very large cockerel, Roma by name; and the eunuch

2763:

by starvation, and sacked it for three days. He invited its remaining barbarian slaves to join him, which many did. There was relatively little destruction. In some Christian holy places, Alaric's men even refrained from wanton violence, and Jerome tells the story of a virgin who was escorted to

1901:

on all the Western frontiers. They also tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation, which had risen continuously over the previous forty years; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year. Both of them were Christians, and re-confiscated the temple lands which Julian had

2951:

and Alans, to whom he offered supplies and land. In 413, Jovinus also recruited Sarus. Athaulf destroyed their regime in the name of Honorius, afterwards both Jovinus and Sarus were executed. The Burgundians were settled on the left bank of the Rhine. Athaulf then operated in the south of Gaul,

2785:

spread the news and their stories throughout the Empire, and the meaning of the fall was debated with religious fervour. Both Christians and pagans wrote embittered tracts, blaming paganism or Christianity respectively for the loss of Rome's supernatural protection and all attacking Stilicho's

1697:

of being the first emperor to increase the arrogance of the military, raising their rank and power to excess, severely punishing the minor crimes of the common soldiers, while sparing those of higher rank who felt able to commit shameful and monstrous crimes. Despite a possible decrease in the

3514:

as a reasonable man with whom a Roman regime could do business. Theoderic's payoff included precious metal from stripping the remaining public ornaments of Italy, and an unsupervised campaign in Hispania. There he not only defeated the Sueves, executing his brother-in-law Rechiar, but he also

1742:

in Armorica were deserted. Local use of money ceased around 360. Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities, where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians. Except in the rare case of a

1385:

that slaves who betrayed their mistress's confidential remarks should have molten lead poured down their throats. While the scale, complexity, and violence of government were unmatched, the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by

2768:

by the invaders, after they had given her mother a beating from which she later died. The city of Rome was the seat of the richest senatorial noble families and the centre of their cultural patronage. To pagans it was the sacred origin of the empire, and to Christians the seat of the heir of

2406:

advises the emperor to display manliness and remove a "skin-clad savage" (probably Alaric) from the councils of power and his barbarians from the Roman army. We do not know if Arcadius ever became aware of the existence of this advice, but it had no recorded effect. Synesius, from a province

2101:

described Arian Christians as "foolish madmen". Therefore, as far as Ambrose and the Christian literary tradition that followed him were concerned, Theodosius deserved most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. Modern scholars see this as a Christian interpretation of history.

2025:, controlling a smaller area than the western Empire, had been able to reconstitute large regular armies of citizens after greater defeats than Adrianople. That war had ended with the near-extermination of the invading barbarian supergroups, each supposed to have more than 100,000 warriors.) 1656:

But the move to Christianity probably had no significant effects on public finances. The large temple complexes, with professional full-time priests, festivals, and large numbers of sacrifices (which became free food for the masses), had also been expensive to maintain. They had already been

2717:, a Goth nominally in Roman service and brother-in-law to Alaric, marched through Italy to join Alaric. A small force of Hunnic mercenaries led by Olympius killed some of Athaulf's men on this journey. Sarus was an enemy of Athaulf, and on Athaulf's arrival went back into imperial service. 1011:

Modern historiography diverges from Gibbon. While most of his ideas are no longer accepted in totality, they have been foundational to later discourse and the modern synthesis with archaeology, epidemiology, climatic history, genetic science, and many more new sources of history beyond the

3910:(later known as "the Great") to take Italy. After several indecisive campaigns, in 493 Theoderic and Odoacer agreed to rule jointly. They celebrated their agreement with a banquet of reconciliation, at which Theoderic's men murdered Odoacer's, and Theoderic personally cut Odoacer in half. 2173:

origin, as Valentinian's commander-in-chief and guardian. Valentinian quarreled in public with Arbogast, failed to assert any authority, and died, either by suicide or by murder, at the age of 21. Arbogast and Theodosius failed to come to terms and Arbogast nominated an imperial official,

1130:, writing over two centuries later, reported that Diocletian's army at one point totaled 389,704 men, plus 45,562 in the fleets, and numbers may have increased later. With the limited communications of the time, both the European and the Eastern frontiers needed the attention of their own 789:

and in patterns of settlement as late as the eleventh century. Observing the political reality of lost control (and the attendant fragmentation of commerce, culture, and language), but also the cultural and archaeological continuities, the process has been described as a complex cultural

1627:

all could agree upon. Creeds were developed, but Christianity has never agreed upon an official version of its Bible or its doctrine; instead it has had many different manuscript traditions. Christianity's disputes may have effected decline. Official and private action was taken against

8456:. Alex Woolf. pp. 345–380 in Regna and Gentes. The relationship between Late Antique and Early Mediaeval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. Edited by Hans-Werner Goetz, Jörg Janut, and Walter Pohl with the collaboration of Sören Kaschke. Brill, Leiden, 2003. 8771: 2755:

within the walls. Attalus brought Alaric no real advantage, failing also to come to any useful agreement with Honorius (to whom Attalus offered mutilation, humiliation, and exile). Indeed, Attalus's claim was a marker of threat to Honorius, and Alaric dethroned him after a few months.

1268:/Danube frontier also came under more effective threats from larger barbarian groupings, which had developed improved agriculture and increased their populations. The average stature of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century; the population of 3592:

and its hinterland to the Visigoths in exchange for their help against Aegidius; this made it impossible for Roman armies to march from Italy to Hispania. Ricimer was then the effective ruler of Italy (but little else) for several years. From 461 to 465 the pious Italian aristocrat

2228:

on the spot, had already established his own power there. Henceforward the Empire was not under the control of one man, until much of the West had been permanently lost. Neither Honorius nor Arcadius ever displayed any ability either as rulers or as generals, and both lived as the

3826:. This convention is subject to many qualifications. In Roman constitutional theory, the Empire was still simply united under one emperor, implying no abandonment of territorial claims. In areas where the convulsions of the dying Empire had made organized self-defence legitimate, 3387:. The imperial regime had to increase taxes. Despite admitting that the peasantry could pay no more, and that a sufficient army could not be raised, the imperial regime protected the interests of landowners displaced from Africa and allowed wealthy individuals to avoid taxes. 3169:, local leaders not under the authority of the Empire. Aetius at least campaigned vigorously and mostly victoriously, defeating aggressive Visigoths, Franks, fresh Germanic invaders, Bagaudae in Armorica, and a rebellion in Noricum. Not for the first time in Rome's history, a 2836:

comprehending his words said that it was the city of Roma which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: "But I thought that my fowl Roma had perished." So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed.

1365:

described, the court culture that developed with Diocletian was still subject to pressure from below. Imperial proclamations were used to stress the traditional limitations of the imperial office, while imperial ceremonies "left room for consensus and popular participation".

832:, and internal and external political instability led to the near-collapse of the imperial system. Its reconstitution included a new basis for the currency, an expanded professional government apparatus, emperors further distanced from their people, and, shortly, the rise of 3055:

in 420. This earned him the hostility of the Eastern court, which had not agreed to his elevation. Nevertheless, Constantius had achieved an unassailable position at the Western court, in the imperial family, and as the able commander-in-chief of a partially restored army.

2040:

Theodosius's financial position must have been difficult, since he had to pay for expensive campaigning from a reduced tax base. The business of subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts of precious metal. At least one extra levy provoked desperation and

2009:. During the next four years, he partially re-established the Roman position in the East. These campaigns depended on effective imperial coordination and mutual trust—between 379 and 380, Theodosius controlled not only the Eastern empire, but also, by agreement, the 2630:. Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself. He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position, and to send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before he could do so, while he was away at 2517:

rather than the whole of Illyricum. Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops. He may also have planned with Alaric's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court.

1652:

in the long-established manner of Roman aristocrats. Ammianus described some who "enriched from the offerings of matrons, ride seated in carriages, wearing clothing chosen with care, and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings".

7419:

Dorchester Town House Coins. R. Reece, In: 'A late Roman town house and its environs; The Excavations of C.D. Drew and K.C. Collingwood Selby in Colliton Park, Dorchester, Dorset 1937–8'. By Emma Durham and M Fulford, Britannia Monograph Series 26, pp. 103–111,

3947:

and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the

5178:

verse 34: Et patres quidem praeter commune Romani malum orbis stimulabat proprii ordinis contumelia, 34 quia primus ipse metu socordiae suae, ne imperium ad optimos nobilium transferretur, senatum militia vetuit et adire exercitum. Huic novem annorum potentia

1643:

increased dramatically in the fifth century. Immense resources, both public and private, were used for building churches, storage barns for the grain used for charity, new hospitals for the poor, and in support of those in religious life without other income.

2742:, sister of Honorius. The Senate in Rome, despite its loathing for Alaric, was now desperate enough to give him almost anything he wanted. They had no food to offer, but they tried to give him imperial legitimacy; with the Senate's acquiescence, he elevated 2445:

and stopped the supply of grain to Rome. Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now. In 398, Stilicho sent his last reserves, a few thousand men, to re-take the Diocese of Africa. He strengthened his position further when he married

2594:

who had appeared in the northern provinces. He insisted on making peace with Alaric, probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul. The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric.

2485:, to scrape up further troops. He left the Rhine defended only by the "dread" of Roman retaliation, rather than by adequate forces able to take the field. Early in spring, Alaric, probably desperate, invaded Italy, and he drove Honorius westward from 3641:, which destroyed most of the Roman fleet and killed many of its soldiers. The Vandals were confirmed in their possession of the Diocese of Africa. They soon retook Sardinia and Sicily. Marcellinus was murdered, possibly on orders from Ricimer. The 3275:'s advice on re-forming an effective army may be dated to the early 430s, (though a date in the 390s has also been suggested). He identified many deficiencies in the military, especially mentioning that the soldiers were no longer properly equipped: 1420:

has pointed out that the earlier scholarly views are Western. Most of the weaknesses discussed by scholars were "common to both halves of the empire", with Christianity even more prevalent in the East than the West. Religious disputes were bitter,

3544:

Majorian is described by Gibbon as "a great and heroic character". He rebuilt the army and navy of Italy with vigour and set about recovering the remaining Gallic provinces, which had not recognized his elevation. He defeated the Visigoths at the

3463:

to ask for the help of the Visigoths in Gaul before a Vandal fleet arrived in Italy. Petronius was unable to muster any effective defence, tried to flee the city, and was torn to pieces by a mob who paraded the bits around on a pole. The Vandals

1676:

were inflated, so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold. The soldiers' opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities, while their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of

649:

died. He left a collapsing field army, and the Empire divided between the warring ministers of his two incapable sons. Goths and other non-Romans became a force that could challenge either part of the Empire. Further barbarian groups crossed the

1356:

became the order of the day. Under Diocletian, the flow of direct requests to the emperor rapidly reduced, and soon ceased altogether. No other form of direct access replaced them, and the emperor received only information filtered through his

8761: 2251:". The fifth-century Western emperors, with brief exceptions, were individuals incapable of ruling effectively or even of controlling their own courts. Those exceptions were responsible for brief, but remarkable resurgences of Roman power. 1162:(in office 306 to 337) again re-united the Empire, towards the end of the fourth century the need for division was generally accepted. From then on, the Empire existed in constant tension between the need for two emperors and their mutual 4912: 1969:

Eastern field army, now perhaps 20,000 men, probably much fewer than the forces that Julian had led into Mesopotamia a little over a decade before, and possibly only 10% of the soldiers nominally available in the Danube provinces. In the

1181:

of barbarians became widely practised: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system. In this way many groups provided

3407:. His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals, and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450, by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions. 866:, a new proselytizing, exclusive religion that also looked forward to an imminent end time. The diminished and impoverished Byzantine rump state survived amid perpetual strife between and among the followers of Christianity and Islam. 2669:

to Alaric. The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate, and had no policy except hunting down anyone they regarded as supporters of Stilicho. Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter.

3136:

did not exercise military power, and she could not herself become a general. She tried for some years to avoid reliance on a single dominant military figure, maintaining a balance of power between her three senior officers, Aetius

4045:

Theodosius was also associated with the ending of the Vestal virgins, but twenty-first century scholarship asserts the Virgins continued until 415 and suffered no more under Theodosius than they had since Gratian restricted their

3025:. Although Constantius rebuilt the western field army to some extent, he did so only by replacing half of its units (vanished in the wars since 395) by re-graded barbarians, and by garrison troops removed from the frontier. The 2677:

As a declared 'enemy of the Emperor', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to

2662:

Alaric was again declared an enemy of the Emperor. The conspiracy then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected

5226:: "Therefore you make a great mistake in thinking that God is angry if any other is called a god, and obtains the same title as Himself. For even rulers do not object to the title from their subjects, nor masters from slaves." 1802:, "father of the nation") AVG(=Augustus). Reverse: an armed Roman, military standard in one hand, a captive in the other. Inscription: VIRTVS EXERCITVS ROMANORVM, "the bravery/virtue of the Roman army"; the mint mark is SIRM, 870:

The loss of centralized political control over the West, and the lessened power of the East, are universally agreed, but the theme of decline has been taken to cover a much wider time span than the hundred years from 376. For

696:, although it lessened in strength. Additionally, while the loss of political unity and military control is universally acknowledged, the fall of Rome is not the only unifying concept for these events; the period described as 3439:

Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall. When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at

3303:.' Further on came this complaint: 'The barbarians push us back to the sea, the sea pushes us back to the barbarians; between these two kinds of death, we are either drowned or slaughtered.' But they got no help in return." 2864:, still regarded as an usurper and given only occasional and short-term grants of supplies, moved north into the turmoil of Gaul. In this region, there was some prospect of food. His supergroup of barbarians are called the 2053:

was experiencing a period of prosperity for the great landowners who took advantage of the court's need for food, "turning agrarian produce into gold", while repressing and misusing the poor who grew it and brought it in.

790:

transformation, rather than a fall. The "perception of Late Antiquity has significantly changed: the period is no longer seen as an era of decline and crisis but as an epoch of metamorphosis in the Mediterranean region".

4744:

McCormick, Michael; Büntgen, Ulf; Cane, Mark A.; Cook, Edward R.; Harper, Kyle; Huybers, Peter; Litt, Thomas; Manning, Sturt W.; Mayewski, Paul Andrew; More, Alexander F. M.; Nicolussi, Kurt; Tegel, Willy (August 2012).

3245:

and leave the most fertile parts of North Africa in peace. Aetius concentrated his limited military resources to defeat the Visigoths again, and his diplomacy restored a degree of order to Hispania. However, his general

3063:

celebrates his voyage back to Gaul in 417 and his confidence in a restoration of prosperity. But it marked huge losses of territory and of revenue; Rutilius travelled by ship past the ruined bridges and countryside of

3173:

of mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable. In 427, Felix tried to recall Boniface from Africa. Boniface refused, and overcame Felix's invading force. Boniface probably recruited some Vandal troops among others.

2970:

barbarity of his followers, and instead he sought to restore the Roman Empire. He handed Attalus over to Honorius's regime for mutilation, humiliation, and exile. He also abandoned Attalus's supporters. One of them,

2931:

In 410, the Roman civitates of Britannia rebelled against Constantine and evicted his officials. They asked for help from Honorius, who replied that they should look to their own defence. While the British may have

2407:

suffering the widespread ravages of a few poor but greedy barbarians, also complained of "the peacetime war, one almost worse than the barbarian war and arising from military indiscipline and the officer's greed."

3624:

to Ricimer, and he was proclaimed Augustus in 467. In 468, at vast expense, the Eastern empire assembled an enormous force to help the West retake the Diocese of Africa. Marcellinus rapidly drove the Vandals from

3679:

Ricimer then quarreled with Anthemius, and besieged him in Rome, which surrendered in July 472, after more months of starvation. Anthemius was captured and executed (on Ricimer's orders) by the Burgundian prince

2888:. For the next few years these barbarian tribes wandered in search of food and employment, while Roman forces fought each other in the name of Honorius and a number of competing claimants to the imperial throne. 2602:

and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho's interests. The senate, "inspired by the courage, rather than the wisdom, of their predecessors," preferred war. One senator famously declaimed

2218:, married to Theodosius's niece, asserted himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army. He also claimed control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but 2045:, in which the emperor's statues were destroyed. Nevertheless, he is represented as financially generous as emperor, though frugal in his personal life. By the end of the 380s, Theodosius and the court were in 1306:. Restorations were funded and accomplished privately, which limited what was done. A further financial abuse was Constantius's habit of granting to his immediate entourage the estates of persons condemned for 657:

By 476, the position of Western Roman Emperor wielded negligible military, political, or financial power, and had no effective control over the scattered Western domains that could still be described as Roman.

1693:, himself a professional soldier, repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline, not to individual size or strength. He also accuses 5712: ... recalled the legions, as lethargic in their toils and duties as they were ardent in pillage, to the old code with its prohibitions against falling out on march or beginning an action without orders. 2686:. He was refused, as Olympius's clique still regarded him as a supporter of Stilicho. He moved into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho, bypassing the imperial court in 2233:

of their courts. Stilicho tried to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieved only the continued hostility of all of Arcadius's successive supreme ministers.

2178:(r. 392–394), as emperor in the West. Eugenius made some modest attempts to win pagan support, and with Arbogast led a large army to fight another destructive civil war. They were defeated and killed at the 3777:

on August 23, 476, where the city's bishop gave him sanctuary. Orestes was soon forced to flee Pavia, when Odoacer's army broke through the city walls and ravaged the city. Odoacer's army chased Orestes to

1283:(Emperor from 253 to 268) the senatorial aristocracy ceased joining the ranks of the senior military commanders. Its typical members lacked interest in military service, and showed incompetence at command. 3371:

dynasties. Huneric's Gothic wife was suspected of trying to poison her father-in-law Genseric; he sent her home without her nose or ears, and his Gothic alliance came to an early end. The Romans regained

2674:, a co-conspirator of Olympius, became governor of the Diocese of Africa. He consequently controlled the source of most of Italy's grain, and he supplied food only in the interests of Honorius's regime. 3766:) as Emperor, on October 31. His surname 'Augustus' was given the diminutive form 'Augustulus' by rivals, because he was still a minor. Romulus was never recognized outside Italy as a legitimate ruler. 2966:

which had overthrown Stilicho to retain power. In 413 he led an invasion of Italy, and lost to a subordinate of Constantius. He then fled back to Africa, where he was murdered by Constantius's agents.

4038:* Numerous literary sources, both Christian and pagan, falsely attributed to Theodosius multiple anti-pagan initiatives such as the withdrawal of state funding to pagan cults (this measure belongs to 903:

decline to about 52 B.C., the time of Julius Caesar and Pompey and Cicero. Gibbon placed the western empire's end with the removal of the man Gibbon referred to as "the helpless Augustulus" in 476.

2936:

for several generations, and British armies may at times have fought in Gaul, no central Roman government is known to have appointed officials in Britannia thereafter. The supply of coinage to the

964:

as a priest-ridden, superstitious Dark Age. It was not until his own era, the "Age of Reason", with its emphasis on rational thought, it was believed, that human history could resume its progress.

2037:, a Gothic leader, rebelled against Roman control. Goths attacked the emperor himself, but within a year Alaric was accepted as a leader of Theodosius's Gothic troops and this rebellion was over. 927:(1854–1856). As one convenient marker for the end, 476 has been used since Gibbon, but other key dates for the fall of the Roman Empire in the West include the Crisis of the Third Century, the 654:

and other frontiers. The armed forces of the Western Empire became few and ineffective, and despite brief recoveries under able leaders, central rule was never again effectively consolidated.

7239: 4921:, Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines. Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines. Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.. 1780:

did. In the next few years a strip some 40 miles wide to the west of the Rhine was occupied by the Germans, and a further 120 miles into Gaul the surviving population and garrisons had fled.

1771:, appeared in an imperial purple toga and announced himself to be the new Emperor. Constans was soon murdered and Magnentius took over most of his western domains. He made peace overtures to 2747:

abandoned plans to march to Honorius's defence. Attalus failed to establish his control over the Diocese of Africa, and no grain arrived in Rome where the famine became even more frightful.

3157:

in Italy). Meanwhile, the Empire deteriorated seriously. Apart from the losses in the Diocese of Africa, Hispania was slipping out of central control and into the hands of local rulers and

2450:

to Honorius. Throughout this period Stilicho, and all other generals, were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them. In 400, Stilicho was charged to press into service any "

2122:

and their war-bands) and invaded Gaul. His troops killed Gratian and he was accepted as Augustus in the Gallic provinces, where he was responsible for the first official executions of

114: 2974:, recorded that the Goths considered themselves merciful because they allowed him and his household to leave destitute, but alive, without being raped. Athaulf moved out of Gaul, to 2374:

Many of Stilicho's Eastern forces wanted to go home and he had to let them go (though Claudian claims that he did so willingly). Some went to Constantinople under the command of one

862:

created one of the worst environmental cataclysms in recorded history. The imperial system crumbled in the next couple of generations and then lost vast territories to the armies of

5875: 3597:

reigned. There is no record of anything significant that he even tried to achieve, he was never acknowledged by the East whose help Ricimer needed, and he died conveniently in 465.

8726: 7769:

Die Zeit des Vegetius. Hermes 1876 vol. 11 pp. 61–83. As quoted in Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff

3565:

also acknowledged Majorian and took effective charge of northern Gaul. (Aegidius may also have used the title "King of the Franks"). Abuses in tax collection were reformed and the

2690:

which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and he menaced the city of Rome itself. In 407, there was no equivalent of the determined response to the catastrophic

2182:, which was attended by further heavy losses; especially among the Gothic federates of Theodosius. The north-eastern approaches to Italy were never effectively garrisoned again. 1977:

provinces were thus exposed to raiding, without effective response from the remaining garrisons who were "more easily slaughtered than sheep". Cities were able to hold their own

3072:

had become the effective northern boundary of Roman Gaul. In the east of Gaul the Franks controlled large areas; the effective line of Roman control until 455 ran from north of

1610: 3348:, and the suburbs of Constantinople, ravaged, without resistance, and without mercy, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia" Attila's invasions of the East were stopped by the 2978:

where his infant son by Galla Placidia was buried, and where he was assassinated by one of his household retainers, possibly a former follower of Sarus. His ultimate successor

5940: 3620:, a successful general who had a strong claim to the Eastern throne. He arrived in Italy with an army, supported by Marcellinus and his fleet. Anthemius married his daughter 785:" emphasizes the transformations of ancient to medieval worlds within a cultural continuity. In recent decades archaeologically based argument even extends the continuity in 13546: 3443:, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way." 3355:

Genseric settled his Vandals as landowners. In 442, he was able to negotiate very favourable peace terms with the Western court. He kept his latest gains and his eldest son

7891: 1579:. Good nourishment and bodily cleanliness were privileges of the rich, advertised by their firm tread, healthy skin color, and lack of the "dull smell of the underbathed". 3672:

to Roman control. This would have allowed the Empire land access to Hispania again. The Visigoths refused, and defeated the forces of both Riothamus and Anthemius at the

688:

While its legitimacy lasted for centuries longer and its cultural influence remains today, the Western Empire never had the strength to rise again. The Eastern Roman, or

1698:

Empire's ability to assemble and supply large armies, Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century.

3576:

The fleet was burned by traitors, and Majorian made peace with the Vandals and returned to Italy. Here Ricimer met him, arrested him, and executed him five days later.

3434:'s plea for peace induced him to halt this campaign. Attila unexpectedly died a year later (453) and his empire crumbled as his followers fought for power. The life of 1474:

considered theirs to be the only worthwhile form of civilization, giving the Empire ideological legitimacy and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with

3414:, the Emperor's sister, who was being forced into a marriage which she resented. Attila claimed Honoria as his wife, and half of the Western Empire's territory as his 2884:

barbarians (perhaps some 30,000 warriors, 100,000 people) into Gaul. They may have been trying to get away from the Huns, who about this time advanced to occupy the

5274:

Keith Bradley, "'The Bitter Chain of Slavery’: Reflections on Slavery in Ancient Rome," Snowden Lectures, Hellenic Centre of Harvard University (November 2, 2020),

3569:

were strengthened. Both were actions necessary to rebuild the strength of the Empire, but disadvantageous to the richest aristocrats. Majorian prepared a fleet at

2823:

mentions a story in which Honorius, on hearing the news that Rome had "perished", was shocked. The emperor thought that the news was in reference to his favorite

720: 724:, Decline and Fall has been the theme around which much of the history of the Roman Empire has been structured. "From the eighteenth century onward," historian 9690: 4004: 3637:. Here Genseric offered to surrender, if he could have a five-day truce to prepare the process. He used the respite to prepare a full-scale attack preceded by 3536:

During his four-year reign Majorian reconquered most of Hispania and southern Gaul, meanwhile reducing the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suevi to federate status.

2242:

The ineffectiveness of Roman military responses during Stilicho's rule and afterwards has been described as "shocking". There is little evidence of indigenous

709: 615: 107: 8678:

Brown, Peter (2013). "Gibbon's Views on Culture and Society in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries". In Bowersock, G. W.; Clive, John; Graubard, Stephen R. (eds.).

7997: 1497:

The empire had both strength and resilience. Its financial system allowed it to raise significant taxes which, despite endemic corruption, supported a large

2505:) without decisive results. The Goths, weakened, were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office, though only as 8107: 6020: 2142:

of the numbers of barbarians in his forces, and hordes of Goths, Huns, and Alans followed Theodosius. Maximus negotiated with Theodosius for acceptance as

1730:, which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century, there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s, perhaps worst in 1202:. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance. 598:, the internal struggles for power, the religious changes of the period, and the efficiency of the civil administration. Increasing pressure from invading 4465: 2575:

and devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them. Stilicho recalled troops from

851:

overcame and dismembered the western part of an internally-weakened empire. The eastern empire rebuilt itself again and began the reconquest of the West.

728:

wrote, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears."

4688: 2903:

defeated the last Roman force to try to hold the borders of Hispania. It was led by relatives of Honorius; Constantine executed them. Gerontius went to

1964:. They were exploited by corrupt officials rather than effectively relieved and resettled, and they took up arms and were joined by more Goths and some 1314:. This practice reduced future, though not immediate, income; those close to the emperor also gained a strong incentive to encourage his suspicion of 8879:

Gaddis, Michael. There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ. Religious violence in the Christian Roman Empire. University of California Press, 2005.

8084: 3121:

in Italy. After some fighting, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement; the Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of

1279:. Excessive military expenditure, coupled with civil wars due to unstable succession, caused increased taxes to the detriment of the industry. Under 645:. Roman forces were unable to exterminate, expel or subjugate them (as was their normal practice). In 395, after winning two destructive civil wars, 100: 3955:

Observing the cultural and archaeological continuities through and beyond the period of lost political control, the process has been described as a

1689:, and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army. There is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376. 4057: 3989: 3943:

The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by the use of military power; it was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the

3475:

The Vandals conquered Sicily. Their fleet became a constant danger to Roman sea trade, and to the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean.

8065: 8350: 3561:, magister militum in Dalmatia and the pagan general of a well-equipped army, acknowledged him as emperor and recovered Sicily from the Vandals. 5219: 809:

A synthesis by Harper (2017) gave four decisive turns of events in the transformation from the height of the empire to the early Middle Ages:

9577: 5507: 3262:. These were Romans not under imperial control; some of their reasons for rebellion may be indicated by the remarks of a Roman captive under 2899:. Constantine's power reached its peak in 409 when he controlled Gaul and beyond, he was joint consul with Honorius and his magister militum 1275:

The Empire survived the "Crisis of the Third Century", directing its economy successfully towards defense, but survival came at the price of

3727:. By that time, Gundobad had left to contest the Burgundian throne in Gaul. Glycerius gave up without a fight, retiring to become bishop of 13233: 10119: 3795:

wrote that Odoacer, "taking pity on his youth" (he was then 16 years old), spared Romulus' life and granted him an annual pension of 6,000

3557:(who were granted tax concessions and whose senior officials were appointed from their own ranks), and the Suevi and Bagaudae in Hispania. 1399: 17: 8723: 5872: 3165:

and Arelate, and the Franks, increasingly powerful although disunited, were the major power in the north-east. Armorica was controlled by

1019:

enumerated 210 different theories on why Rome fell, twenty-first century scholarship classifies the primary possibilities more concisely:

12660: 10161: 10149: 9458: 7801:

Walter Goffart. The date and purposes of Vegetius' De Re Militari. In Rome's Fall and After, chapter 3, pp. 49–80. Hambledon Press 1989.

2394:

who were marauding in Asia Minor. With his position thus strengthened, he declared Stilicho a public enemy, and he established Alaric as

1237: 4315:

Gregory, T. (1986). The Survival of Paganism in Christian Greece: A Critical Essay. The American Journal of Philology, 107(2), 229–242.

2998:

In 416 Wallia reached agreement with Constantius; he sent Galla Placidia back to Honorius and received provisions, six hundred thousand

1845:

so the Roman army had no food. Finding himself cut off without supplies in enemy territory, Julian began a land retreat, and during the

1841:, but, at the suggestion of a Persian agent, burned his boats and supplies to show resolve in continuing operations. The Sassanids then 11534: 10208: 8898: 3185:

near Gibraltar, divided them into 80 groups nominally of 1,000 people (perhaps 20,000 warriors in total), and crossed from Hispania to

1466:. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, drawn from a growing population. It had a comprehensive 7236: 13642: 5275: 3588:

in northern Gaul rejected both Ricimer and his puppets and maintained some version of Roman rule in their areas. Ricimer later ceded

3549:, reducing them to federate status and obliging them to give up their claims in Hispania; he moved on to subdue the Burgundians, the 2860:

Alaric then moved south, intending to sail to Africa. His ships were wrecked in a storm, and he shortly died of fever. His successor

5971: 2567:

However, in 405, Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy. Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns, led by one

1519:

involved lucrative opportunities for independent decision-making, and, despite its obligations, became seen as a privilege. Under a

967:

He began an ongoing controversy about the role of Christianity, but he gave great weight to other causes of internal decline and to

13647: 12581: 10124: 6959: 3000: 2765: 2150:

in 388. There were heavy troop losses on both sides of the conflict. Later Welsh legend has Maximus's defeated troops resettled in

1150:

broke down within one generation and the hereditary principle re-established itself with generally unfortunate results. Thereafter

2871: 2077:

For centuries, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. His predecessors

13489: 13381: 13242: 12599: 11496: 10134: 9301: 7888: 4071:, by accident, instead. Two extant scholia on Lucian connect the end of the games with a fire that burned down the temple of the 2892: 2731: 2612: 2591: 2074:

himself preached a series of sermons aimed at his wealthy constituents, asserting that avarice leads to a breakdown in society.

1169:

Until late in the fourth century, the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch powerful attacks against its enemies in

13536: 13250: 11441: 10129: 9863: 7786: 3870:

and other identifiably Roman traits for some time although they sank to a level of material development inferior even to their

3736: 2275:. He again led Gothic tribesmen in arms and established himself as an independent power, burning the countryside as far as the 8091:(1914) by Eugippius pp. 13–113, English translation by George W. Robinson, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 7856: 4067:

says there are several reasons to conclude the Olympic games continued after Theodosius I, and that they came to an end under

2615:. Sarus lost this campaign and barely escaped, having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes. 2607:("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude"). Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless. Stilicho sent 11411: 10236: 9763: 9482: 9429: 9345:

Momigliano, Arnaldo. 1973. "La caduta senza rumore di un impero nel 476 d.C." ("The noiseless fall of an empire in 476 AD").

9320: 9261: 9242: 9221: 9150: 9096: 9067: 9050: 9034: 8945: 8929: 8884: 8850: 8812: 8790: 8743: 8714: 8668: 8577: 6454: 5166: 5012: 4948: 4204: 4186: 4161: 3452: 3360: 3213:

Aetius campaigned vigorously, somewhat stabilizing the situation in Gaul and in Hispania. He relied heavily on his forces of

285: 9547: 7830: 6071: 11501: 11376: 10529: 5663:– 1986 by A. H. M. Jones, volume II, p. 933, quote: "The huge army of clergy and monks were for the most part idle mouths." 4019: 3854:, independent of the Vandals, and with strong Roman traits. They again sought imperial recognition with the reconquests of 1604: 7452: 13575: 13175: 10082: 7826:

De Re Militari. Flavius Vegetius Renatus. Translated by Lieutenant John Clarke 1767. Etext version by Mads Brevik (2001)

2355:

undefended. Claudian reports that only Stilicho's attack stemmed the plundering, as he pushed Alaric's forces north into

2067: 574:, a process in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vast territory was divided between several successor 38: 9537: 8377: 3723:, nephew and successor of the general Marcellinus, arrived in Rome with soldiers and authority from the eastern emperor 13029: 9753: 8958: 8831: 8695: 8607: 7883: 5862: 5586: 5558: 5105: 5068: 4434: 4409: 4344: 4288: 4227: 3653:

the new king of the Visigoths to rebel, on the grounds that Roman power in Gaul was finished anyway; the king refused.

3294: 3073: 1047:. Its roads and its pirate-free seas, which produced an abundance of trade, also unknowingly created an interconnected 9501: 11680: 11421: 10181: 9748: 9743: 9719: 9570: 9374: 9337: 9290: 9170: 9130: 8869: 8750: 8626: 8461: 3043:

Constantius had married the princess Galla Placidia (despite her protests) in 417. The couple soon had two children,

1752: 1669:

increased to perhaps half the size of the actual army, and they have been considered as a drain on limited manpower.

393: 275: 6015: 3087: 2319:

described as a "pillaging campaign" that began first in the East. Alaric's forces made their way along the coast to

13652: 13622: 13226: 13160: 11642: 11436: 10109: 9758: 6167: 4747:"Climate Change during and after the Roman Empire: Reconstructing the Past from Scientific and Historical Evidence" 3998: 3823: 3419: 3161:

bandits. In Gaul the Rhine frontier had collapsed, the Visigoths in Aquitaine may have launched further attacks on

3004:

of wheat. From 416 to 418, Wallia's Goths campaigned in Hispania on Constantius's behalf, exterminating the Siling

2895:, raised an army from the remaining troops in Britannia, invaded Gaul and defeated forces loyal to Honorius led by 413: 280: 8214: 3193:, defeating Boniface. He returned to Italy where Aetius had recently had Felix executed. Boniface was promoted to 13185: 12788: 12653: 12604: 11812: 9702: 9635: 9523: 7878: 7817:

Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff

7237:

http://en.wikisource.org/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_VI/The_Letters_of_St._Jerome/Letter_127

4072: 3994: 910: 327: 8707:

Barbarians Within the Gates of Rome : A Study of Roman Military Policy and the Barbarians, ca. 375–425 A.D.

6010: 4884:

Scheidel, Walter (2015). "A model of demographic and economic change in Roman Egypt after the Antonine plague".

3769:

In 476, Orestes refused to honour his promises of land to his mercenaries, who revolted under the leadership of

3459:, heir to the Vandal throne. This amounted to a declaration of war with the Vandals. Petronius had time to send 2730:

to Alaric. He broke off negotiations and the standoff continued. Honorius's court made overtures to the usurper

12972: 12805: 12743: 12594: 11862: 11667: 11527: 10456: 10381: 10139: 9393: 8509: 7806: 3984: 3903: 3859: 3621: 3577: 3558: 2872:

405–418: In the Gallic provinces; barbarians and usurpers, loss of Britannia, partial loss of Hispania and Gaul

1834: 1776: 1726:, which were well within the empire. The tribes of Germania also became more populous and more threatening. In 1576: 1532:

religion were hugely varied, but none claimed that theirs was the only truth. Their followers displayed mutual

1459: 1028: 825: 603: 169: 7235:

Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VI/The Letters of St. Jerome/Letter 127 Philip Schaff et al.

4682: 3676: ; with the Burgundians, they took over almost all of the remaining imperial territory in southern Gaul. 3656:

Anthemius was still in command of an army in Italy. Additionally, in northern Gaul, a British army led by one

13280: 13180: 13089: 10952: 8657:

Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the making of Christianity in the West, 350–550 AD

5706: 5527:

Hanson, Ann Ellis. "A Division of Labor." Roles for Men in Greek and Roman Births. Thamyris 1.2 (1994): p=157

5290: 4931:

McMichael, Anthony (2017). "Romans, Mayans, and Anasazi: The Classical Optimum to Droughts in the Americas".

4557:

Pocock, J.G.A. (1976). "Between Machiavelli and Hume: Gibbon as Civic Humanist and Philosophical Historian".

4462: 4097: 3642: 31: 3866:

of Britannia continued to look to their own defence as Honorius had authorized; they maintained literacy in

3410:

Attila may not have needed any excuse to turn West, but he received one in the form of a plea for help from

1743:

determined and incorruptible general, these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians.

1515:

in battle. City governments with their own properties and revenues functioned effectively at a local level;

11743: 10792: 10396: 9848: 9563: 2900: 2702: 356: 300: 174: 8079: 7451:

English translation by H. G. Evelyn White, 1921, Loeb Classical Library's Ausonius, vol. II, pp. 295–351.

1213:

The Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of responsibility

13605: 13219: 13139: 13134: 12750: 12609: 11622: 11491: 11416: 11175: 10231: 10114: 9660: 8139: 4646:

Rives, James B. (2010). "Graeco-Roman Religion in the Roman Empire: Old Assumptions and New Approaches".

3197:

and earned the enmity of Aetius, who may have been absent in Gaul at the time. In 432 the two met at the

2304: 2166: 1223: 1108: 1064: 1037: 855: 821: 3451:, who had encouraged both murders, then seized the throne. He broke the engagement between the princess 2371:

adds that Stilicho's troops destroyed and pillaged too, and let Alaric's men escape with their plunder.

13657: 13195: 13190: 12646: 11775: 11770: 11451: 11115: 11007: 10777: 10549: 10371: 10279: 10144: 10087: 9542: 8660: 8346: 5873:

https://www.academia.edu/27941832/Supplying_a_Dying_Empire_The_Mint_of_Trier_in_the_Late_4th_Century_AD

3938: 3230: 2458: 2399: 1520: 1486:. The Empire's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status. Its wide-ranging 463: 448: 376: 312: 206: 3132:, mother of the Emperor, and his guardian until 437, could maintain a dominant position in court, but 2363:

interpretation is that Alaric and his men had been recruited by Rufinus's Eastern regime, and sent to

2126:. To compensate the Western court for the loss of Gaul, Hispania, and Britannia, Theodosius ceded the 1075:

invaders, but the legions generally held or at least speedily re-instated the borders of the Empire.

817:

that ended a long period of demographic and economic expansion, weakening but not toppling the empire.

13580: 13563: 13305: 13165: 12919: 12880: 12627: 11807: 11714: 11707: 11685: 11520: 11471: 10564: 10519: 10446: 10366: 10314: 10304: 10256: 9603: 8800: 3835: 2799: 2548: 2510: 2300: 1649: 1525: 1311: 923: 490: 443: 337: 201: 164: 8987:

Gruman, Gerald J. (1960). "'Balance' and 'Excess' as Gibbon's Explanation of the Decline and Fall".

3527: 3258:, began vigorous assaults on what remained of Roman Hispania. At one point Rechiar even allied with 2645: 1536:, producing a polyphonous religious harmony. Religious strife was rare after the suppression of the 317: 13590: 13556: 13509: 13260: 11847: 11832: 11647: 11632: 11072: 10982: 10491: 10471: 10466: 10451: 10404: 10344: 10299: 10101: 9160: 9138: 5924:

Brodd, Jeffrey (October 1995). "Julian the Apostate and His Plan to Rebuild the Jerusalem Temple".

4049:

Theodosius did turn pagan holidays into workdays, but the festivals associated with them continued.

3894: 3803:. Odoacer installed himself as ruler over Italy, and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople. 3326: 3251: 3094: 2694:

in 216 BCE, when the entire Roman population, even slaves, had been mobilized to resist the enemy.

2423: 2093:, whereas Theodosius supported Nicene Christianity which eventually became the orthodox version of 1672:

The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century.

1475: 953: 949: 762:

to end, and he refused to equate the end of the Western Roman Empire with the end of the office of

642: 540: 505: 478: 473: 381: 371: 366: 243: 211: 139: 9439:"Christian emperor, vestal virgins and priestly colleges: Reconsidering the end of roman paganism" 5501: 5276:

https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-keith-bradley-the-bitter-chain-of-slavery

5213: 2638:

against his supporters took place at Honorius's court. It was led by Stilicho's own creature, one

1718:

to keep them in check, indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control. Under Constantius,

1595:

itself, possibly encouraged by the enthusiasm of rich Romans for water features in their gardens.

1134:. Diocletian tried to solve this problem by re-establishing an adoptive succession with a senior ( 13595: 13494: 13285: 13265: 13170: 12828: 11962: 11852: 11842: 11837: 11657: 11637: 11594: 11481: 11461: 11401: 11391: 11381: 10787: 10476: 10376: 10356: 10271: 10261: 9966: 9906: 9886: 9598: 8634: 5577:(1998). "21 Christianization and religious conflict". In Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (eds.). 5574: 3952:

by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.

3198: 3088:

421–433: Renewed dissension after the death of Constantius, partial loss of the Diocese of Africa

2466:

slaughtered them. By the beginning of 401, Gainas' head rode a pike through Constantinople while

2332: 2276: 1992: 1909:

while shouting at envoys of Germanic leaders. His successors in the West were children, his sons

1556: 1541: 747: 535: 525: 495: 468: 270: 238: 45: 5869: 3633:. The commander in chief with the main force defeated a Vandal fleet near Sicily, and landed at 3306:

The Visigoths passed another waymark on their journey to full independence; they made their own

2947:

rebelled and took over Constantine's remaining troops on the Rhine. He relied on the support of

2470:

became consul. Meanwhile, groups of Huns started a series of attacks across the Danube, and the

1931:). Gratian, "alien from the art of government both by temperament and by training", removed the 879:

in 180 CE marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron". Since the age of

13600: 13472: 13371: 12994: 12823: 12364: 11797: 11792: 11719: 11614: 11486: 11476: 11426: 11406: 11220: 11195: 11160: 11042: 10767: 10414: 10176: 9707: 3524:. He was forced to become Bishop of Placentia, and died (possibly murdered) a few weeks later. 2502: 2387: 2378:, a Goth with a large Gothic following. On arrival, Gainas murdered Rufinus, and was appointed 2272: 2179: 1869: 1768: 1686: 1568: 1552: 1107:

over much of the former territory of the Western Empire. But the final blow came only with the

775: 607: 458: 398: 349: 344: 295: 226: 186: 9438: 6446: 5085: 3893:, who was busy dealing with unrest in the East. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer the status of 3490:, declared himself Emperor. He moved on Rome with Visigothic support. He gained acceptance by 3379:

The losses of income from the Diocese of Africa were equivalent to the costs of nearly 40,000

13585: 13499: 13477: 13467: 13364: 13354: 13312: 13290: 13074: 12939: 11662: 11552: 11456: 11386: 11210: 10962: 10762: 10757: 10554: 10461: 10386: 10349: 10334: 10309: 10289: 10191: 8589: 4053: 3685: 3673: 3364: 3300: 3133: 2885: 2877: 2691: 2587: 2237: 2098: 2078: 1657:

negatively impacted by the empire's financial struggles in the third century. The numbers of

1616: 1572: 1442: 1382: 1203: 1159: 928: 884: 837: 693: 679: 515: 361: 332: 255: 250: 149: 144: 8904: 3403:. His subjects included Huns, outnumbered several times over by other groups, predominantly 1571:, local harvest failures causing famines were always a possibility. And even in good times, 1511:

were well-rewarded, literate, and responsible for training, discipline, administration, and

13457: 13359: 13349: 13275: 13129: 13124: 13064: 12999: 12904: 11753: 11724: 11627: 11466: 11431: 11120: 10987: 10887: 10812: 10677: 10640: 10016: 9680: 9424:. Alan Bowman and Andrew Wilson eds. Oxford University Press 2009, paperback edition 2013, 9365: 4826: 4156:

e.g. Why Nations Fail. Acemoglu D and Robinson JA. Profile Books (Random House Inc.) 2012.

3503: 3435: 3052: 2937: 2735:

would only grant his people a supply of grain. Honorius, sensing weakness, flatly refused.

2497:. Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared, meeting Alaric in two battles (near 2194: 2190: 2131: 2010: 1970: 1821: 1690: 1632:

Christians (heretics) from the fourth century up to the modern era. Limited action against

1533: 1467: 1362: 1136: 759: 571: 530: 388: 305: 159: 11110: 5374: 4725: 8: 13094: 13024: 12967: 12884: 12710: 12589: 11802: 11396: 11245: 11047: 10917: 10867: 10186: 9783: 4940: 3976: 3944: 3918: 3907: 3882: 3851: 3843: 3819:

By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when

3791: 3708:

emperor. He may have made some attempt to intervene in Gaul; if so, it was unsuccessful.

3550: 3411: 3060: 2916: 2778: 2498: 2368: 2224: 2055: 1548: 1498: 1391: 1348:, "lord and god", titles appropriate for a master-slave relationship. An elaborate court 1269: 1111:

and its aftermath, when Rome was already politically fragmented and materially depleted.

948:

Gibbon was the first to attempt an explanation of causes of a Fall of empire. Like other

859: 751: 520: 438: 221: 216: 8763:

The End of the Roman Empire: Civil Wars, the Imperial Monarchy, and the End of Antiquity

6956: 6476:

Hamlet, Ingomar. "Theodosius I. And The Olympic Games". Nikephoros 17 (2004): pp. 53–75.

4830: 3177:

In 428 the Vandals and Alans were united under the able, ferocious, and long-lived king

2891:

The remaining troops in Britannia elevated a succession of imperial usurpers. The last,

2323:, where he sought to force a new peace upon the Romans. His march in 396 passed through 13438: 13270: 13200: 13104: 12888: 12840: 12835: 12738: 12728: 12685: 12677: 11972: 11824: 11763: 11652: 11584: 11560: 11446: 11170: 10977: 10832: 10772: 10692: 10635: 10499: 9735: 9714: 9408: 9209: 9197: 9180: 9102: 9004: 8975: 7453:

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Paulinus_Pellaeus/Eucharisticus*.html

5963: 5631: 5286: 5111: 4901: 4849: 4814: 4768: 4663: 4400:

Rebenich, Stefan (2012). "6 Late Antiquity in Modern Eyes". In Rousseau, Philip (ed.).

4377: 4337:

The End of the Pagan City: Religion, Economy, and Urbanism in Late Antique North Africa

4009: 3871: 3786: 3763: 3669: 3499: 3465: 3368: 3028: 2795: 2791: 2777:, the most authoritative bishop of the West. Rome had not fallen to an enemy since the 2760: 2415: 2202: 2147: 1131: 1104: 932: 671: 662:

had established their own power in much of the area of the Western Empire. In 476, the

659: 433: 403: 322: 265: 260: 191: 154: 11085: 9121:

Hunt, Lynn, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, R. Po-chia Hsia, Bonnie G. Smith.

8903:. With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman. 1845 (Revised) (published 2008). Archived from 6621: 5097: 4746: 3661: 3478: 2626:

married Honorius. In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son

1567:

was disposed of on the streets, in open drains, or by scavenging animals. Even in the

913:

argue that the entire Imperial era was one of steady decay of institutions founded in

582:

lost the strengths that had allowed it to exercise effective control over its Western

510: 13451: 13443: 13433: 13339: 13079: 13054: 13034: 13014: 13004: 12894: 12876: 12845: 12778: 12695: 12669: 11748: 11599: 11574: 11080: 10932: 10687: 10647: 10625: 9833: 9478: 9425: 9389: 9370: 9333: 9316: 9286: 9257: 9238: 9217: 9166: 9146: 9126: 9106: 9092: 9063: 9046: 9030: 8979: 8941: 8925: 8880: 8865: 8846: 8827: 8808: 8786: 8739: 8735: 8710: 8691: 8687: 8664: 8622: 8603: 8573: 8561: 8515: 8505: 8457: 7802: 7448: 6693: 6450: 6439: 5865: 5858: 5614:

Bradbury, Scott (1995). "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice".

5582: 5554: 5115: 5101: 5064: 5008: 4944: 4905: 4854: 4667: 4628: 4430: 4405: 4340: 4284: 4223: 4182: 4157: 4062: 3811: 3546: 3448: 3311: 3146: 3018: 2971: 2933: 2752: 2583:, son of one of Stilicho's major supporters, was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405. 2572: 2439: 1861: 1846: 1678: 1537: 1241: 1040:

that may have directly contributed to the variety of factors that brought Rome down.

1032: 1016: 906: 888: 829: 500: 483: 453: 290: 233: 8000: 4772: 4242:

Gregory, T. (1986). The Survival of Paganism in Christian Greece: A Critical Essay.

2635: 1856:, acclaimed by a demoralized army, began his brief reign (363–364) while trapped in 13551: 13462: 13386: 13327: 13069: 12984: 12929: 12899: 12850: 12810: 12793: 12783: 12718: 12690: 12171: 11543: 11145: 11105: 11037: 10972: 10897: 10892: 10664: 10587: 10534: 10329: 10324: 10213: 10072: 10021: 9981: 9951: 9946: 9941: 9931: 9853: 9800: 9793: 9778: 9773: 9697: 9625: 9450: 9278: 9189: 9115:

Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe: archaeology and the Pirenne thesis

9084: 8996: 8967: 8683: 8226: 7853: 5955: 5701: 5623: 5093: 4936: 4893: 4844: 4834: 4758: 4655: 4618: 4369: 4316: 4251: 3922: 3740: 3404: 3349: 3129: 3077: 2514: 2419: 2336: 2219: 2211: 2127: 1940: 1932: 1898: 1853: 1810: 1640: 1580: 1479: 1470:

based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. The literate

1249: 1183: 1092: 1072: 968: 957: 803: 786: 755: 700:

emphasizes the cultural continuities throughout and beyond the political collapse.

689: 663: 418: 92: 79: 8598:

Ando, Clifford (2012). "5 Narrating Decline and Fall". In Rousseau, Philip (ed.).

8110: 5158: 3925:

for at least another century, before disappearing at an unknown date in the early

3700:

After the death of Olybrius there was a further interregnum until March 473, when

3541:

invaders of Italy by one of his subordinates, Majorian was acclaimed as Augustus.

2982:

had no agreement with the Romans; his people had to plunder in Hispania for food.

2339:'s control of the Eastern empire. The bulk of Rufinus's forces were occupied with 2282: 1624: 798: 13568: 13406: 13344: 13332: 13322: 13109: 13084: 12872: 12855: 12700: 11780: 11758: 11702: 11672: 11556: 11240: 11052: 11032: 10992: 10927: 10877: 10872: 10747: 10697: 10605: 10439: 10419: 10339: 9788: 9613: 9381: 9232: 9078: 8859: 8775: 8754: 8730: 8565: 8088: 7937: 7895: 7860: 7834: 7827: 7790: 7243: 6963: 6596: 6594: 5879: 5223: 5209: 5154: 5058: 4469: 4014: 3724: 3528:

457–467: Resurgence under Majorian, attempt to recover Africa, control by Ricimer

3105: 3048: 2924: 2774: 2743: 2646:

408–410: End of effective regular field armies, starvation in Italy, sack of Rome

2619: 2544: 2529: 2447: 2442: 2360: 2263:

Without an authoritative ruler, the Balkan provinces fell rapidly into disorder.

2102:

Theodosius did not stamp out paganism, which continued into the seventh century.

1406: 1340: 1229: 1228:

The Empire suffered multiple serious crises during the third century. The rising

1174: 1127: 1100: 1068: 1056: 1048: 918: 848: 847:

The military and political failure of the West, in which mass migration from the

814: 587: 586:; modern historians posit factors including the effectiveness and numbers of the 545: 408: 9386:

The First Millennium AD in Europe and the Mediterranean: an archaeological essay

3902:

among the conspirators) prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his

3789:, whom his father Orestes had proclaimed to be Rome's Emperor, to abdicate. The 2868:

in modern works: they may now have been developing their own sense of identity.

2209:(r. 383–408) as emperors. In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius's death, the 13515: 13418: 13391: 13059: 13049: 13044: 13039: 13019: 13009: 12924: 12867: 12760: 12723: 12454: 12238: 11902: 11589: 11295: 10937: 10672: 10620: 10592: 10539: 10524: 10504: 10319: 10294: 10251: 10241: 10067: 10041: 9971: 9956: 9921: 9881: 9642: 9420:

Rathbone, Dominic. "Earnings and Costs. Part IV, chapter 15", pp. 299–326. In:

9178:

Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome".

3956: 3890: 3796: 3692:, his new emperor, named Gundobad as his patrician, then shortly died himself. 3605: 3594: 3333: 3307: 3220: 3142: 3117: 3109: 2739: 2580: 2521: 2146:

of the West, but Theodosius refused, gathered his armies, and counterattacked,

2138:

to flee to the East, where he accepted Nicene Christianity. Maximus boasted to

2135: 2111: 2082: 2050: 2022: 1978: 1921: 1842: 1787: 1772: 1623:. This was followed over the ensuing decades by the search for a definition of 1620: 1503: 1463: 1430: 1417: 1295: 1142: 1036:

around the Mediterranean. After about 450, the climate worsened further in the

985:, Chapter 38 "General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West" 914: 782: 737: 725: 697: 682: 619: 583: 428: 181: 27:

Loss of central political control in the Western Roman Empire in late antiquity

9256:. Translated by Pawel Grysztar and Trystan Skupniewicz. Wydawnictwo NapoleonV 9164:

The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey

6591: 5661:

The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey

4897: 4623: 4606: 3229:

on the middle Rhine, re-establishing the survivors as Roman allies, the first

2410: 2114:

declared himself Emperor in 383, stripped troops from the outlying regions of

2070:, described these men as creating a court where "everything was up for sale". 1993:

Partial recovery in the Balkans, internal corruption and financial desperation

1956:

In 376, the East faced an enormous barbarian influx across the Danube, mostly

766:

in Italy. He pointed out the essential continuity of the economy of the Roman

13636: 13526: 13504: 13401: 13396: 13155: 12954: 12213: 12176: 12136: 12002: 11731: 11690: 10827: 10797: 10712: 10246: 10223: 10036: 9891: 9876: 9823: 9630: 8371: 5497: 5054: 4659: 4174: 4068: 3570: 3423: 3418:. Faced with refusal, he invaded Gaul in 451 with a huge army. In the bloody 3202: 3150: 2962:

was still in command in the diocese of Africa. He was the last member of the

2814: 2787: 2627: 2576: 2490: 2115: 1887: 1799: 1783: 1715: 1694: 1598: 1327: 1294:

Under Constantine, the cities lost their revenue from local taxes, and under

1286: 1245: 767: 763: 743: 715: 623: 595: 591: 423: 12315: 8519: 6080:, Chapter XXVII: Civil Wars, Reign Of Theodosius. Part I. Death Of Gratian.. 5909:

Hunt, David (1998). "2, Julian". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).

4839: 3498:, commanders of the remaining army of Italy. This was the first time that a 3241:, temporarily halting the Vandals, who in 435 agreed to limit themselves to 2919:

as his own puppet emperor. He defeated Constantine and was besieging him in

2786:

earthly failures. Some Christian responses anticipated the imminence of the

2154:, instead of returning to Britannia, and by 400, Armorica was controlled by 1860:

without supplies. To purchase safe passage home, he had to concede areas of

56: 13521: 13428: 13423: 13376: 13295: 13114: 12944: 12815: 12733: 11907: 11897: 11880: 11697: 11305: 11165: 10610: 10559: 10514: 10509: 10361: 10171: 10057: 10001: 9996: 9768: 9652: 9586: 9493: 8971: 8564:(2001). "Urban life, inscriptions, and mentality in late antique Rome". In 6157: 4858: 4632: 4042:) and the demolition of temples (for which there is no primary evidence). 3914: 3831: 3720: 3630: 3600: 3511: 3081: 2896: 2805: 2608: 2230: 2018: 2006: 1982: 1973:(9 August 378), Valens lost much of that army and his own life. All of the 1756: 1682: 1560: 1491: 1426: 1338:); emperors from Aurelian (r. 270–275) onwards openly styled themselves as 936: 891:

who seized power through command of the army from 235 through 284, or with

833: 675: 646: 634: 579: 196: 9454: 9088: 8747: 5707:

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/11B*.html

5291:

https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE668970

3104:

as Western Emperor, but the Eastern Roman government proclaimed the child

2238:

Military, financial, and political ineffectiveness: the process of failure

2185: 1449: 1031:

as important drivers of the political collapse of the empire. There was a

13484: 13413: 13300: 13099: 12977: 12962: 12934: 12770: 12389: 12347: 12270: 12183: 12051: 12041: 11952: 11736: 11100: 10722: 10544: 10434: 9828: 9214:

The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy

8068: 4360:

Bowersock, Glen W. (1996). "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome".

3949: 3926: 3855: 3711: 3665: 3345: 3325:

In 439, the Vandals moved eastward, temporarily abandoning Numidia. They

3226: 3170: 2959: 2948: 2770: 2671: 2560: 2348: 2324: 2243: 2123: 2094: 2028:

The final Gothic settlement was acclaimed with relief, even the official

1936: 1857: 1795: 1739: 1487: 1422: 1387: 1257: 961: 872: 841: 750:

and political legitimacy long after 476. Pirenne postponed the demise of

9412: 6161: 3746:

In 475, Orestes promised land in Italy to various Germanic mercenaries,

2201:

Theodosius died a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons

1946: 692:, Empire, survived and remained for centuries an effective power of the 13317: 12862: 12566: 12354: 12337: 12285: 12275: 12260: 12228: 12218: 12096: 12046: 11922: 11917: 11885: 11604: 11325: 11265: 11230: 11022: 10957: 10947: 10842: 10727: 10615: 10198: 10166: 9911: 9838: 9670: 9665: 9361: 9201: 9008: 7766: 5967: 5885: 5635: 4381: 4102: 3847: 3827: 3755: 3616:

After two years without a Western Emperor, the Eastern court nominated

3507: 3431: 3341: 3186: 2623: 2568: 2486: 2463: 2344: 2090: 2046: 2029: 2017:

without Roman military discipline or loyalty. (In contrast, during the

1986: 1764: 1727: 1629: 1529: 1512: 1378: 1331: 1315: 1253: 1233: 1199: 1123: 599: 9555: 9399:

Piganiol, André (1950). "The Causes of the Fall of the Roman Empire".

5855:

Supplying a dying empire? The mint of Trier in the late 4th century AD

5551:

A History of the Bible: The Story of the World's Most Influential Book

5060:

The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians

3877: 3515:

plundered Roman cities. The Burgundians expanded their kingdom in the

3502:

had played a key role in the imperial succession. Avitus's son-in-law

3059:

This settlement represented a real success for the Empire - a poem by

1126:

and his successors reorganized it with more emphasis on the military.

590:, the health and numbers of the Roman population, the strength of the 13211: 12909: 12561: 12556: 12546: 12479: 12384: 12280: 12243: 12233: 12193: 12146: 12141: 12091: 12031: 11957: 11947: 11927: 11890: 11875: 11355: 11350: 11310: 11235: 11205: 11185: 11062: 11002: 10912: 10862: 10857: 10782: 10742: 10630: 10600: 10409: 10284: 10077: 9961: 9936: 9815: 9254:

The cavalry of Diocletian. Origin, organization, tactics, and weapons

7849: 6316: 3705: 3657: 3638: 3617: 3609: 3487: 3014: 2975: 2865: 2842: 2820: 2471: 2014: 1838: 1826: 1744: 1508: 1374: 1280: 1236:

and remained a potent threat for centuries. Other disasters included

1151: 1147: 781:

The more recent formulation of a historical period characterized as "

771: 12638: 9193: 9000: 6372: 6370: 5959: 5627: 4373: 13119: 12914: 12534: 12519: 12499: 12484: 12464: 12439: 12424: 12419: 12399: 12369: 12359: 12310: 12300: 12295: 12126: 12111: 12086: 12066: 12036: 12026: 12021: 11992: 11987: 11977: 11912: 11870: 11579: 11512: 11315: 11300: 11290: 11275: 11190: 11180: 11150: 11140: 11135: 11125: 11027: 10942: 10822: 10807: 10737: 10717: 10707: 10702: 10682: 10481: 10062: 10026: 9916: 9843: 9675: 4320: 4255: 3889:

Odoacer began to negotiate with the East Roman (Byzantine) emperor

3839: 3800: 3779: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3681: 3646: 3634: 3626: 3585: 3581: 3566: 3562: 3554: 3521: 3491: 3479:

455–456: Failure of Avitus, further losses in Gaul, rise of Ricimer

3469: 3427: 3390: 3380: 3329: 3319: 3272: 3259: 3247: 3238: 3178: 3166: 3097: 2904: 2679: 2665: 2639: 2554: 2533: 2467: 2403: 2364: 2328: 2316: 2296: 2264: 2248: 2215: 2206: 2175: 2155: 2151: 2034: 2013:. Theodosius was unable to recruit enough Roman troops, relying on 2002: 1906: 1865: 1760: 1731: 1719: 1633: 1584: 1516: 1483: 1358: 1353: 1349: 1335: 1276: 1170: 1163: 1119: 1052: 896: 892: 880: 876: 611: 8223:, Chapter XXXVI: Total Extinction Of The Western Empire. Part II.. 3516: 3208: 2990: 2985: 1078: 802:

Routes taken by barbarian invaders of the Roman Empire during the

12989: 12800: 12551: 12539: 12529: 12504: 12494: 12489: 12469: 12459: 12434: 12374: 12332: 12305: 12223: 12156: 12151: 12131: 12121: 12076: 12071: 12061: 12056: 11997: 11982: 11932: 11335: 11330: 11320: 11285: 11280: 11270: 11215: 11200: 11017: 11012: 10997: 10967: 10922: 10902: 10882: 10837: 10569: 10424: 10203: 10011: 10006: 9896: 6367: 5784: 5748: 5709: 5696: 4039: 3898: 3863: 3820: 3774: 3770: 3759: 3751: 3732: 3532: 3495: 3456: 3384: 3373: 3356: 3315: 3255: 3242: 3190: 3101: 3065: 3044: 3022: 3009: 3005: 2944: 2920: 2912: 2861: 2824: 2782: 2714: 2710: 2687: 2656: 2631: 2599: 2525: 2494: 2352: 2292: 2139: 2119: 2071: 2063: 1974: 1910: 1803: 1723: 1673: 1588: 1395: 1370: 1307: 1209: 1044: 667: 37:"The fall of the Roman Empire" redirects here. For the film, see 9216:. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 6345: 6343: 3824:

deposed Romulus Augustulus and proclaimed himself ruler of Italy

3668:

over the Alps, with an army, to request the Visigoths to return

3116:

during his minority. Joannes had few troops of his own. He sent

2682:, in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of 2622:, daughter of Stilicho, died in 407 or early 408 and her sister 1454:

The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under

1402:

had already dated the start of Rome's moral decline to 154 BCE.

1244:(from 250 onwards). For a short period, the Empire split into a 1012:

documentary sources that were all that was available to Gibbon.

602:

outside Roman culture also contributed greatly to the collapse.

12571: 12524: 12509: 12474: 12449: 12414: 12409: 12342: 12327: 12265: 12203: 12188: 12166: 12116: 12106: 12101: 12014: 12009: 11967: 11937: 11345: 11225: 11155: 11095: 11090: 11057: 10817: 10802: 10752: 10732: 10154: 10031: 9926: 9123:

The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, Volume A: To 1500

8892:

Galinsky, Karl. Classical and Modern Interactions (1992) 53–73.

8526: 7874: 5258: 5256: 3747: 3728: 3483: 3460: 3440: 3400: 3337: 3288: 3263: 3182: 3113: 2979: 2963: 2908: 2748: 2698: 2540:, Paris. The pendant reads, around a central cross (clockwise): 2537: 2482: 2451: 2383: 2375: 2356: 2320: 2283:

Stilicho's attempts to unify the Empire, revolts, and invasions

2170: 2161:

Theodosius restored Valentinian II, still a very young man, as

2086: 2059: 1985:, therefore the cities generally remained intact, although the 1876: 1735: 1707: 1658: 1645: 1611:

Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation

1564: 1455: 1438: 1303: 1299: 1261: 1155: 1060: 670:

deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire in Italy,

575: 8619:

Interpreting Late Antiquity: essays on the postclassical world

7961: 7949: 7287: 5454: 3762:

and proclaimed his own son Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus (

3758:, in exchange for their support. He drove Julius Nepos out of 1458:(r. 98–117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from 883:, the process of the Fall has been thought to have begun with 622:

of the ancient world and they inform much modern discourse on

12444: 12429: 12404: 12394: 12379: 12322: 12290: 12255: 12250: 12208: 12198: 12081: 11942: 11785: 11130: 10852: 10579: 9871: 6645: 6547: 6394: 6340: 5229: 5086:"Gibbon was right: The decline and fall of the roman economy" 4201:

Glen Bowersock, "The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome"

3917:

continued to exist in the city of Rome under the rule of the

3867: 3650: 3589: 3415: 3234: 3162: 3158: 3069: 2953: 2881: 2683: 2506: 2427: 2308: 1965: 1957: 1711: 1471: 1434: 1265: 1191: 1099:

who themselves may have been driven by climate change in the

863: 703: 651: 630: 9027:

The fate of Rome. Climate, disease, and the end of an empire

8938:

The Fall of the West: The Slow Death of the Roman Superpower

8538: 8435: 6581: 6579: 6088: 6086: 5808: 5772: 5466: 5253: 4784: 4782: 3906:. In 488 the Eastern emperor authorized a troublesome Goth, 2315:

Alaric took his Gothic army on what Stilicho's propagandist

1798:

philosopher. Inscription: FL(AVIVS) CL(AVDIVS) IVLIANVS PP(=

12514: 12161: 11340: 10907: 10847: 10429: 9805: 8593:. Trans. J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library, Vol. I, 1935. 8466: 8423: 8399: 8286: 8238: 8190: 8115: 8017: 7985: 7925: 7913: 7640: 7604: 7493: 7386: 7338: 7275: 6831: 5941:"Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice" 5063:. Historia (E-libro). Oxford University Press. p. 87. 4511: 3396: 3214: 2994:

Areas allotted to or claimed by barbarian groups in 416–418

2915:. Gerontius then fell out with his master and elevated one 2828: 2478: 2391: 2340: 2335:

with his remaining mobile forces, posing a clear threat to

2287: 2042: 1961: 1662: 1592: 1381:, may also have become more commonplace; one example being 1344: 1096: 638: 8680:

Edward Gibbon and the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

8483: 8481: 8329: 8327: 8325: 8168: 8166: 7582: 7580: 7541: 7403: 7401: 7328: 7326: 7253: 7251: 6720: 6292: 6268: 6229: 6127: 6125: 5832: 5727: 5430: 4819:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA

4815:"Coin hoards speak of population declines in Ancient Rome" 4523: 4279:

Lavan, Luke (2011). Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael (eds.).

3782:, where they captured and executed him on August 28, 476. 2701:, through which Rome's grain supply had to pass. Alaric's 1599:

Rise of Christianity, possible decline of the armed forces

1575:

needed to have, on average, six children each in order to

1154:

became again the main method of establishing new imperial

921:

excluded the imperial period from his Nobel Prize-winning

9901: 8148:, Chapter XXXVI: Total Extinction Of The Western Empire.. 8029: 7973: 7481: 7457: 7443: 7441: 7350: 7263: 7217: 7169: 7106: 7082: 7034: 6756: 6744: 6657: 6576: 6518: 6098: 6083: 6059: 5581:. Vol. 13. Cambridge University Press. p. 641. 5355: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5031: 4957: 4865: 4779: 4713: 3233:. This may have returned some sort of Roman authority to 3017:. Constantius also reinstituted an annual council of the 1666: 1146:) emperor in each half of the Empire, but this system of 7565: 7428: 7426: 7123: 7121: 7094: 7012: 7010: 6973: 6971: 6926: 6924: 6911: 6909: 6872: 6870: 6773: 6771: 6611: 6609: 6566: 6564: 6562: 6537: 6535: 6533: 6418: 6258: 6256: 5988: 5820: 5796: 5678: 5530: 5478: 5420: 5418: 5307: 4986: 4984: 4969: 4743: 4138: 3834:

still claimed to be Emperor of the West, and controlled

3731:

in Dalmatia. Julius Nepos ruled Italy and Dalmatia from

3601:

467–472: Anthemius; an Emperor and an army from the East

3359:

was honoured by betrothal to Valentinian III's daughter

2650: 2134:

to their control. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, forcing

8914:

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

8478: 8322: 8310: 8298: 8274: 8262: 8202: 8178: 8163: 8151: 8127: 8053: 8041: 8005: 7901: 7736: 7724: 7712: 7700: 7688: 7676: 7664: 7652: 7616: 7592: 7577: 7529: 7517: 7398: 7374: 7323: 7248: 7145: 7133: 7070: 6710: 6708: 6441:

The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games

6217: 6181: 6122: 6110: 5595: 5503:

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

5379: 5375:

https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1312

5343: 5331: 5295: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5187: 4487: 4475: 4395: 4393: 4391: 3885:, which rose from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire 3846:

until his murder in 486. The indigenous inhabitants of

3573:

for the essential reconquest of the Diocese of Africa.

3189:

without opposition. They spent a year moving slowly to

2110:

Theodosius had to face a powerful usurper in the West;

1837:,. He succeeded in marching to the Sassanid capital of 1450:

Height of power, systematic weaknesses as direct causes

1272:

did not recover, though the Mediterranean regions did.

721:

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

8602:(illustrated, reprint ed.). John Wiley and Sons. 7438: 6669: 6633: 6382: 6355: 6166:. Translated by McDevitte, W. A. (William Alexander). 5760: 5715: 5442: 5391: 5135: 5028: 4540: 4538: 4499: 4005:

Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

3806: 3376:, and Rome again received a grain supply from Africa. 2880:

in 405/6 brought unmanageable numbers of Germanic and

2611:, a Gothic general, over the Alps to face the usurper 2367:

to stave off Stilicho's threat. No battle took place.

1833:

master of the entire Empire. He launched an expensive

1547:

Nevertheless, it remained a culture based on an early

1490:

permitted even modest households to use goods made by

1240:, barbarian invasions, and more mass-mortality in the 1051:

that unleashed the evolution and spread of pathogens.

710:

Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

9360:

Twilight of Empire. The Roman Army from the reign of

8824:

The Mediterranean world in late antiquity, 395–700 AD

8411: 8250: 7628: 7553: 7505: 7469: 7423: 7362: 7311: 7299: 7205: 7193: 7181: 7157: 7118: 7058: 7046: 7022: 7007: 6995: 6983: 6968: 6957:

http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus05_book5.htm

6921: 6906: 6894: 6882: 6867: 6855: 6843: 6819: 6807: 6795: 6783: 6768: 6732: 6681: 6606: 6559: 6530: 6506: 6494: 6406: 6304: 6280: 6253: 6205: 6047: 6035: 5666: 5415: 5403: 5319: 4981: 4362:

Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

3426:

troops were attacking his noncombatant population in

3266:

who was happy in his lot, giving a lively account of

1947:

376–395: Invasions, civil wars, and religious discord

1794:

361. Obverse: Julian with the beard appropriate to a

746:(1862–1935), scholars have described a continuity of 6705: 6241: 6193: 6137: 5932: 5184: 4806: 4443: 4388: 4211: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 3966: 3913:

The mostly powerless, but still influential Western

3858:, and they later put up effective resistance to the 3217:. With a ferocity celebrated centuries later in the 3033:

gives a list of the units of the western field army

2426:

to celebrate Probus's consulship in 406, now in the

1864:, including the strategically important fortress of 1433:, while the European frontier from the mouth of the 1001:, Chapter 71 "Four Causes of Decay and Destruction." 570:, was the loss of central political control in the 122: 9422:

Quantifying the Roman Economy. Methods and Problems

9330:

Western aristocracies and Imperial court AD 364–425

8900:

History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

8864:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 8765:. In: M. Gehler – R. Rollinger – P. Strobl (eds.): 8621:. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2001. 8499: 6155: 5241: 4794: 4535: 4297: 4260: 3830:continued under some form of Roman rule after 476. 3310:, sending princesses to make (rather unsuccessful) 614:disease drove many of these immediate factors. The 30:"Fall of Rome" redirects here. For other uses, see 8912:Gibbon, Edward (1906). "XX". In Bury, J.B. (ed.). 8570:Urban Centers and Rural Contexts in Late Antiquity 6438: 5849: 5847: 4586: 3629:and Sicily, and a land invasion evicted them from 2706:Alaric also recruited many of the slaves in Rome. 1701: 1591:was endemic in many areas, notably in the city of 754:to the 8th century. He challenged the notion that 7784:https://www.academia.edu/5496690/Who_was_Vegetius 5642: 4429:(illustrated, reprint ed.). OUP. p. 6. 4119: 2831:itself had fallen, he breathed a sigh of relief: 1043:The Roman Empire was built on the fringes of the 731: 13634: 9231:Lavan, Luke & Michael Mulryan, eds. (2011). 9018:Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 8956:: The Roman Visit of Theodosius in Summer 389". 7854:http://www.ccel.org/ccel/salvian/govt.iv.vi.html 6005: 6003: 3990:Comparative studies of the Roman and Han empires 3696:472–476: Final emperors, puppets of the warlords 3391:444–453: Attacks by the empire of Attila the Hun 1868:. This fortress had been Roman since before the 8948:. Phoenix, an imprint of Orion Books Ltd, 2010. 8861:Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius 5844: 4877: 4812: 4604: 3209:433–454: Ascendancy of Aetius, loss of Carthage 2986:Settlement of 418; barbarians within the empire 2267:was disappointed in his hopes for promotion to 1544:ceased to be a major centre for Jewish unrest. 8785:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 8364: 7828:http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/ 6630:, pp. 58–121, chapter 2: Power Effective. 6430: 5607: 4577:The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon, 1737–1764 4236: 4222:(unabridged ed.). Yale University Press. 3363:. She carried the legitimacy of the conjoined 3051:. Constantius was elevated to the position of 2855: 2813:, the most excellent and invincible, 417–418, 1775:in the East, but these failed. In the ensuing 1103:. These barbarian invasions led ultimately to 13227: 12654: 11528: 9571: 8650:(2nd ed.). Oxford, Blackwell Publishing. 6702:, pp. 58–121, chapter 2 Power Effective. 6000: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5553:(illustrated ed.). Penguin. p. 15. 4330: 4328: 3799:before sending him to live with relatives in 2827:, which he had named "Roma". On hearing that 956:citizens of the age steeped in institutional 778:represented a decisive break with antiquity. 108: 13611:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire 9475:The fall of Rome and the end of civilization 9472: 8952:Graf, Fritz (2014). "Laying Down the Law in 8682:. Harvard University Press. pp. 37–52. 8532: 8441: 7967: 7955: 6837: 6488:The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity 5733: 5460: 5373:Ernst Badian. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, Lucius 4418: 4144: 3218: 2634:at the head of a small detachment, a bloody 1400:Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (consul 133 BC) 1055:contributed to massive demographic changes, 11559:origin primarily identified as speakers of 9076: 9060:The fall of the Roman Empire. A new history 9044:Slavery in the late Roman world AD 275–425. 8920: 8826:(2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. 8617:Bowersock, Glen, Peter Brown, Oleg Grabar. 6376: 5472: 5005:Defending Rome: The Masters of the Soldiers 4605:Drancourt, M.; Raoult, D. (November 2016). 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 3292: 3026: 1252:in the East (260–273), and a central Roman 13234: 13220: 12661: 12647: 11535: 11521: 9578: 9564: 9344: 9297: 9234:The Archaeology of Late Antique 'Paganism' 9208: 8390: 8235:, pp. 708–710, Chapter Marcellinus 6. 8232: 7870: 7868: 6726: 5897: 4505: 4325: 4281:The Archaeology of Late Antique "paganism" 4052:Theodosius was associated with ending the 3447:year later. A rich senatorial aristocrat, 1648:in wealthy cities were thus able to offer 1394:between a gold-rich elite and a cash-poor 1232:inflicted three crushing defeats on Roman 1206:followed over the next generation or two. 854:In the lands around the Mediterranean the 704:Historical approaches and modern syntheses 115: 101: 9277: 9268: 8857: 8616: 8544: 6762: 6699: 6675: 6663: 6651: 6627: 6585: 6524: 6490:. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. 6479: 6436: 6349: 6092: 5826: 5814: 5802: 5790: 5778: 5754: 5684: 5601: 5484: 5313: 5262: 5235: 4930: 4848: 4838: 4813:Turchin, Peter; Scheidel, Walter (2009). 4762: 4622: 4493: 4359: 4353: 4217: 2773:. At the time, this position was held by 1277:a more centralized and bureaucratic state 1256:; in 271, Rome abandoned the province of 1122:reunited the empire in 274, and from 284 9419: 9398: 9327: 9310: 9230: 8891: 8845:Revised edition, Greenhill Books, 1998. 8840: 8586: 7571: 7100: 6485: 5938: 5891: 5613: 5567: 5448: 5385: 5361: 5349: 5337: 5301: 5002: 4933:Climate Change and the Health of Nations 4883: 4751:The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4719: 4399: 4339:(illustrated ed.). OUP. p. 9. 4080: 3876: 3810: 3710: 3660:, operated in imperial interests at the 3604: 3531: 2989: 2804: 2697:Alaric's military operations centred on 2520: 2409: 2286: 2184: 1782: 1285: 1208: 1082:Roman Empire in the early second century 1077: 1027:A recent summary interprets disease and 999:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 983:The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 797: 55: 13382:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 12600:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 9585: 9357: 9302:Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire 9057: 9015: 8821: 8799: 8780: 8560: 8487: 8472: 8429: 8405: 8333: 8316: 8304: 8292: 8280: 8268: 8244: 8208: 8196: 8184: 8172: 8157: 8133: 8121: 8059: 8047: 8023: 8011: 7991: 7931: 7919: 7907: 7865: 7742: 7730: 7718: 7706: 7694: 7682: 7670: 7658: 7646: 7622: 7610: 7598: 7586: 7547: 7535: 7523: 7499: 7407: 7392: 7380: 7344: 7332: 7281: 7257: 7229: 7151: 7139: 7076: 6639: 6600: 6400: 6388: 6361: 6322: 6223: 6187: 6131: 6116: 6104: 5838: 5766: 5721: 5397: 5325: 5083: 5053: 5041: 4990: 4975: 4704: 4425:Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald, ed. (2015). 4424: 4173: 3250:was badly defeated by the Visigoths at 2720: 2605:Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis 1951: 1897:) energetically tackled the threats of 1714:. Their communities required a line of 1326:The new supreme rulers disposed of the 774:invasions, and suggested that only the 14: 13635: 13241: 9177: 9041: 9024: 8986: 8911: 8896: 8878: 8454:The Britons: from Romans to barbarians 8220: 8145: 7943: 7754: 6603:, pp. 213–214, 217–218, 242, 255. 6445:. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 6077: 5994: 5672: 5548: 4963: 4918: 4871: 4800: 4788: 4734:, chapter 4 "The Old Age of the World. 4731: 4556: 4529: 4517: 4481: 4449: 4132: 4075:during Theodosius the second's reign. 3815:Europe and the Mediterranean in 476 AD 2097:for most later Christian churches—his 1939:. He also rejected the pagan title of 1835:campaign against the Sasanian Persians 1587:diseases were a major cause of death. 1551:, with only ineffective inklings of a 1067:. Heavy mortality in 165–180 from the 13215: 12668: 12642: 11516: 9559: 9436: 9251: 9159: 9137: 8704: 8677: 8654: 8645: 8633: 8417: 8256: 8035: 7979: 7634: 7559: 7511: 7487: 7475: 7463: 7432: 7368: 7356: 7317: 7305: 7293: 7269: 7223: 7211: 7199: 7187: 7175: 7163: 7127: 7112: 7088: 7064: 7052: 7040: 7028: 7016: 7001: 6989: 6977: 6930: 6915: 6900: 6888: 6876: 6861: 6849: 6825: 6813: 6801: 6789: 6777: 6750: 6738: 6714: 6687: 6615: 6570: 6553: 6541: 6512: 6500: 6412: 6310: 6298: 6286: 6274: 6262: 6247: 6235: 6211: 6199: 6143: 6065: 6053: 6041: 5923: 5648: 5573: 5536: 5436: 5424: 5409: 5247: 5197: 5141: 4645: 4544: 4427:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity 4404:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 78. 4334: 4278: 4266: 4205:American Academy of Arts and Sciences 4056:, which he also probably did not do. 2651:Stilicho's fall and Alaric's reaction 1763:, was away hunting. During the feast 1086: 1071:seriously impaired attempts to repel 1006: 96: 13490:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain 11542: 9120: 9113:Hodges, Richard, Whitehouse, David. 8951: 8597: 8347:"Romulus Augustulus – Roman emperor" 6424: 5911:Cambridge Ancient History, volume 13 5908: 5745:Ammianus Marcellinus Book XXVII 9.2 5007:. Xlibris Corporation. p. 206. 4592: 4303: 4272: 4020:List of Roman civil wars and revolts 3785:On September 4, 476, Odoacer forced 3314:with Rechiar of the Sueves and with 2258: 1605:History of late ancient Christianity 942: 13176:History of the Mediterranean region 9477:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9388:. Cambridge University Press 1991. 9080:Theodosius and the Limits of Empire 8724:Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian 8572:. Michigan State University Press. 7884:The Ruin of Britain and Other Works 6335:Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity 6011:"Ancient Rome: The reign of Julian" 5023:or recruiting barbarians as needed 4680: 4611:Clinical Microbiology and Infection 4094: 3807:From 476: Last Emperor, rump states 3739:, a former secretary of Attila, as 3291:, a 6th-century monk and author of 2809:Inscription honouring Honorius, as 2536:, and wife of Honorius, now in the 2477:In 401 Stilicho travelled over the 2474:marauded far and wide in Anatolia. 2197:at the death of Theodosius I in 395 2158:rather than by imperial authority. 1621:official toleration of Christianity 1540:in 136, after which the devastated 1425:corrupt and extortionate, it had a 1217: 1114: 24: 9315:. Michigan Classical Press, 2007. 9306:. Cambridge University Press 1980. 9283:Corruption and the decline of Rome 9145:. London and New York: Routledge. 9053:. Cambridge University Press 2011. 9037:. Princeton University Press 2017. 8959:Journal of Early Christian Studies 8916:. Vol. 3. Fred de Fau and Co. 8783:The later Roman empire, AD 284–430 7757:, Chapter XXXIV: Attila. Part II.. 6023:from the original on 24 March 2019 5496: 5153: 4941:10.1093/oso/9780190262952.003.0012 3295:De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae 2738:Alaric moved to Rome and captured 1759:while his master, Western Emperor 1022: 718:published the first volume of his 678:sent the imperial insignia to the 25: 13669: 9517: 9491: 9117:. Cornell University Press, 1983. 8500:Levillain, Philippe, ed. (2002). 7946:, Chapter XXXIV: Attila. Part I.. 7782:" published on Academia.edu 2015 5098:10.1163/ej.9789004160507.i-448.38 4472:, Loeb edition translated E. Cary 4244:The American Journal of Philology 4181:. Penguin Books. pp. 13–14. 2655:Stilicho had news of the coup at 1501:with logistics and training. The 992:domestic quarrels of the Romans. 13643:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 13623:Military history of ancient Rome 13161:Bibliography of European history 12756:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 12623: 12622: 9529:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 9401:The Journal of General Education 9332:. Oxford University Press 1975. 8688:10.4159/harvard.9780674733695.c5 8493: 8447: 8339: 8094: 8073: 7839: 7820: 7811: 7795: 7772: 7760: 7413: 6945: 6936: 6470: 6328: 6149: 5019:the traditional Roman policy of 4032: 3999:Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire 3969: 3420:battle of the Catalaunian Plains 3181:; he moved his entire people to 2907:, where he may have settled the 2418:, a contemporary depiction on a 1751:On January 18 350, the imperial 1321: 560:fall of the Western Roman Empire 126:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 13648:5th century in the Roman Empire 13606:Civil wars of the Third Century 13186:History of Western civilization 12789:Christianity in the Middle Ages 12605:Christianization of Scandinavia 9504:from the original on 2021-07-24 9461:from the original on 2022-10-07 9285:. Yale University Press, 1988. 9143:Europe's Barbarians, AD 200–600 8709:Indiana University Press 1994. 8553: 8380:from the original on 2015-06-01 8353:from the original on 2015-06-01 6170:from the original on 2019-02-02 5928:. Biblical Archaeology Society. 5917: 5739: 5690: 5654: 5542: 5521: 5510:from the original on 2012-10-15 5490: 5367: 5280: 5268: 5203: 5169:from the original on 2012-10-12 5147: 5122: 5077: 5047: 4996: 4924: 4737: 4691:from the original on 2017-11-13 4674: 4639: 4598: 4569: 4550: 4455: 4309: 3995:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 3957:complex cultural transformation 3684:. In August, Ricimer died of a 3510:to present the Visigothic king 2781:, over eight centuries before. 2165:in the West. He also appointed 1926: 1915: 1892: 1881: 1815: 1722:came to dominate areas such as 1702:313–376: Civil and foreign wars 1446:part in the fall of the West". 1334:(seeing the emperor as but the 1095:into the Empire, driven by the 969:attacks from outside the Empire 875:, the accession of the emperor 13030:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 12973:Christianity in the modern era 12744:Christianity in late antiquity 12595:Christianization of the Franks 11668:Continental Germanic mythology 9125:. Bedford / St. Martins 2001. 9020:(Cambridge Medieval Textbooks) 8858:Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). 8102:The Cambridge Medieval History 7852:. The fifth book. verses 5–7. 6016:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 4208:1996. vol. 49 no. 8 pp. 29–43. 4195: 4167: 4150: 3985:Succession of the Roman Empire 3860:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 3773:. Orestes fled to the city of 2118:(probably replacing some with 1981:against barbarians who had no 1710:on the lower left bank of the 960:, Gibbon held in contempt the 732:Another paradigm of the period 13: 1: 13181:History of the European Union 9494:"Theodosius I (379–395 A.D.)" 9273:Oxford University Press 2002. 8600:A Companion to Late Antiquity 5913:. Cambridge University Press. 5579:The Cambridge Ancient History 4648:Currents in Biblical Research 4607:"Molecular history of plague" 4402:A Companion to Late Antiquity 4113: 3486:, at the Visigothic court in 3332:, where they established the 3155:magister militum praesentalis 3034: 2811:florentissimo invictissimoque 2105: 629:In 376, a large migration of 394:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440 286:Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422 276:Gothic War in Spain (416–418) 32:Fall of Rome (disambiguation) 10150:Frontiers and fortifications 9548:Resources in other libraries 9473:Ward-Perkins, Bryan (2005). 9313:The Roman empire of Ammianus 8932:. Thames & Hudson, 2003. 8639:The Making of Late Antiquity 6325:, p. 74 (and note 177). 4886:Journal of Roman Archaeology 4220:Paganism in the Roman Empire 3897:and accepted him as his own 3237:. Eastern troops reinforced 3225:, the Huns slaughtered many 3068:, and in the west the river 2934:regarded themselves as Roman 2598:In 407, Alaric marched into 1960:, who were fleeing from the 1563:did not allow good hygiene. 1412: 1290:The divided Empire in 271 CE 357:Burgundian Revolt of Gunther 301:Gothic revolt of Theodoric I 44:. For the Italian film, see 40:The Fall of the Roman Empire 18:Collapse of the Roman Empire 7: 13140:Russian invasion of Ukraine 12751:Crisis of the Third Century 12610:Christianization of Iceland 10209:Decorations and punishments 8807:. Oxford University Press. 8641:. Harvard University Press. 8502:The papacy: an encyclopedia 8349:. Encyclopedia Britannica. 5090:Crises and the Roman Empire 3962: 2856:The Goths move out of Italy 2713:and recruited more slaves. 1849:, he was mortally wounded. 1734:. By 350, after decades of 1517:membership of city councils 1224:Crisis of the Third Century 1109:Late Antique Little Ice Age 1065:crisis of the third century 1038:Late Antique Little Ice Age 856:Late Antique Little Ice Age 822:Crisis of the Third Century 793: 10: 13674: 13196:Military history of Europe 13191:Maritime history of Europe 11116:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 9691:historiography of the fall 9437:Testa, Rita Lizzi (2007). 9173:Basil Blackwell Ltd. 1964. 9077:Hebblewhite, Mark (2020). 8661:Princeton University Press 8104:Vol. I (1924), pp. 418–419 4581:The First Decline and Fall 4218:MacMullen, Ramsay (1981). 3939:Legacy of the Roman Empire 3936: 3842:son of Aegidius ruled the 3643:Praetorian prefect of Gaul 3231:Kingdom of the Burgundians 2624:Aemilia Materna Thermantia 2586:In 406, Stilicho heard of 1608: 1602: 1352:developed, and obsequious 1221: 1190:for Roman landowners, and 742:From at least the time of 735: 707: 618:are major subjects of the 377:Battle of Mons Colubrarius 313:Roman civil war of 427-429 36: 29: 13619: 13564:Roman conquest of Britain 13535: 13249: 13166:Genetic history of Europe 13148: 12953: 12769: 12709: 12676: 12618: 12580: 11861: 11823: 11613: 11567: 11550: 11497:External wars and battles 11364: 11258: 11071: 10663: 10656: 10578: 10490: 10395: 10270: 10222: 10100: 10050: 9989: 9980: 9862: 9814: 9734: 9651: 9621: 9612: 9594: 9543:Resources in your library 8769:. Springer 2022: 191–213. 8568:; Eadie, John W. (eds.). 8081:The Life of St. Severinus 5500:. "2. Fall In The West". 5003:Reynolds, Julian (2011). 4898:10.1017/S1047759400013854 4624:10.1016/j.cmi.2016.08.031 3932: 3838:until his murder in 480. 3715:Tremissis of Julius Nepos 3664:. Anthemius sent his son 3318:, son of the Vandal king 3254:, and a new Suevic king, 3019:southern Gallic provinces 3013:accepted land to farm in 1822:victories against Germans 1769:imperial household troops 1248:in the West (260–274), a 1093:massive populations moved 842:imminent end of the world 637:people, fleeing from the 444:Gothic War in Spain (456) 134: 72: Principate/Dominate 11848:North Germanic languages 11833:Germanic parent language 9498:De Imperatoribus Romanis 9347:Rivista storica italiana 8923:The complete Roman Army. 8822:Cameron, Averil (2011). 8781:Cameron, Averil (1993). 8373:De Imperatoribus Romanis 7296:, pp. 196, 237–238. 6486:Remijsen, Sofie (2015). 6437:Perrottet, Tony (2004). 5939:Bradbury, Scott (1995). 5793:, pp. 23, 178, 186. 5757:, pp. 173–175, 181. 5084:Jongman, Willem (2007). 4660:10.1177/1476993X09347454 4025: 2923:when Honorius's general 2424:Anicius Petronius Probus 2001:, a proven general from 1997:Gratian appointed a new 1441:is some 2000 kilometres 616:reasons for the collapse 594:, the competence of the 564:fall of the Roman Empire 13653:Dissolutions of empires 13261:Roman conquest of Italy 13171:History of Christianity 11853:West Germanic languages 11843:East Germanic languages 11838:Proto-Germanic language 11658:Proto-Germanic folklore 11595:Romano-Germanic culture 11492:Roman–Iranian relations 9967:Optimates and populares 9304:volume II, A.D. 395–527 9058:Heather, Peter (2006). 8897:Gibbon, Edward (1782). 8843:Greece and Rome at War. 8805:The Last Pagans of Rome 8648:The Rise of Christendom 8504:. New York: Routledge. 6556:, pp. 157–58, 169. 5705:, book 11, chapter 18. 5128:Grant, Michael (1960). 4840:10.1073/pnas.0904576106 4283:. Brill. p. xxiv. 2277:walls of Constantinople 1905:Valentinian died of an 1738:attacks, virtually all 1577:maintain the population 12995:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 11502:Civil wars and revolts 10768:Sextus Pompeius Festus 10415:Conflict of the Orders 9774:Legislative assemblies 9369:. J. C. Gieben, 1998. 8972:10.1353/earl.2014.0022 3959:, rather than a fall. 3886: 3816: 3716: 3613: 3537: 3293: 3282: 3219: 3027: 2995: 2940:ceases with Honorius. 2853: 2817: 2564: 2468:another Gothic general 2431: 2312: 2299:(right) with his wife 2273:battle of the Frigidus 2198: 2180:Battle of the Frigidus 1807: 1569:Roman Climatic Optimum 1553:germ theory of disease 1388:anyone who paid for it 1291: 1214: 1083: 1033:Roman climatic optimum 1004: 988: 806: 752:classical civilization 459:Roman civil war of 456 345:Roman civil war of 432 296:Roman civil war of 425 90: 60:Map of Roman territory 13591:Domitian's Dacian War 13510:Liberators' civil war 13075:Industrial Revolution 11663:Anglo-Saxon mythology 11553:Ethnolinguistic group 11211:Simplicius of Cilicia 10963:Quintus Curtius Rufus 10192:Siege in Ancient Rome 9801:Executive magistrates 9455:10.1484/J.AT.2.303121 9089:10.4324/9781315103334 9083:. London: Routledge. 8936:Goldsworthy, Adrian. 8921:Goldsworthy, Adrian. 8655:Brown, Peter (2012). 8646:Brown, Peter (2003). 6403:, pp. 46–47, 72. 5549:Barton, John (2019). 5439:, pp. 1027–1028. 4520:, pp. 83, 93–94. 4069:Theodosius the second 4054:ancient Olympic Games 3880: 3852:kingdoms of their own 3814: 3714: 3686:pulmonary haemorrhage 3608: 3535: 3301:groans of the British 3277: 3134:women in Ancient Rome 2993: 2886:Great Hungarian Plain 2878:Crossing of the Rhine 2833: 2808: 2524: 2459:Tribigild's rebellion 2443:declared for the East 2413: 2331:sailed from Italy to 2290: 2188: 2169:, a pagan general of 2148:winning the civil war 2099:Edict of Thessalonica 1786: 1617:Constantine the Great 1603:Further information: 1443:great-circle distance 1289: 1212: 1204:Cultural assimilation 1160:Constantine the Great 1081: 989: 973: 931:in 406 (or 405), the 929:Crossing of the Rhine 885:Constantine the Great 840:that anticipated the 801: 694:Eastern Mediterranean 680:Eastern Roman Emperor 251:Crossing of the Rhine 59: 13596:Trajan's Dacian Wars 13281:Roman–Hernician wars 13130:European debt crisis 13125:European integration 13065:Age of Enlightenment 12905:Republic of Florence 11221:Stephanus Byzantinus 11126:Eusebius of Caesaria 10988:Sidonius Apollinaris 10678:Ammianus Marcellinus 10017:Tribune of the plebs 9366:Battle of Adrianople 9271:Late Roman Warlords. 8663:. pp. 145–146. 7879:Michael Winterbottom 6301:, pp. 136, 146. 6277:, pp. 162, 169. 6238:, pp. 102, 152. 5882:accessed 31 May 2022 5238:, pp. 110, 147. 5092:. pp. 183–199. 4764:10.1162/JINH_a_00379 4705:Demandt, A. (1984). 4681:Demandt, Alexander. 4532:, pp. 279, 312. 4335:Leone, Anna (2013). 3649:, tried to persuade 3504:Sidonius Apollinaris 3436:Severinus of Noricum 3108:instead, his mother 2938:Diocese of Britannia 2845:, The Vandalic War ( 2721:Alaric besieges Rome 2295:, thought to depict 2195:Western Roman Empire 2132:diocese of Macedonia 2011:diocese of Illyricum 1971:Battle of Adrianople 1952:Battle of Adrianople 1862:northern Mesopotamia 1706:Constantine settled 1691:Ammianus Marcellinus 1468:civil administration 1260:on the north of the 760:Western Roman Empire 572:Western Roman Empire 474:Gothic War (457–458) 389:Vandal War (439-442) 367:Gothic War (436–439) 212:Gothic War (401–403) 140:Gothic War (376–382) 88: Western Empire 13495:Roman–Parthian Wars 13286:Roman–Volscian wars 13266:Roman–Etruscan Wars 13095:Revolutions of 1848 13025:Early modern France 12806:Anglo-Saxon England 12711:Classical antiquity 12590:Gothic Christianity 11397:Distinguished women 11048:Velleius Paterculus 10888:Nicolaus Damascenus 10868:Marcellus Empiricus 10257:Republican currency 9210:Kulikowski, Michael 8475:, pp. 284–319. 8432:, pp. 405–411. 8408:, pp. 280–281. 8295:, pp. 276–277. 8247:, pp. 266–267. 8199:, pp. 382–383. 8124:, pp. 375–377. 8038:, pp. 205–206. 8026:, pp. 295–297. 7994:, pp. 293–294. 7982:, pp. 206–207. 7934:, pp. 291–292. 7922:, pp. 288–290. 7846:De gubernatione Dei 7649:, pp. 274–278. 7613:, pp. 231–232. 7502:, pp. 240–241. 7490:, pp. 259–260. 7466:, pp. 258–259. 7395:, pp. 205–212. 7359:, pp. 185–189. 7347:, pp. 202–205. 7284:, pp. 229–232. 7272:, pp. 228–231. 7226:, pp. 243–244. 7178:, pp. 238–239. 7115:, pp. 233–234. 7091:, pp. 226–227. 7043:, pp. 224–225. 6753:, pp. 162–163. 6654:, pp. 171–172. 6427:, pp. 229–232. 6352:, pp. 248–249. 6163:The History of Rome 6068:, pp. 26, 152. 5841:, pp. 112–115. 5817:, pp. 190–193. 5781:, pp. 181–183. 5539:, pp. 220–221. 5265:, pp. 137–142. 4966:, pp. 264–267. 4874:, pp. 112–113. 4831:2009PNAS..10617276T 4825:(41): 17276–17279. 4791:, pp. 248–254. 3977:Ancient Rome portal 3945:Mediterranean Basin 3919:Ostrogothic kingdom 3883:Ostrogothic Kingdom 3792:Anonymus Valesianus 3205:reigned until 450. 3128:Galla Placidia, as 3061:Rutilius Namatianus 2779:Battle of the Allia 2709:Alaric withdrew to 2703:first siege of Rome 2559:The letters form a 2528:pendant of Empress 2489:, besieging him in 2225:magister officiorum 2120:federate chieftains 2056:Paulinus the Deacon 1852:Julian's successor 1767:, commander of the 1753:magister officiorum 1625:Christian orthodoxy 1583:was very high, and 1549:subsistence economy 1407:late Roman military 1392:economic inequality 1270:Northwestern Europe 1238:repeated civil wars 935:, and the death of 933:sack of Rome in 410 860:Plague of Justinian 836:, a proselytizing, 824:, in which natural 756:Germanic barbarians 207:Revolt of Tribigild 13601:Roman–Persian Wars 13500:Caesar's civil war 13372:Roman–Seleucid war 13271:Roman-Aequian wars 13243:Ancient Roman wars 13201:Crusading movement 13105:Russian Revolution 12940:Hundred Years' War 12836:Maritime republics 12739:Early Christianity 12729:Hellenistic period 12686:Paleolithic Europe 11973:Germani cisrhenani 11681:Funerary practices 11585:Pre-Roman Iron Age 11561:Germanic languages 11171:Phlegon of Tralles 10978:Seneca the Younger 10452:Naming conventions 10182:Personal equipment 9715:Later Roman Empire 9269:Macgeorge, Penny. 9181:History and Theory 8989:History and Theory 8774:2022-11-28 at the 8767:The End of Empires 8753:2017-08-22 at the 8729:2017-07-28 at the 8547:, pp. 87–122. 8535:, pp. 87–122. 8087:2012-04-23 at the 7894:2023-04-05 at the 7859:2012-08-27 at the 7833:2020-04-21 at the 7789:2021-03-08 at the 7550:, pp. 246–48. 7242:2011-10-23 at the 6962:2019-10-11 at the 5878:2022-06-01 at the 5853:Wigg-Wolf, David. 5463:, pp. 87–121. 5287:Codex Theodosianus 5222:2021-12-18 at the 4468:2021-02-21 at the 4010:Last of the Romans 3887: 3872:pre-Roman Iron Age 3844:Domain of Soissons 3817: 3787:Romulus Augustulus 3764:Romulus Augustulus 3717: 3614: 3538: 3399:were united under 3312:marriage alliances 3029:Notitia Dignitatum 2996: 2818: 2792:Augustine of Hippo 2565: 2448:his daughter Maria 2432: 2313: 2199: 2124:Christian heretics 2015:barbarian warbands 1808: 1755:gave a banquet in 1679:military exercises 1639:The wealth of the 1521:series of emperors 1336:first among equals 1292: 1215: 1132:supreme commanders 1105:barbarian kingdoms 1087:Migrational crisis 1084: 1007:Contemporary views 838:exclusive religion 807: 672:Romulus Augustulus 660:Barbarian kingdoms 643:entered the Empire 562:, also called the 414:Catalaunian Plains 323:Frankish War (428) 281:Nervasos Mountains 266:War of Heraclianus 192:Revolt of Alaric I 91: 13658:Societal collapse 13630: 13629: 13586:Jewish–Roman wars 13458:Sulla's civil war 13452:Bellum Octavianum 13340:Illyro-Roman Wars 13313:Roman–Gallic wars 13291:Roman–Sabine wars 13209: 13208: 13135:COVID-19 pandemic 13080:French Revolution 13055:Habsburg monarchy 13035:Cossack Hetmanate 13015:Portuguese Empire 13005:Absolute monarchy 13000:Thirty Years' War 12895:Holy Roman Empire 12820:Bulgarian Empire 12779:Early Middle Ages 12696:Bronze Age Europe 12670:History of Europe 12636: 12635: 11808:Gothic and Vandal 11600:Germanic Iron Age 11575:Nordic Bronze Age 11557:Northern European 11510: 11509: 11472:Pontifices maximi 11254: 11253: 11111:Diogenes Laërtius 10933:Pliny the Younger 10688:Asconius Pedianus 10648:Romance languages 10520:Civil engineering 10262:Imperial currency 10135:Political control 10096: 10095: 9730: 9729: 9524:Library resources 9484:978-0-19-280728-1 9443:Antiquité tardive 9430:978-0-19-967929-4 9321:978-0-9799713-2-7 9298:Martindale, J.R. 9279:MacMullen, Ramsay 9262:978-83-61324-93-5 9244:978-90-04-19237-9 9237:. Leiden: Brill. 9223:978-0-67466-013-7 9152:978-0-58277-296-0 9098:978-1-138-10298-9 9069:978-0-330-49136-5 9051:978-0-521-19861-5 9035:978-0-691-19206-2 8946:978-0-7538-2692-8 8930:978-0-500-05124-5 8885:978-0-520-24104-6 8851:978-1-85367-303-0 8841:Connolly, Peter. 8814:978-0-19-974727-6 8792:978-0-674-51194-1 8748:Review in English 8744:978-3-17-023276-1 8736:Kohlhammer Verlag 8715:978-0-253-31288-4 8705:Burns, Thomas S. 8670:978-0-691-16177-8 8579:978-0-870-13585-9 8533:Ward-Perkins 2005 8442:Ward-Perkins 2005 7970:, pp. 58–62. 7968:Ward-Perkins 2005 7958:, pp. 54–62. 7956:Ward-Perkins 2005 7877:, ed. and trans. 7780:Who was Vegetius? 7449:Paulinus Pellaeus 6838:Ward-Perkins 2005 6456:978-1-58836-382-4 6107:, pp. 263ff. 5997:, pp. 94–95. 5734:Ward-Perkins 2005 5475:, pp. 68–73. 5461:Ward-Perkins 2005 5364:, pp. 66–67. 5144:, pp. 52–53. 5130:The World of Rome 5014:978-1-4771-6460-0 4978:, pp. 63–64. 4950:978-0-19-026295-2 4722:, pp. 53–73. 4484:, pp. 84–85. 4188:978-0-14-311700-1 4162:978-1-84668-429-6 4145:Ward-Perkins 2005 3547:Battle of Arelate 3500:barbarian kingdom 3449:Petronius Maximus 3430:, and, possibly, 3199:Battle of Ravenna 3147:Diocese of Africa 3145:(governor in the 2972:Paulinus Pellaeus 2573:War of Radagaisus 2440:Diocese of Africa 2259:395–406: Stilicho 2205:(r. 393–423) and 1899:barbarian attacks 1847:Battle of Samarra 1765:Magnus Magnentius 1538:Bar Kokhba revolt 1383:Constantine’s law 1363:Sabine MacCormack 1242:Plague of Cyprian 1017:Alexander Demandt 943:Underlying causes 907:Arnold J. Toynbee 714:Since 1776, when 555: 554: 234:War of Radagaisus 16:(Redirected from 13665: 13552:Marcomannic Wars 13463:Mithridatic Wars 13387:Celtiberian Wars 13276:Roman–Latin wars 13236: 13229: 13222: 13213: 13212: 13070:Great Divergence 12985:Age of Discovery 12930:Late Middle Ages 12900:High Middle Ages 12811:Byzantine Empire 12794:Christianization 12784:Migration Period 12719:Classical Greece 12691:Neolithic Europe 12663: 12656: 12649: 12640: 12639: 12626: 12625: 12582:Christianization 12172:Ripuarian Franks 11544:Germanic peoples 11537: 11530: 11523: 11514: 11513: 11462:Magistri equitum 11377:Cities and towns 11370: 11296:Constantinopolis 11106:Diodorus Siculus 11038:Valerius Maximus 10973:Seneca the Elder 10893:Nonius Marcellus 10661: 10660: 10214:Hippika gymnasia 10177:Infantry tactics 10083:Consular tribune 10073:Magister equitum 10022:Military tribune 9987: 9986: 9947:Pontifex maximus 9942:Princeps senatus 9932:Magister militum 9698:Byzantine Empire 9619: 9618: 9580: 9573: 9566: 9557: 9556: 9512: 9510: 9509: 9488: 9469: 9467: 9466: 9433: 9416: 9382:Randsborg, Klavs 9378: 9354: 9341: 9328:Matthews, John. 9324: 9311:Matthews, John. 9307: 9294: 9274: 9265: 9264:. Oświęcim 2012. 9248: 9227: 9205: 9174: 9156: 9134: 9110: 9073: 9054: 9038: 9021: 9012: 8983: 8933: 8917: 8908: 8893: 8888: 8875: 8854: 8837: 8818: 8796: 8718: 8701: 8674: 8651: 8642: 8630: 8613: 8594: 8583: 8566:Burns, Thomas S. 8548: 8542: 8536: 8530: 8524: 8523: 8497: 8491: 8485: 8476: 8470: 8464: 8451: 8445: 8439: 8433: 8427: 8421: 8415: 8409: 8403: 8397: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8386: 8385: 8368: 8362: 8361: 8359: 8358: 8343: 8337: 8331: 8320: 8314: 8308: 8302: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8278: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8254: 8248: 8242: 8236: 8230: 8224: 8218: 8212: 8206: 8200: 8194: 8188: 8182: 8176: 8170: 8161: 8155: 8149: 8143: 8137: 8131: 8125: 8119: 8113: 8105: 8098: 8092: 8077: 8071: 8063: 8057: 8051: 8045: 8039: 8033: 8027: 8021: 8015: 8009: 8003: 7995: 7989: 7983: 7977: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7872: 7863: 7843: 7837: 7824: 7818: 7815: 7809: 7799: 7793: 7776: 7770: 7764: 7758: 7752: 7746: 7740: 7734: 7728: 7722: 7716: 7710: 7704: 7698: 7692: 7686: 7680: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7626: 7620: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7596: 7590: 7584: 7575: 7569: 7563: 7557: 7551: 7545: 7539: 7533: 7527: 7521: 7515: 7509: 7503: 7497: 7491: 7485: 7479: 7473: 7467: 7461: 7455: 7445: 7436: 7430: 7421: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7396: 7390: 7384: 7378: 7372: 7366: 7360: 7354: 7348: 7342: 7336: 7330: 7321: 7315: 7309: 7303: 7297: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7246: 7233: 7227: 7221: 7215: 7209: 7203: 7197: 7191: 7185: 7179: 7173: 7167: 7161: 7155: 7149: 7143: 7137: 7131: 7125: 7116: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7092: 7086: 7080: 7074: 7068: 7062: 7056: 7050: 7044: 7038: 7032: 7026: 7020: 7014: 7005: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6981: 6975: 6966: 6949: 6943: 6940: 6934: 6928: 6919: 6913: 6904: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6880: 6874: 6865: 6859: 6853: 6847: 6841: 6835: 6829: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6799: 6793: 6787: 6781: 6775: 6766: 6760: 6754: 6748: 6742: 6736: 6730: 6724: 6718: 6712: 6703: 6697: 6691: 6685: 6679: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6631: 6625: 6619: 6613: 6604: 6598: 6589: 6583: 6574: 6568: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6510: 6504: 6498: 6492: 6491: 6483: 6477: 6474: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6463: 6444: 6434: 6428: 6422: 6416: 6410: 6404: 6398: 6392: 6386: 6380: 6377:Hebblewhite 2020 6374: 6365: 6359: 6353: 6347: 6338: 6337:, pp. 1482, 1484 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6290: 6284: 6278: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6251: 6245: 6239: 6233: 6227: 6221: 6215: 6209: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6175: 6153: 6147: 6141: 6135: 6129: 6120: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6096: 6090: 6081: 6075: 6069: 6063: 6057: 6051: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6007: 5998: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5982: 5976: 5970:. Archived from 5945: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5921: 5915: 5914: 5906: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5851: 5842: 5836: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5812: 5806: 5800: 5794: 5788: 5782: 5776: 5770: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5746: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5713: 5694: 5688: 5682: 5676: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5611: 5605: 5599: 5593: 5592: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5528: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5515: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5473:Goldsworthy 2003 5470: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5293: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5251: 5245: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5182: 5181: 5175: 5174: 5155:Victor, Aurelius 5151: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5051: 5045: 5039: 5026: 5025: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4979: 4973: 4967: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4928: 4922: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4881: 4875: 4869: 4863: 4862: 4852: 4842: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4786: 4777: 4776: 4766: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4699: 4697: 4696: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4626: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4573: 4567: 4566: 4554: 4548: 4542: 4533: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4459: 4453: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4397: 4386: 4385: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4332: 4323: 4313: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4276: 4270: 4264: 4258: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4215: 4209: 4203:Bulletin of the 4199: 4193: 4192: 4171: 4165: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4107: 4106: 4091: 4078: 4066: 4036: 3979: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3923:Byzantine Empire 3921:and, later, the 3904:Kingdom of Italy 3741:magister militum 3735:, and appointed 3580:in Dalmatia and 3405:Germanic peoples 3350:Theodosian Walls 3298: 3224: 3195:magister militum 3139:magister militum 3123:magister militum 3078:Ripuarian Franks 3039: 3036: 3032: 2851: 2699:the port of Rome 2692:Battle of Cannae 2515:Pannonia Secunda 2436:magister militum 2420:consular diptych 2396:magister militum 2380:magister militum 2269:magister militum 2212:magister militum 2128:diocese of Dacia 1941:Pontifex Maximus 1933:Altar of Victory 1930: 1928: 1919: 1917: 1896: 1894: 1885: 1883: 1870:Peace of Nisibis 1819: 1817: 1777:bloody civil war 1687:gross corruption 1641:Christian Church 1581:Infant mortality 1480:Roman literature 1250:Palmyrene Empire 1218:Financial crisis 1184:unfree workers ( 1115:Political crisis 1002: 986: 958:anti-Catholicism 889:soldier emperors 830:pandemic disease 804:Migration Period 787:material culture 776:Muslim conquests 604:Climatic changes 129: 127: 117: 110: 103: 94: 93: 87: 77: 71: 65: 47:The Fall of Rome 21: 13673: 13672: 13668: 13667: 13666: 13664: 13663: 13662: 13633: 13632: 13631: 13626: 13615: 13581:Civil war of 69 13569:Boudican revolt 13538: 13531: 13407:Cantabrian Wars 13345:Macedonian Wars 13252: 13245: 13240: 13210: 13205: 13144: 13110:Interwar period 13085:Napoleonic Wars 12949: 12920:Mongol invasion 12873:Crown of Aragon 12765: 12705: 12701:Iron Age Europe 12672: 12667: 12637: 12632: 12614: 12576: 11857: 11819: 11781:Gothic alphabet 11673:Norse mythology 11609: 11563: 11546: 11541: 11511: 11506: 11368: 11366: 11360: 11250: 11086:Aëtius of Amida 11067: 11053:Verrius Flaccus 11033:Valerius Antias 10993:Silius Italicus 10928:Pliny the Elder 10873:Marcus Aurelius 10748:Cornelius Nepos 10698:Aurelius Victor 10652: 10574: 10486: 10420:Secessio plebis 10391: 10266: 10218: 10092: 10046: 9976: 9858: 9810: 9726: 9647: 9608: 9590: 9584: 9554: 9553: 9552: 9532: 9531: 9527: 9520: 9515: 9507: 9505: 9485: 9464: 9462: 9358:Nicasie, M. J. 9245: 9224: 9194:10.2307/2504190 9161:Jones, A. H. M. 9153: 9099: 9070: 9001:10.2307/2504258 8872: 8834: 8815: 8793: 8776:Wayback Machine 8760:Börm, Henning: 8755:Wayback Machine 8731:Wayback Machine 8721:Börm, Henning. 8698: 8671: 8610: 8580: 8556: 8551: 8543: 8539: 8531: 8527: 8512: 8498: 8494: 8486: 8479: 8471: 8467: 8452: 8448: 8440: 8436: 8428: 8424: 8416: 8412: 8404: 8400: 8395: 8391: 8383: 8381: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8356: 8354: 8345: 8344: 8340: 8332: 8323: 8315: 8311: 8303: 8299: 8291: 8287: 8279: 8275: 8267: 8263: 8255: 8251: 8243: 8239: 8233:Martindale 1980 8231: 8227: 8219: 8215: 8207: 8203: 8195: 8191: 8183: 8179: 8171: 8164: 8156: 8152: 8144: 8140: 8132: 8128: 8120: 8116: 8108: 8099: 8095: 8089:Wayback Machine 8078: 8074: 8066: 8058: 8054: 8046: 8042: 8034: 8030: 8022: 8018: 8010: 8006: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7978: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7942: 7938: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7896:Wayback Machine 7873: 7866: 7861:Wayback Machine 7844: 7840: 7835:Wayback Machine 7825: 7821: 7816: 7812: 7800: 7796: 7791:Wayback Machine 7778:Rosenbaum, S; " 7777: 7773: 7765: 7761: 7753: 7749: 7741: 7737: 7729: 7725: 7717: 7713: 7705: 7701: 7693: 7689: 7681: 7677: 7669: 7665: 7657: 7653: 7645: 7641: 7633: 7629: 7621: 7617: 7609: 7605: 7597: 7593: 7585: 7578: 7570: 7566: 7558: 7554: 7546: 7542: 7534: 7530: 7522: 7518: 7510: 7506: 7498: 7494: 7486: 7482: 7474: 7470: 7462: 7458: 7446: 7439: 7431: 7424: 7418: 7414: 7406: 7399: 7391: 7387: 7379: 7375: 7367: 7363: 7355: 7351: 7343: 7339: 7331: 7324: 7316: 7312: 7304: 7300: 7292: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7268: 7264: 7256: 7249: 7244:Wayback Machine 7234: 7230: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7198: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7174: 7170: 7162: 7158: 7150: 7146: 7138: 7134: 7126: 7119: 7111: 7107: 7099: 7095: 7087: 7083: 7075: 7071: 7063: 7059: 7051: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7027: 7023: 7015: 7008: 7000: 6996: 6988: 6984: 6976: 6969: 6964:Wayback Machine 6950: 6946: 6941: 6937: 6929: 6922: 6914: 6907: 6899: 6895: 6887: 6883: 6875: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6848: 6844: 6836: 6832: 6824: 6820: 6812: 6808: 6800: 6796: 6788: 6784: 6776: 6769: 6761: 6757: 6749: 6745: 6737: 6733: 6727:Kulikowski 2019 6725: 6721: 6713: 6706: 6698: 6694: 6686: 6682: 6674: 6670: 6662: 6658: 6650: 6646: 6638: 6634: 6626: 6622: 6614: 6607: 6599: 6592: 6584: 6577: 6569: 6560: 6552: 6548: 6540: 6531: 6523: 6519: 6511: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6484: 6480: 6475: 6471: 6461: 6459: 6457: 6435: 6431: 6423: 6419: 6411: 6407: 6399: 6395: 6387: 6383: 6375: 6368: 6360: 6356: 6348: 6341: 6333: 6329: 6321: 6317: 6309: 6305: 6297: 6293: 6285: 6281: 6273: 6269: 6261: 6254: 6246: 6242: 6234: 6230: 6222: 6218: 6210: 6206: 6198: 6194: 6186: 6182: 6173: 6171: 6154: 6150: 6142: 6138: 6130: 6123: 6115: 6111: 6103: 6099: 6091: 6084: 6076: 6072: 6064: 6060: 6052: 6048: 6040: 6036: 6026: 6024: 6009: 6008: 6001: 5993: 5989: 5980: 5978: 5974: 5960:10.2307/1088885 5943: 5937: 5933: 5922: 5918: 5907: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5880:Wayback Machine 5852: 5845: 5837: 5833: 5825: 5821: 5813: 5809: 5801: 5797: 5789: 5785: 5777: 5773: 5765: 5761: 5753: 5749: 5744: 5740: 5732: 5728: 5720: 5716: 5695: 5691: 5683: 5679: 5671: 5667: 5659: 5655: 5647: 5643: 5628:10.2307/1088885 5612: 5608: 5600: 5596: 5589: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5547: 5543: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5522: 5513: 5511: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5467: 5459: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5427:, p. 1027. 5423: 5416: 5412:, p. 1026. 5408: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5336: 5332: 5324: 5320: 5312: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5285: 5281: 5273: 5269: 5261: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5234: 5230: 5224:Wayback Machine 5210:Macarius Magnes 5208: 5204: 5196: 5185: 5172: 5170: 5152: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5127: 5123: 5108: 5082: 5078: 5071: 5052: 5048: 5040: 5029: 5015: 5001: 4997: 4989: 4982: 4974: 4970: 4962: 4958: 4951: 4929: 4925: 4917: 4913: 4882: 4878: 4870: 4866: 4811: 4807: 4799: 4795: 4787: 4780: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4694: 4692: 4679: 4675: 4644: 4640: 4617:(11): 911–915. 4603: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4574: 4570: 4555: 4551: 4543: 4536: 4528: 4524: 4516: 4512: 4506:Momigliano 1973 4504: 4500: 4492: 4488: 4480: 4476: 4470:Wayback Machine 4460: 4456: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4398: 4389: 4374:10.2307/3824699 4358: 4354: 4347: 4333: 4326: 4314: 4310: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4277: 4273: 4269:, pp. 2–3. 4265: 4261: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4216: 4212: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4172: 4168: 4155: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4131: 4120: 4116: 4111: 4110: 4092: 4081: 4060: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4015:Late Roman army 3975: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3941: 3935: 3809: 3698: 3674:battle of Arles 3662:battle of Déols 3603: 3530: 3481: 3393: 3383:or over 20,000 3211: 3106:Valentinian III 3090: 3049:Valentinian III 3037: 2988: 2911:and the Asding 2893:Constantine III 2874: 2858: 2852: 2840: 2775:Pope Innocent I 2744:Priscus Attalus 2732:Constantine III 2723: 2653: 2648: 2613:Constantine III 2558: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2541: 2309:Monza Cathedral 2285: 2261: 2240: 2108: 2068:bishop of Milan 1995: 1983:siege equipment 1979:defensive walls 1954: 1949: 1925: 1914: 1891: 1880: 1814: 1745:Frontier troops 1704: 1613: 1607: 1601: 1452: 1437:to that of the 1415: 1324: 1230:Sassanid Empire 1226: 1220: 1175:Sasanian Empire 1128:John the Lydian 1117: 1101:Eurasian steppe 1089: 1069:Antonine Plague 1057:economic crises 1049:disease ecology 1025: 1023:Climatic crisis 1009: 1003: 997:Edward Gibbon. 996: 987: 981:Edward Gibbon. 980: 945: 924:History of Rome 919:Theodor Mommsen 895:, or even with 849:Eurasian steppe 815:Antonine Plague 796: 770:even after the 758:had caused the 740: 734: 712: 706: 666:barbarian king 556: 551: 550: 130: 125: 123: 121: 89: 85: 83: 75: 73: 69: 67: 63: 61: 52: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13671: 13661: 13660: 13655: 13650: 13645: 13628: 13627: 13620: 13617: 13616: 13614: 13613: 13608: 13603: 13598: 13593: 13588: 13583: 13578: 13573: 13572: 13571: 13561: 13560: 13559: 13554: 13543: 13541: 13533: 13532: 13530: 13529: 13524: 13519: 13516:Bellum Siculum 13512: 13507: 13502: 13497: 13492: 13487: 13482: 13481: 13480: 13475: 13470: 13460: 13455: 13448: 13447: 13446: 13441: 13436: 13426: 13421: 13419:Jugurthine War 13416: 13411: 13410: 13409: 13404: 13399: 13394: 13392:Lusitanian War 13389: 13379: 13374: 13369: 13368: 13367: 13362: 13357: 13352: 13342: 13337: 13336: 13335: 13330: 13325: 13315: 13310: 13309: 13308: 13303: 13298: 13293: 13288: 13283: 13278: 13273: 13268: 13257: 13255: 13253:Roman Republic 13247: 13246: 13239: 13238: 13231: 13224: 13216: 13207: 13206: 13204: 13203: 13198: 13193: 13188: 13183: 13178: 13173: 13168: 13163: 13158: 13152: 13150: 13146: 13145: 13143: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13067: 13062: 13060:Russian Empire 13057: 13052: 13050:British Empire 13047: 13045:Dutch Republic 13042: 13040:Swedish Empire 13037: 13032: 13027: 13022: 13020:Spanish Empire 13017: 13012: 13010:Ottoman Empire 13007: 13002: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12982: 12981: 12980: 12970: 12965: 12959: 12957: 12951: 12950: 12948: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12925:Serbian Empire 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12870: 12865: 12860: 12859: 12858: 12853: 12848: 12843: 12833: 12832: 12831: 12826: 12818: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12798: 12797: 12796: 12786: 12781: 12775: 12773: 12767: 12766: 12764: 12763: 12761:Late antiquity 12758: 12753: 12748: 12747: 12746: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12724:Roman Republic 12721: 12715: 12713: 12707: 12706: 12704: 12703: 12698: 12693: 12688: 12682: 12680: 12674: 12673: 12666: 12665: 12658: 12651: 12643: 12634: 12633: 12631: 12630: 12619: 12616: 12615: 12613: 12612: 12607: 12602: 12597: 12592: 12586: 12584: 12578: 12577: 12575: 12574: 12569: 12564: 12559: 12554: 12549: 12544: 12543: 12542: 12537: 12527: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12487: 12482: 12477: 12472: 12467: 12462: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12402: 12397: 12392: 12387: 12382: 12377: 12372: 12367: 12362: 12357: 12352: 12351: 12350: 12345: 12340: 12335: 12330: 12320: 12319: 12318: 12308: 12303: 12298: 12293: 12288: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12268: 12263: 12258: 12253: 12248: 12247: 12246: 12241: 12239:Thracian Goths 12236: 12231: 12226: 12221: 12216: 12206: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12180: 12179: 12174: 12164: 12159: 12154: 12149: 12144: 12139: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12114: 12109: 12104: 12099: 12094: 12089: 12084: 12079: 12074: 12069: 12064: 12059: 12054: 12049: 12044: 12039: 12034: 12029: 12024: 12019: 12018: 12017: 12012: 12007: 12006: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11985: 11980: 11965: 11960: 11955: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11920: 11915: 11910: 11905: 11900: 11895: 11894: 11893: 11888: 11883: 11878: 11867: 11865: 11859: 11858: 11856: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11829: 11827: 11821: 11820: 11818: 11817: 11816: 11815: 11810: 11805: 11795: 11790: 11789: 11788: 11783: 11773: 11768: 11767: 11766: 11761: 11756: 11746: 11741: 11740: 11739: 11729: 11728: 11727: 11722: 11712: 11711: 11710: 11705: 11695: 11694: 11693: 11688: 11678: 11677: 11676: 11670: 11665: 11660: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11635: 11630: 11625: 11619: 11617: 11611: 11610: 11608: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11590:Roman Iron Age 11587: 11582: 11577: 11571: 11569: 11565: 11564: 11551: 11548: 11547: 11540: 11539: 11532: 11525: 11517: 11508: 11507: 11505: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11474: 11469: 11464: 11459: 11454: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11434: 11429: 11424: 11419: 11414: 11409: 11404: 11399: 11394: 11389: 11384: 11379: 11373: 11371: 11362: 11361: 11359: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11308: 11303: 11298: 11293: 11288: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11268: 11262: 11260: 11256: 11255: 11252: 11251: 11249: 11248: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11183: 11178: 11173: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11153: 11148: 11143: 11138: 11133: 11128: 11123: 11118: 11113: 11108: 11103: 11098: 11093: 11088: 11083: 11077: 11075: 11069: 11068: 11066: 11065: 11060: 11055: 11050: 11045: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11020: 11015: 11010: 11005: 11000: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10955: 10950: 10945: 10940: 10938:Pomponius Mela 10935: 10930: 10925: 10920: 10915: 10910: 10905: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10870: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10825: 10820: 10815: 10810: 10805: 10800: 10795: 10790: 10785: 10780: 10775: 10770: 10765: 10760: 10755: 10750: 10745: 10740: 10735: 10730: 10725: 10720: 10715: 10710: 10705: 10700: 10695: 10690: 10685: 10680: 10675: 10673:Aelius Donatus 10669: 10667: 10658: 10654: 10653: 10651: 10650: 10645: 10644: 10643: 10641:Ecclesiastical 10638: 10633: 10628: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10608: 10603: 10595: 10590: 10584: 10582: 10576: 10575: 10573: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10522: 10517: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10496: 10494: 10488: 10487: 10485: 10484: 10479: 10474: 10469: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10444: 10443: 10442: 10432: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10407: 10401: 10399: 10393: 10392: 10390: 10389: 10384: 10382:Toys and games 10379: 10374: 10369: 10364: 10359: 10354: 10353: 10352: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10276: 10274: 10268: 10267: 10265: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10228: 10226: 10220: 10219: 10217: 10216: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10164: 10159: 10158: 10157: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10106: 10104: 10098: 10097: 10094: 10093: 10091: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10054: 10052: 10048: 10047: 10045: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9993: 9991: 9984: 9978: 9977: 9975: 9974: 9969: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9944: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9922:Vigintisexviri 9919: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9884: 9882:Cursus honorum 9879: 9874: 9868: 9866: 9860: 9859: 9857: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9826: 9820: 9818: 9812: 9811: 9809: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9797: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9781: 9771: 9766: 9761: 9756: 9751: 9746: 9740: 9738: 9732: 9731: 9728: 9727: 9725: 9724: 9723: 9722: 9712: 9711: 9710: 9705: 9695: 9694: 9693: 9688: 9681:Western Empire 9678: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9657: 9655: 9649: 9648: 9646: 9645: 9640: 9639: 9638: 9628: 9622: 9616: 9610: 9609: 9607: 9606: 9601: 9595: 9592: 9591: 9583: 9582: 9575: 9568: 9560: 9551: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9534: 9533: 9522: 9521: 9519: 9518:External links 9516: 9514: 9513: 9492:Woods, David. 9489: 9483: 9470: 9434: 9417: 9396: 9379: 9355: 9342: 9325: 9308: 9295: 9275: 9266: 9249: 9243: 9228: 9222: 9206: 9175: 9157: 9151: 9135: 9118: 9111: 9097: 9074: 9068: 9055: 9042:Harper, Kyle. 9039: 9025:Harper, Kyle. 9022: 9016:Halsall, Guy. 9013: 8984: 8966:(2): 219–242. 8949: 8934: 8918: 8909: 8907:on 2017-08-30. 8894: 8889: 8876: 8870: 8855: 8838: 8833:978-0415579612 8832: 8819: 8813: 8797: 8791: 8778: 8758: 8719: 8702: 8697:978-0674733695 8696: 8675: 8669: 8652: 8643: 8631: 8614: 8609:978-1118255315 8608: 8595: 8584: 8578: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8549: 8545:Bowersock 2001 8537: 8525: 8510: 8492: 8490:, p. 287. 8477: 8465: 8446: 8444:, p. 118. 8434: 8422: 8420:, p. 246. 8410: 8398: 8396:Gibbon, p. 406 8389: 8363: 8338: 8336:, p. 279. 8321: 8319:, p. 278. 8309: 8307:, p. 277. 8297: 8285: 8283:, p. 273. 8273: 8271:, p. 391. 8261: 8259:, p. 241. 8249: 8237: 8225: 8213: 8211:, p. 261. 8201: 8189: 8187:, p. 260. 8177: 8175:, p. 381. 8162: 8160:, p. 379. 8150: 8138: 8136:, p. 256. 8126: 8114: 8106: 8093: 8072: 8064: 8062:, p. 332. 8052: 8050:, p. 330. 8040: 8028: 8016: 8014:, p. 298. 8004: 7996: 7984: 7972: 7960: 7948: 7936: 7924: 7912: 7910:, p. 247. 7900: 7864: 7838: 7819: 7810: 7794: 7771: 7759: 7747: 7745:, p. 288. 7735: 7733:, p. 244. 7723: 7721:, p. 290. 7711: 7709:, p. 240. 7699: 7697:, p. 285. 7687: 7685:, p. 283. 7675: 7673:, p. 260. 7663: 7661:, p. 261. 7651: 7639: 7637:, p. 204. 7627: 7625:, p. 246. 7615: 7603: 7601:, p. 234. 7591: 7589:, p. 257. 7576: 7574:, p. 378. 7564: 7562:, p. 197. 7552: 7540: 7538:, p. 242. 7528: 7526:, p. 241. 7516: 7514:, p. 260. 7504: 7492: 7480: 7478:, p. 259. 7468: 7456: 7447:Eucharisticus 7437: 7435:, p. 257. 7422: 7412: 7410:, p. 251. 7397: 7385: 7383:, p. 244. 7373: 7371:, p. 128. 7361: 7349: 7337: 7335:, p. 198. 7322: 7320:, p. 245. 7310: 7308:, p. 238. 7298: 7286: 7274: 7262: 7260:, p. 239. 7247: 7228: 7216: 7214:, p. 243. 7204: 7202:, p. 242. 7192: 7190:, p. 240. 7180: 7168: 7166:, p. 239. 7156: 7154:, p. 226. 7144: 7142:, p. 227. 7132: 7130:, p. 234. 7117: 7105: 7103:, p. 189. 7093: 7081: 7079:, p. 216. 7069: 7067:, p. 236. 7057: 7055:, p. 228. 7045: 7033: 7031:, p. 219. 7021: 7019:, p. 227. 7006: 7004:, p. 218. 6994: 6992:, p. 216. 6982: 6980:, p. 215. 6967: 6944: 6935: 6933:, p. 198. 6920: 6918:, p. 195. 6905: 6903:, p. 193. 6893: 6891:, p. 190. 6881: 6879:, p. 191. 6866: 6864:, p. 192. 6854: 6852:, p. 173. 6842: 6830: 6828:, p. 175. 6818: 6816:, p. 169. 6806: 6804:, p. 187. 6794: 6792:, p. 186. 6782: 6780:, p. 183. 6767: 6765:, p. 189. 6763:MacMullen 1988 6755: 6743: 6741:, p. 154. 6731: 6729:, p. 126. 6719: 6704: 6700:MacMullen 1988 6692: 6690:, p. 153. 6680: 6676:MacMullen 1988 6668: 6666:, p. 172. 6664:Macgeorge 2002 6656: 6652:Macgeorge 2002 6644: 6632: 6628:MacMullen 1988 6620: 6618:, p. 187. 6605: 6590: 6588:, p. 171. 6586:Macgeorge 2002 6575: 6573:, p. 173. 6558: 6546: 6544:, p. 159. 6529: 6527:, p. 178. 6525:MacMullen 1988 6517: 6515:, p. 159. 6505: 6503:, p. 164. 6493: 6478: 6469: 6455: 6429: 6417: 6415:, p. 260. 6405: 6393: 6381: 6366: 6354: 6350:Errington 2006 6339: 6327: 6315: 6313:, p. 147. 6303: 6291: 6289:, p. 135. 6279: 6267: 6265:, p. 162. 6252: 6240: 6228: 6226:, p. 185. 6216: 6214:, p. 157. 6204: 6192: 6190:, p. 188. 6180: 6148: 6136: 6134:, p. 183. 6121: 6119:, p. 256. 6109: 6097: 6095:, p. 185. 6093:MacMullen 1988 6082: 6070: 6058: 6056:, p. 147. 6046: 6044:, p. 283. 6034: 5999: 5987: 5954:(4): 331–356. 5931: 5916: 5896: 5884: 5863:978-3884672709 5843: 5831: 5829:, p. 176. 5827:MacMullen 1988 5819: 5815:MacMullen 1988 5807: 5805:, p. 161. 5803:MacMullen 1988 5795: 5791:MacMullen 1988 5783: 5779:MacMullen 1988 5771: 5769:, p. 261. 5759: 5755:MacMullen 1988 5747: 5738: 5726: 5724:, p. 187. 5714: 5689: 5687:, p. 175. 5685:MacMullen 1988 5677: 5675:, p. 186. 5665: 5653: 5641: 5622:(4): 331–356. 5606: 5602:MacMullen 1988 5594: 5588:978-0521302005 5587: 5566: 5560:978-0525428770 5559: 5541: 5529: 5520: 5498:Gibbon, Edward 5489: 5487:, p. 110. 5485:MacMullen 1988 5477: 5465: 5453: 5441: 5429: 5414: 5402: 5400:, p. 119. 5390: 5388:, p. 284. 5378: 5366: 5354: 5352:, p. 324. 5342: 5340:, p. 278. 5330: 5318: 5316:, p. 170. 5314:MacMullen 1988 5306: 5304:, p. 253. 5294: 5279: 5267: 5263:MacMullen 1988 5252: 5240: 5236:MacMullen 1988 5228: 5202: 5200:, p. 131. 5183: 5146: 5134: 5121: 5107:978-9047420903 5106: 5076: 5070:978-0199978618 5069: 5055:Heather, Peter 5046: 5044:, p. 123. 5027: 5013: 4995: 4980: 4968: 4956: 4949: 4923: 4911: 4876: 4864: 4805: 4793: 4778: 4757:(2): 169–220. 4736: 4724: 4712: 4709:. p. 695. 4673: 4654:(2): 240–299. 4638: 4597: 4585: 4568: 4549: 4534: 4522: 4510: 4498: 4494:Bowersock 1996 4486: 4474: 4454: 4442: 4436:978-0190277536 4435: 4417: 4411:978-1118293478 4410: 4387: 4352: 4346:978-0199570928 4345: 4324: 4321:10.2307/294605 4308: 4306:, p. 256. 4296: 4290:978-9004192379 4289: 4271: 4259: 4256:10.2307/294605 4250:(2), 229–242. 4235: 4229:978-0300029840 4228: 4210: 4194: 4187: 4175:Diamond, Jared 4166: 4149: 4137: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4079: 4077: 4076: 4058:Sofie Remijsen 4050: 4047: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4023: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3992: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3964: 3961: 3937:Main article: 3934: 3931: 3808: 3805: 3697: 3694: 3602: 3599: 3595:Libius Severus 3529: 3526: 3480: 3477: 3392: 3389: 3334:Vandal Kingdom 3308:foreign policy 3221:Nibelungenlied 3210: 3207: 3143:Count Boniface 3110:Galla Placidia 3089: 3086: 2987: 2984: 2873: 2870: 2857: 2854: 2838: 2759:In 410 Alaric 2740:Galla Placidia 2722: 2719: 2652: 2649: 2647: 2644: 2581:Flavius Aetius 2571:, started the 2532:, daughter of 2509:and only over 2343:incursions in 2284: 2281: 2260: 2257: 2239: 2236: 2136:Valentinian II 2112:Magnus Maximus 2107: 2104: 2083:Constantius II 2051:northern Italy 2023:Roman Republic 1994: 1991: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1929: 375–392 1922:Valentinian II 1918: 375–383 1895: 364–375 1884: 364–378 1818: 360–363 1716:fortifications 1703: 1700: 1600: 1597: 1555:. Despite its 1504:cursus honorum 1488:trade networks 1464:Atlantic Ocean 1451: 1448: 1431:Constantinople 1418:A. H. M. Jones 1414: 1411: 1361:. However, as 1323: 1320: 1312:capital crimes 1296:Constantius II 1222:Main article: 1219: 1216: 1140:) and junior ( 1116: 1113: 1088: 1085: 1061:food shortages 1029:climate change 1024: 1021: 1008: 1005: 994: 978: 944: 941: 887:, or with the 868: 867: 852: 845: 826:climate change 818: 795: 792: 783:Late Antiquity 738:Late antiquity 736:Main article: 733: 730: 726:Glen Bowersock 708:Main article: 705: 702: 698:late antiquity 633:and other non- 620:historiography 553: 552: 549: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 487: 486: 481: 479:Toulouse (458) 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 385: 384: 382:Toulouse (439) 379: 374: 364: 359: 354: 353: 352: 342: 341: 340: 335: 325: 320: 315: 310: 309: 308: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 247: 246: 241: 231: 230: 229: 224: 219: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 178: 177: 172: 170:Constantinople 167: 165:2nd Adrianople 162: 160:1st Adrianople 157: 152: 147: 136: 135: 132: 131: 120: 119: 112: 105: 97: 84: 78: Eastern/ 74: 68: 66: Republic 62: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13670: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13640: 13638: 13625: 13624: 13618: 13612: 13609: 13607: 13604: 13602: 13599: 13597: 13594: 13592: 13589: 13587: 13584: 13582: 13579: 13577: 13574: 13570: 13567: 13566: 13565: 13562: 13558: 13555: 13553: 13550: 13549: 13548: 13547:Germanic wars 13545: 13544: 13542: 13540: 13534: 13528: 13527:War of Actium 13525: 13523: 13520: 13518: 13517: 13513: 13511: 13508: 13506: 13505:War of Mutina 13503: 13501: 13498: 13496: 13493: 13491: 13488: 13486: 13483: 13479: 13476: 13474: 13471: 13469: 13466: 13465: 13464: 13461: 13459: 13456: 13454: 13453: 13449: 13445: 13442: 13440: 13437: 13435: 13432: 13431: 13430: 13427: 13425: 13422: 13420: 13417: 13415: 13412: 13408: 13405: 13403: 13402:Sertorian War 13400: 13398: 13397:Numantine War 13395: 13393: 13390: 13388: 13385: 13384: 13383: 13380: 13378: 13375: 13373: 13370: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13356: 13353: 13351: 13348: 13347: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13334: 13331: 13329: 13326: 13324: 13321: 13320: 13319: 13316: 13314: 13311: 13307: 13304: 13302: 13299: 13297: 13294: 13292: 13289: 13287: 13284: 13282: 13279: 13277: 13274: 13272: 13269: 13267: 13264: 13263: 13262: 13259: 13258: 13256: 13254: 13248: 13244: 13237: 13232: 13230: 13225: 13223: 13218: 13217: 13214: 13202: 13199: 13197: 13194: 13192: 13189: 13187: 13184: 13182: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13172: 13169: 13167: 13164: 13162: 13159: 13157: 13156:Art of Europe 13154: 13153: 13151: 13147: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13101: 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13073: 13071: 13068: 13066: 13063: 13061: 13058: 13056: 13053: 13051: 13048: 13046: 13043: 13041: 13038: 13036: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13026: 13023: 13021: 13018: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12986: 12983: 12979: 12976: 12975: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12960: 12958: 12956: 12955:Modern period 12952: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12890: 12886: 12882: 12878: 12874: 12871: 12869: 12866: 12864: 12861: 12857: 12854: 12852: 12849: 12847: 12844: 12842: 12839: 12838: 12837: 12834: 12830: 12827: 12825: 12822: 12821: 12819: 12817: 12814: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12802: 12799: 12795: 12792: 12791: 12790: 12787: 12785: 12782: 12780: 12777: 12776: 12774: 12772: 12768: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12745: 12742: 12741: 12740: 12737: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12716: 12714: 12712: 12708: 12702: 12699: 12697: 12694: 12692: 12689: 12687: 12684: 12683: 12681: 12679: 12675: 12671: 12664: 12659: 12657: 12652: 12650: 12645: 12644: 12641: 12629: 12621: 12620: 12617: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12603: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12593: 12591: 12588: 12587: 12585: 12583: 12579: 12573: 12570: 12568: 12565: 12563: 12560: 12558: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12548: 12545: 12541: 12538: 12536: 12533: 12532: 12531: 12528: 12526: 12523: 12521: 12518: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12486: 12483: 12481: 12478: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12461: 12458: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12406: 12403: 12401: 12398: 12396: 12393: 12391: 12388: 12386: 12383: 12381: 12378: 12376: 12373: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12363: 12361: 12358: 12356: 12353: 12349: 12346: 12344: 12341: 12339: 12336: 12334: 12331: 12329: 12326: 12325: 12324: 12321: 12317: 12314: 12313: 12312: 12309: 12307: 12304: 12302: 12299: 12297: 12294: 12292: 12289: 12287: 12284: 12282: 12279: 12277: 12274: 12272: 12269: 12267: 12264: 12262: 12259: 12257: 12254: 12252: 12249: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12214:Crimean Goths 12212: 12211: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12178: 12177:Salian Franks 12175: 12173: 12170: 12169: 12168: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12143: 12140: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12120: 12118: 12115: 12113: 12110: 12108: 12105: 12103: 12100: 12098: 12095: 12093: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12055: 12053: 12050: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12038: 12035: 12033: 12030: 12028: 12025: 12023: 12020: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11976: 11975: 11974: 11971: 11970: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11919: 11916: 11914: 11911: 11909: 11906: 11904: 11901: 11899: 11896: 11892: 11889: 11887: 11884: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11873: 11872: 11869: 11868: 11866: 11864: 11860: 11854: 11851: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11830: 11828: 11826: 11822: 11814: 11811: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11800: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11779: 11778: 11777: 11774: 11772: 11769: 11765: 11762: 11760: 11757: 11755: 11752: 11751: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11738: 11735: 11734: 11733: 11730: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11717: 11716: 11713: 11709: 11706: 11704: 11701: 11700: 11699: 11696: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11683: 11682: 11679: 11674: 11671: 11669: 11666: 11664: 11661: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11639: 11636: 11634: 11631: 11629: 11626: 11624: 11621: 11620: 11618: 11616: 11615:Early culture 11612: 11606: 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11572: 11570: 11566: 11562: 11558: 11554: 11549: 11545: 11538: 11533: 11531: 11526: 11524: 11519: 11518: 11515: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11445: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11425: 11423: 11420: 11418: 11415: 11413: 11410: 11408: 11405: 11403: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11375: 11374: 11372: 11363: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11264: 11263: 11261: 11257: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11164: 11162: 11159: 11157: 11154: 11152: 11149: 11147: 11144: 11142: 11139: 11137: 11134: 11132: 11129: 11127: 11124: 11122: 11119: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11109: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11099: 11097: 11094: 11092: 11089: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11078: 11076: 11074: 11070: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11004: 11001: 10999: 10996: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10914: 10911: 10909: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10869: 10866: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10828:Julius Paulus 10826: 10824: 10821: 10819: 10816: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10806: 10804: 10801: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10791: 10789: 10786: 10784: 10781: 10779: 10776: 10774: 10771: 10769: 10766: 10764: 10763:Fabius Pictor 10761: 10759: 10756: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10714: 10711: 10709: 10706: 10704: 10701: 10699: 10696: 10694: 10691: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10674: 10671: 10670: 10668: 10666: 10662: 10659: 10655: 10649: 10646: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10598: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10585: 10583: 10581: 10577: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10500:Amphitheatres 10498: 10497: 10495: 10493: 10489: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10448: 10445: 10441: 10438: 10437: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10402: 10400: 10398: 10394: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10351: 10348: 10347: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10277: 10275: 10273: 10269: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10237:Deforestation 10235: 10233: 10230: 10229: 10227: 10225: 10221: 10215: 10212: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10187:Siege engines 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10169: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10156: 10153: 10152: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10120:Establishment 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10107: 10105: 10103: 10099: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10055: 10053: 10051:Extraordinary 10049: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10037:Promagistrate 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9994: 9992: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9979: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9940: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9869: 9867: 9865: 9861: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9824:Twelve Tables 9822: 9821: 9819: 9817: 9813: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9795: 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9776: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9762: 9760: 9757: 9755: 9752: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9741: 9739: 9737: 9733: 9721: 9718: 9717: 9716: 9713: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9699: 9696: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9683: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9658: 9656: 9654: 9650: 9644: 9641: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9620: 9617: 9615: 9611: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9596: 9593: 9588: 9581: 9576: 9574: 9569: 9567: 9562: 9561: 9558: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9490: 9486: 9480: 9476: 9471: 9460: 9456: 9452: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9423: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9406: 9402: 9397: 9395: 9391: 9387: 9383: 9380: 9376: 9375:90-5063-448-6 9372: 9368: 9367: 9363: 9356: 9353:(1973), 5–21. 9352: 9348: 9343: 9339: 9338:0-19-814817-8 9335: 9331: 9326: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9309: 9305: 9303: 9296: 9292: 9291:0-300-04799-1 9288: 9284: 9280: 9276: 9272: 9267: 9263: 9259: 9255: 9252:Letki Piotr. 9250: 9246: 9240: 9236: 9235: 9229: 9225: 9219: 9215: 9211: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9182: 9176: 9172: 9171:0-8018-3353-1 9168: 9165: 9162: 9158: 9154: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9139:James, Edward 9136: 9132: 9131:0-312-18365-8 9128: 9124: 9119: 9116: 9112: 9108: 9104: 9100: 9094: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9081: 9075: 9071: 9065: 9062:. Pan Books. 9061: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9045: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9023: 9019: 9014: 9010: 9006: 9002: 8998: 8994: 8990: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8961: 8960: 8955: 8950: 8947: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8924: 8919: 8915: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8901: 8895: 8890: 8886: 8882: 8877: 8873: 8871:0-8078-3038-0 8867: 8863: 8862: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8839: 8835: 8829: 8825: 8820: 8816: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8801:Cameron, Alan 8798: 8794: 8788: 8784: 8779: 8777: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8764: 8759: 8756: 8752: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8732: 8728: 8725: 8720: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8703: 8699: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8676: 8672: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8653: 8649: 8644: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8627:0-674-00598-8 8624: 8620: 8615: 8611: 8605: 8601: 8596: 8592: 8591: 8585: 8581: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8562:Alföldy, Géza 8559: 8558: 8546: 8541: 8534: 8529: 8521: 8517: 8513: 8507: 8503: 8496: 8489: 8484: 8482: 8474: 8469: 8463: 8462:90-04-12524-8 8459: 8455: 8450: 8443: 8438: 8431: 8426: 8419: 8414: 8407: 8402: 8393: 8379: 8375: 8374: 8367: 8352: 8348: 8342: 8335: 8330: 8328: 8326: 8318: 8313: 8306: 8301: 8294: 8289: 8282: 8277: 8270: 8265: 8258: 8253: 8246: 8241: 8234: 8229: 8222: 8217: 8210: 8205: 8198: 8193: 8186: 8181: 8174: 8169: 8167: 8159: 8154: 8147: 8142: 8135: 8130: 8123: 8118: 8111: 8103: 8100:Bury, J. B., 8097: 8090: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8076: 8069: 8061: 8056: 8049: 8044: 8037: 8032: 8025: 8020: 8013: 8008: 8001: 7993: 7988: 7981: 7976: 7969: 7964: 7957: 7952: 7945: 7940: 7933: 7928: 7921: 7916: 7909: 7904: 7897: 7893: 7890: 7886: 7885: 7880: 7876: 7871: 7869: 7862: 7858: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7842: 7836: 7832: 7829: 7823: 7814: 7808: 7804: 7798: 7792: 7788: 7785: 7781: 7775: 7768: 7763: 7756: 7751: 7744: 7739: 7732: 7727: 7720: 7715: 7708: 7703: 7696: 7691: 7684: 7679: 7672: 7667: 7660: 7655: 7648: 7643: 7636: 7631: 7624: 7619: 7612: 7607: 7600: 7595: 7588: 7583: 7581: 7573: 7572:Matthews 1975 7568: 7561: 7556: 7549: 7544: 7537: 7532: 7525: 7520: 7513: 7508: 7501: 7496: 7489: 7484: 7477: 7472: 7465: 7460: 7454: 7450: 7444: 7442: 7434: 7429: 7427: 7416: 7409: 7404: 7402: 7394: 7389: 7382: 7377: 7370: 7365: 7358: 7353: 7346: 7341: 7334: 7329: 7327: 7319: 7314: 7307: 7302: 7295: 7290: 7283: 7278: 7271: 7266: 7259: 7254: 7252: 7245: 7241: 7238: 7232: 7225: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7201: 7196: 7189: 7184: 7177: 7172: 7165: 7160: 7153: 7148: 7141: 7136: 7129: 7124: 7122: 7114: 7109: 7102: 7101:Connolly 1998 7097: 7090: 7085: 7078: 7073: 7066: 7061: 7054: 7049: 7042: 7037: 7030: 7025: 7018: 7013: 7011: 7003: 6998: 6991: 6986: 6979: 6974: 6972: 6965: 6961: 6958: 6954: 6953:Nova Historia 6948: 6939: 6932: 6927: 6925: 6917: 6912: 6910: 6902: 6897: 6890: 6885: 6878: 6873: 6871: 6863: 6858: 6851: 6846: 6840:, p. 60. 6839: 6834: 6827: 6822: 6815: 6810: 6803: 6798: 6791: 6786: 6779: 6774: 6772: 6764: 6759: 6752: 6747: 6740: 6735: 6728: 6723: 6717:, p. 54. 6716: 6711: 6709: 6701: 6696: 6689: 6684: 6677: 6672: 6665: 6660: 6653: 6648: 6642:, p. 17. 6641: 6636: 6629: 6624: 6617: 6612: 6610: 6602: 6597: 6595: 6587: 6582: 6580: 6572: 6567: 6565: 6563: 6555: 6550: 6543: 6538: 6536: 6534: 6526: 6521: 6514: 6509: 6502: 6497: 6489: 6482: 6473: 6458: 6452: 6448: 6443: 6442: 6433: 6426: 6421: 6414: 6409: 6402: 6397: 6391:, p. 74. 6390: 6385: 6378: 6373: 6371: 6364:, p. 74. 6363: 6358: 6351: 6346: 6344: 6336: 6331: 6324: 6319: 6312: 6307: 6300: 6295: 6288: 6283: 6276: 6271: 6264: 6259: 6257: 6250:, p. 65. 6249: 6244: 6237: 6232: 6225: 6220: 6213: 6208: 6202:, p. 54. 6201: 6196: 6189: 6184: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6152: 6146:, p. 48. 6145: 6140: 6133: 6128: 6126: 6118: 6113: 6106: 6101: 6094: 6089: 6087: 6079: 6074: 6067: 6062: 6055: 6050: 6043: 6038: 6022: 6018: 6017: 6012: 6006: 6004: 5996: 5991: 5977:on 2021-08-22 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5935: 5927: 5920: 5912: 5905: 5903: 5901: 5893: 5892:Ammianus 1935 5888: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5871: 5867: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5850: 5848: 5840: 5835: 5828: 5823: 5816: 5811: 5804: 5799: 5792: 5787: 5780: 5775: 5768: 5763: 5756: 5751: 5742: 5736:, p. 37. 5735: 5730: 5723: 5718: 5711: 5708: 5704: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5686: 5681: 5674: 5669: 5662: 5657: 5650: 5645: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5604:, p. 51. 5603: 5598: 5590: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5562: 5556: 5552: 5545: 5538: 5533: 5524: 5509: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5493: 5486: 5481: 5474: 5469: 5462: 5457: 5451:, p. 66. 5450: 5449:Piganiol 1950 5445: 5438: 5433: 5426: 5421: 5419: 5411: 5406: 5399: 5394: 5387: 5386:Matthews 2007 5382: 5376: 5370: 5363: 5362:Piganiol 1950 5358: 5351: 5350:Rathbone 2009 5346: 5339: 5338:Matthews 2007 5334: 5328:, p. 97. 5327: 5322: 5315: 5310: 5303: 5302:Matthews 2007 5298: 5292: 5288: 5283: 5277: 5271: 5264: 5259: 5257: 5250:, p. 48. 5249: 5244: 5237: 5232: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5199: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5180: 5168: 5164: 5163:De Caesaribus 5160: 5156: 5150: 5143: 5138: 5131: 5125: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5072: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5050: 5043: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5024: 5022: 5016: 5010: 5006: 4999: 4993:, p. 67. 4992: 4987: 4985: 4977: 4972: 4965: 4960: 4952: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4927: 4920: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4880: 4873: 4868: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4797: 4790: 4785: 4783: 4774: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4721: 4720:Galinsky 1992 4716: 4708: 4707:Der Fall Roms 4703: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4677: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4642: 4634: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4601: 4595:, p. 60. 4594: 4589: 4582: 4578: 4572: 4565:(3): 153–169. 4564: 4560: 4553: 4547:, p. 37. 4546: 4541: 4539: 4531: 4526: 4519: 4514: 4507: 4502: 4496:, p. 31. 4495: 4490: 4483: 4478: 4471: 4467: 4464: 4458: 4452:, p. 21. 4451: 4446: 4438: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4413: 4407: 4403: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4356: 4348: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4329: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4305: 4300: 4292: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4268: 4263: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4239: 4231: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4207: 4206: 4198: 4190: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4170: 4164:. pp. 166–175 4163: 4159: 4153: 4146: 4141: 4134: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4118: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4074: 4073:Olympian Zeus 4070: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4041: 4035: 4031: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4000: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3986: 3983: 3982: 3978: 3967: 3960: 3958: 3953: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3822: 3813: 3804: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3744: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3713: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3693: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3677: 3675: 3671: 3670:southern Gaul 3667: 3663: 3659: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3598: 3596: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3572: 3571:Carthago Nova 3568: 3567:city councils 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3542: 3534: 3525: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3444: 3442: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3424:Eastern Roman 3421: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3388: 3386: 3382: 3377: 3375: 3370: 3366: 3365:Valentinianic 3362: 3358: 3353: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3328: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3302: 3297: 3296: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3274: 3270: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3222: 3216: 3206: 3204: 3203:Theodosius II 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3175: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3151:Flavius Felix 3148: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3096: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3076:(lost to the 3075: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3031: 3030: 3024: 3021:, to meet at 3020: 3016: 3011: 3007: 3003: 3002: 2992: 2983: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2955: 2950: 2946: 2941: 2939: 2935: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2816: 2815:Forum Romanum 2812: 2807: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2794:in his book " 2793: 2789: 2788:Last Judgment 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2675: 2673: 2668: 2667: 2660: 2658: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2628:Theodosius II 2625: 2621: 2620:empress Maria 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2584: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2562: 2556: 2550: 2546: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491:Hasta Pompeia 2488: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2280: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2256: 2252: 2250: 2245: 2235: 2232: 2231:puppet rulers 2227: 2226: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2116:Roman Britain 2113: 2103: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2089:had all been 2088: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1990: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1923: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1900: 1889: 1888:Valentinian I 1878: 1875:The brothers 1873: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1830: 1828: 1823: 1812: 1805: 1801: 1800:Pater Patriae 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1749: 1746: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1699: 1696: 1695:Valentinian I 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1612: 1606: 1596: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1492:professionals 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1410: 1408: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1373:, supporting 1372: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1328:legal fiction 1322:Social crisis 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1288: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1246:Gallic Empire 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1225: 1211: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1195: 1189: 1187: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1080: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1020: 1018: 1013: 1000: 993: 984: 977: 972: 970: 965: 963: 959: 955: 952:thinkers and 951: 950:Enlightenment 940: 938: 934: 930: 926: 925: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 865: 861: 857: 853: 850: 846: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 816: 812: 811: 810: 805: 800: 791: 788: 784: 779: 777: 773: 769: 768:Mediterranean 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 748:Roman culture 745: 744:Henri Pirenne 739: 729: 727: 723: 722: 717: 716:Edward Gibbon 711: 701: 699: 695: 691: 686: 684: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 655: 653: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 627: 625: 624:state failure 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 547: 544: 542: 539: 537: 536:Ravenna (476) 534: 532: 529: 527: 526:Ravenna (475) 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 492: 489: 485: 482: 480: 477: 476: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 369: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 351: 348: 347: 346: 343: 339: 336: 334: 331: 330: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 307: 304: 303: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 245: 242: 240: 237: 236: 235: 232: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 214: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 142: 141: 138: 137: 133: 128: 118: 113: 111: 106: 104: 99: 98: 95: 81: 58: 54: 50: 48: 43: 41: 33: 19: 13621: 13610: 13576:Armenian War 13539:Roman Empire 13522:Perusine War 13514: 13450: 13429:Servile Wars 13424:Cimbrian War 13377:Galatian War 13296:Samnite Wars 13115:World War II 12968:Early modern 12945:Kalmar Union 12816:Papal States 12755: 12734:Roman Empire 11908:Anglo-Saxons 11898:Adrabaecampi 11881:Bucinobantes 11623:Architecture 11442:Institutions 11306:Leptis Magna 11259:Major cities 11166:Philostratus 10953:Quadrigarius 10773:Rufus Festus 10636:Contemporary 10357:Romanization 10280:Architecture 9887:Collegiality 9736:Constitution 9685: 9587:Ancient Rome 9538:Online books 9528: 9506:. Retrieved 9497: 9474: 9463:. Retrieved 9446: 9442: 9421: 9407:(1): 62–69. 9404: 9400: 9385: 9359: 9350: 9346: 9329: 9312: 9299: 9282: 9270: 9253: 9233: 9213: 9188:(1): 71–96. 9185: 9179: 9163: 9142: 9122: 9114: 9079: 9059: 9043: 9026: 9017: 8995:(1): 75–85. 8992: 8988: 8963: 8957: 8953: 8937: 8922: 8913: 8905:the original 8899: 8860: 8842: 8823: 8804: 8782: 8766: 8762: 8722: 8706: 8679: 8656: 8647: 8638: 8635:Brown, Peter 8618: 8599: 8588: 8569: 8554:Bibliography 8540: 8528: 8501: 8495: 8488:Halsall 2007 8473:Halsall 2007 8468: 8453: 8449: 8437: 8430:Halsall 2007 8425: 8413: 8406:Halsall 2007 8401: 8392: 8382:, retrieved 8372: 8366: 8355:. Retrieved 8341: 8334:Halsall 2007 8317:Halsall 2007 8312: 8305:Halsall 2007 8300: 8293:Halsall 2007 8288: 8281:Halsall 2007 8276: 8269:Halsall 2007 8264: 8252: 8245:Halsall 2007 8240: 8228: 8216: 8209:Halsall 2007 8204: 8197:Heather 2006 8192: 8185:Halsall 2007 8180: 8173:Heather 2006 8158:Heather 2006 8153: 8141: 8134:Halsall 2007 8129: 8122:Heather 2006 8117: 8109: 8101: 8096: 8080: 8075: 8067: 8060:Heather 2006 8055: 8048:Heather 2006 8043: 8031: 8024:Heather 2006 8019: 8012:Heather 2006 8007: 7999: 7992:Heather 2006 7987: 7975: 7963: 7951: 7939: 7932:Heather 2006 7927: 7920:Heather 2006 7915: 7908:Halsall 2007 7903: 7887:Phillimore. 7882: 7845: 7841: 7822: 7813: 7797: 7779: 7774: 7762: 7750: 7743:Heather 2006 7738: 7731:Halsall 2007 7726: 7719:Heather 2006 7714: 7707:Halsall 2007 7702: 7695:Heather 2006 7690: 7683:Heather 2006 7678: 7671:Heather 2006 7666: 7659:Heather 2006 7654: 7647:Heather 2006 7642: 7630: 7623:Heather 2006 7618: 7611:Halsall 2007 7606: 7599:Halsall 2007 7594: 7587:Heather 2006 7567: 7555: 7548:Heather 2006 7543: 7536:Heather 2006 7531: 7524:Heather 2006 7519: 7507: 7500:Heather 2006 7495: 7483: 7471: 7459: 7415: 7408:Heather 2006 7393:Heather 2006 7388: 7381:Heather 2006 7376: 7364: 7352: 7345:Heather 2006 7340: 7333:Heather 2006 7313: 7301: 7289: 7282:Heather 2006 7277: 7265: 7258:Heather 2006 7231: 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7171: 7159: 7152:Heather 2006 7147: 7140:Heather 2006 7135: 7108: 7096: 7084: 7077:Halsall 2007 7072: 7060: 7048: 7036: 7024: 6997: 6985: 6952: 6947: 6938: 6896: 6884: 6857: 6845: 6833: 6821: 6809: 6797: 6785: 6758: 6746: 6734: 6722: 6695: 6683: 6671: 6659: 6647: 6640:Alföldy 2001 6635: 6623: 6601:Heather 2006 6549: 6520: 6508: 6496: 6487: 6481: 6472: 6460:. Retrieved 6440: 6432: 6420: 6408: 6401:Cameron 1993 6396: 6389:Cameron 2011 6384: 6379:, chapter 8. 6362:Cameron 2010 6357: 6334: 6330: 6323:Cameron 2010 6318: 6306: 6294: 6282: 6270: 6243: 6231: 6224:Halsall 2007 6219: 6207: 6195: 6188:Heather 2006 6183: 6172:. Retrieved 6162: 6158:Titus Livius 6151: 6139: 6132:Halsall 2007 6117:Nicasie 1998 6112: 6105:Nicasie 1998 6100: 6073: 6061: 6049: 6037: 6025:. Retrieved 6014: 5990: 5979:. Retrieved 5972:the original 5951: 5947: 5934: 5926:Bible Review 5925: 5919: 5910: 5887: 5854: 5839:Heather 2006 5834: 5822: 5810: 5798: 5786: 5774: 5767:Nicasie 1998 5762: 5750: 5741: 5729: 5722:Nicasie 1998 5717: 5700: 5692: 5680: 5668: 5660: 5656: 5644: 5619: 5615: 5609: 5597: 5578: 5575:Brown, Peter 5569: 5550: 5544: 5532: 5523: 5512:. Retrieved 5502: 5492: 5480: 5468: 5456: 5444: 5432: 5405: 5398:Heather 2006 5393: 5381: 5369: 5357: 5345: 5333: 5326:Cameron 2011 5321: 5309: 5297: 5282: 5270: 5243: 5231: 5214: 5205: 5177: 5171:, retrieved 5165:(in Latin), 5162: 5149: 5137: 5129: 5124: 5089: 5079: 5059: 5049: 5042:Heather 2006 5020: 5018: 5004: 4998: 4991:Heather 2006 4976:Heather 2006 4971: 4959: 4932: 4926: 4914: 4889: 4885: 4879: 4867: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4803:, p. 5. 4796: 4754: 4750: 4739: 4727: 4715: 4706: 4701: 4693:. Retrieved 4684:210 Theories 4683: 4676: 4651: 4647: 4641: 4614: 4610: 4600: 4588: 4580: 4576: 4571: 4562: 4558: 4552: 4525: 4513: 4501: 4489: 4477: 4461:Dio Cassius 4457: 4445: 4426: 4420: 4401: 4368:(8): 29–43. 4365: 4361: 4355: 4336: 4311: 4299: 4280: 4274: 4262: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4219: 4213: 4202: 4197: 4178: 4169: 4152: 4147:, p. 1. 4140: 4101:– via 4096: 4034: 3954: 3942: 3915:Roman Senate 3912: 3888: 3832:Julius Nepos 3818: 3790: 3784: 3768: 3745: 3721:Julius Nepos 3718: 3699: 3678: 3655: 3631:Tripolitania 3615: 3612:of Anthemius 3575: 3551:Gallo-Romans 3543: 3539: 3512:Theoderic II 3482: 3474: 3466:entered Rome 3445: 3409: 3395:In 444, the 3394: 3378: 3354: 3324: 3305: 3287: 3283: 3278: 3271: 3267: 3227:Burgundiones 3212: 3194: 3176: 3154: 3138: 3127: 3122: 3091: 3058: 3042: 2999: 2997: 2968: 2958: 2942: 2930: 2890: 2875: 2859: 2849:III.2.25–26) 2846: 2841: 2834: 2819: 2810: 2758: 2737: 2727: 2724: 2708: 2696: 2676: 2664: 2661: 2654: 2617: 2604: 2597: 2588:new invaders 2585: 2566: 2476: 2456: 2435: 2433: 2414:The emperor 2402:. A poem by 2395: 2379: 2373: 2333:Roman Greece 2314: 2268: 2262: 2253: 2244:field forces 2241: 2223: 2210: 2200: 2162: 2160: 2143: 2109: 2076: 2039: 2027: 2019:Cimbrian War 1998: 1996: 1955: 1937:Senate House 1904: 1874: 1851: 1843:burned crops 1831: 1809: 1791: 1757:Augustodunum 1750: 1705: 1671: 1655: 1638: 1614: 1561:water supply 1546: 1502: 1499:regular army 1496: 1453: 1427:caste system 1416: 1404: 1368: 1339: 1332:early Empire 1325: 1316:conspiracies 1293: 1274: 1234:field armies 1227: 1193: 1185: 1178: 1168: 1141: 1135: 1118: 1090: 1042: 1026: 1014: 1010: 998: 990: 982: 974: 966: 946: 937:Julius Nepos 922: 905: 901: 869: 834:Christianity 808: 780: 741: 719: 713: 687: 656: 647:Theodosius I 628: 580:Roman Empire 568:fall of Rome 567: 563: 559: 557: 469:Camp Cannini 399:Vicus Helena 333:Hippo Regius 197:Gildonic War 175:Thessalonica 124: 53: 46: 39: 13537:Wars of the 13485:Gallic Wars 13414:Achaean War 13301:Pyrrhic War 13251:Wars of the 13100:World War I 13090:Nationalism 12978:Reformation 12963:Renaissance 12935:Black Death 12868:Kievan Rus' 12771:Middle Ages 12348:Nahanarvali 12271:Hilleviones 12184:Frisiavones 12052:Cananefates 12042:Burgundians 11953:Banochaemae 11803:Anglo-Saxon 11754:Anglo-Saxon 11720:Anglo-Saxon 11703:Anglo-Saxon 11686:Anglo-Saxon 11437:Geographers 11121:Dioscorides 11101:Cassius Dio 10723:Cassiodorus 10626:Renaissance 10232:Agriculture 10204:Auxiliaries 10145:Engineering 9982:Magistrates 9834:Citizenship 9829:Mos maiorum 9764:Late Empire 9449:: 251–262. 8590:The History 8221:Gibbon 1782 8146:Gibbon 1782 7944:Gibbon 1782 7755:Gibbon 1782 6942:Gibbon, 277 6078:Gibbon 1782 5995:Gaddis 2005 5673:Harper 2017 5215:Apocriticus 5132:, pp. 85–86 4964:Harper 2017 4919:Gibbon 1782 4872:Harper 2017 4801:Harper 2017 4789:Harper 2017 4732:Harper 2017 4579:, 303–304; 4530:Gibbon 1906 4518:Jordan 1969 4482:Gruman 1960 4450:Harper 2017 4133:Harper 2017 4061: [ 3950:Middle Ages 3927:7th century 3874:ancestors. 3856:Justinian I 3828:rump states 3704:proclaimed 3666:Anthemiolus 3578:Marcellinus 3559:Marcellinus 3346:Thermopylae 3171:triumvirate 3080:in 459) to 2960:Heraclianus 2949:Burgundians 2925:Constantius 2796:City of God 2771:Saint Peter 2753:cannibalism 2672:Heraclianus 2636:coup d'état 2561:Christogram 2325:Thermopylae 2307:, ca. 395 ( 2095:Christology 2091:semi-Arians 2079:Constantine 1987:countryside 1858:Mesopotamia 1796:Neoplatonic 1790:of Julian, 1773:Constantius 1681:. However, 1573:Roman women 1423:bureaucracy 1405:Within the 1173:and in the 1158:. Although 962:Middle Ages 911:James Burke 873:Cassius Dio 516:Arles (471) 484:Arles (458) 362:Arles (435) 306:Arles (425) 202:Pictish War 145:Marcianople 13637:Categories 13557:Gothic War 13318:Punic Wars 13306:Social War 12863:Viking Age 12678:Prehistory 12567:Vinoviloth 12355:Marcomanni 12338:Helveconae 12316:Heaðobards 12286:Istvaeones 12276:Ingaevones 12261:Hermunduri 12229:Ostrogoths 12219:Greuthungi 12097:Chattuarii 11923:Angrivarii 11918:Ampsivarii 11886:Lentienses 11715:Literature 11605:Viking Age 11326:Mediolanum 11266:Alexandria 11231:Themistius 11196:Porphyrius 11023:Tertullian 10958:Quintilian 10948:Propertius 10843:Lactantius 10793:Fulgentius 10728:Censorinus 10550:Sanitation 10535:Metallurgy 10492:Technology 10457:Demography 10405:Patricians 10372:Spectacles 10330:Literature 10325:Hairstyles 10162:Technology 9912:Praefectus 9864:Government 9854:Litigation 9839:Auctoritas 9784:Centuriate 9671:Principate 9666:Pax Romana 9626:Foundation 9508:2021-07-29 9465:2023-03-13 9394:052138401X 9362:Diocletian 8954:Ferragosto 8587:Ammianus. 8511:0415922283 8418:Jones 1964 8384:2013-06-24 8357:2022-06-21 8257:Jones 1964 8036:Jones 1964 7980:Jones 1964 7807:1852850019 7635:Jones 1964 7560:Jones 1964 7512:Burns 1994 7488:Burns 1994 7476:Burns 1994 7464:Burns 1994 7433:Burns 1994 7369:Burns 1994 7357:Jones 1964 7318:Burns 1994 7306:Burns 1994 7294:Burns 1994 7270:Burns 1994 7224:Burns 1994 7212:Burns 1994 7200:Burns 1994 7188:Burns 1994 7176:Burns 1994 7164:Burns 1994 7128:Burns 1994 7113:Burns 1994 7089:Burns 1994 7065:Burns 1994 7053:Burns 1994 7041:Burns 1994 7029:Burns 1994 7017:Burns 1994 7002:Burns 1994 6990:Burns 1994 6978:Burns 1994 6955:, book 5. 6931:Burns 1994 6916:Burns 1994 6901:Burns 1994 6889:Burns 1994 6877:Burns 1994 6862:Jones 1964 6850:Burns 1994 6826:Burns 1994 6814:Burns 1994 6802:Burns 1994 6790:Burns 1994 6778:Burns 1994 6751:Burns 1994 6739:Burns 1994 6715:James 2014 6688:Burns 1994 6616:Jones 1964 6571:Jones 1964 6554:Jones 1964 6542:Burns 1994 6513:Jones 1964 6501:Jones 1964 6413:Testa 2007 6311:Brown 2012 6299:Brown 2012 6287:Brown 2012 6275:Jones 1964 6263:Jones 1964 6248:Burns 1994 6236:Burns 1994 6212:Jones 1964 6200:Burns 1994 6174:2019-02-01 6160:) (2013). 6144:Burns 1994 6066:Jones 1964 6054:Jones 1964 6042:Burns 1994 5981:2021-07-27 5649:Brown 2003 5537:Brown 2012 5514:2012-06-26 5437:Jones 1964 5425:Jones 1964 5410:Jones 1964 5248:Brown 2013 5198:Jones 1964 5173:2012-07-01 5142:Letki 2012 4695:2018-11-22 4583:, 304–306. 4545:Brown 2013 4267:Brown 1978 4114:References 4103:Wikisource 3850:developed 3848:Mauretania 3756:Torcilingi 3508:propaganda 3432:Pope Leo I 3369:Theodosian 3342:Hellespont 3187:Mauretania 3141:in Gaul), 3112:acting as 3100:installed 3038: 425 2569:Radagaisus 2487:Mediolanum 2464:Roman navy 2422:issued by 2351:, leaving 2345:Asia Minor 2271:after the 2106:Civil wars 2047:Mediolanum 2030:panegyrist 2007:Theodosius 1989:suffered. 1827:sacrifices 1609:See also: 1585:diarrhoeal 1530:polytheist 1513:leadership 1509:centurions 1494:far away. 1379:corruption 1350:ceremonial 1310:and other 1254:rump state 1200:Roman army 1192:recruits ( 1124:Diocletian 1091:From 376, 915:republican 828:, renewed 674:, and the 600:barbarians 521:Rome (472) 464:Garigliano 449:Agrigentum 434:Rome (455) 261:Rome (410) 12910:Feudalism 12881:Catalonia 12562:Vidivarii 12557:Victohali 12547:Vangiones 12480:Thuringii 12385:Nuithones 12281:Irminones 12244:Visigoths 12234:Thervingi 12194:Gambrivii 12147:Dulgubnii 12142:Dauciones 12092:Chasuarii 12032:Brondings 11958:Bastarnae 11948:Baiuvarii 11928:Armalausi 11891:Raetovari 11825:Languages 11793:Symbology 11653:Folklore 11648:Festivals 11482:Quaestors 11412:Empresses 11402:Dynasties 11392:Dictators 11367:and other 11356:Volubilis 11351:Vindobona 11311:Londinium 11236:Theodoret 11206:Procopius 11186:Polyaenus 11161:Pausanias 11063:Vitruvius 11008:Symmachus 11003:Suetonius 10913:Petronius 10898:Obsequens 10863:Macrobius 10858:Lucretius 10783:Frontinus 10758:Eutropius 10743:Columella 10693:Augustine 10683:Appuleius 10631:Neo-Latin 10606:Classical 10597:Versions 10505:Aqueducts 10447:Patronage 10367:Sexuality 10340:Mythology 10315:Education 10305:Cosmetics 10130:Campaigns 10125:Structure 10078:Decemviri 9937:Imperator 9636:overthrow 9107:213344890 8980:159641057 7889:pp. 23–24 7850:Salvianus 6951:Zosimus, 6425:Graf 2014 6027:23 August 5870:1862-4812 5289:9.24.1.1 5116:161222282 4906:160954017 4668:161124650 4593:Ando 2012 4304:Hunt 2001 4095:Zosimus. 4046:finances. 3908:Theoderic 3895:patrician 3864:civitates 3706:Glycerius 3658:Riothamus 3639:fireships 3618:Anthemius 3610:Tremissis 3522:Placentia 3488:Burdigala 3095:patrician 3015:Aquitania 2976:Barcelona 2901:Gerontius 2866:Visigoths 2847:De Bellis 2843:Procopius 2821:Procopius 2761:took Rome 2577:Britannia 2499:Pollentia 2472:Isaurians 2400:Illyricum 2388:Eutropius 2305:Eucherius 2291:An ivory 1935:from the 1839:Ctesiphon 1683:extortion 1650:patronage 1630:heterodox 1619:declared 1557:aqueducts 1534:tolerance 1413:Geography 1396:peasantry 1375:extortion 1369:Official 1359:courtiers 1281:Gallienus 1152:civil war 1148:tetrarchy 1053:Pandemics 772:barbarian 690:Byzantine 606:and both 584:provinces 491:Cartagena 439:Aylesford 222:Pollentia 80:Byzantine 13149:See also 13120:Cold War 12915:Crusades 12885:Valencia 12628:Category 12535:Hasdingi 12520:Usipetes 12500:Tubantes 12485:Toxandri 12465:Tencteri 12440:Suarines 12425:Sicambri 12420:Semnones 12400:Reudigni 12370:Mattiaci 12360:Marsacii 12311:Lombards 12301:Lacringi 12296:Juthungi 12127:Corconti 12112:Cherusci 12087:Charudes 12067:Chaedini 12037:Bructeri 12022:Bateinoi 11993:Eburones 11988:Condrusi 11983:Caeroesi 11978:Atuatuci 11913:Ambrones 11876:Brisgavi 11871:Alemanni 11749:Paganism 11638:Clothing 11633:Calendar 11580:Germania 11487:Tribunes 11477:Praetors 11427:Generals 11407:Emperors 11316:Lugdunum 11301:Eboracum 11291:Carthage 11276:Aquileia 11191:Polybius 11181:Plutarch 11151:Libanius 11141:Josephus 11136:Herodian 11028:Tibullus 10943:Priscian 10918:Phaedrus 10878:Manilius 10823:Jordanes 10808:Hydatius 10738:Claudian 10718:Catullus 10708:Boëthius 10703:Ausonius 10621:Medieval 10593:Alphabet 10565:Theatres 10540:Numerals 10525:Concrete 10515:Circuses 10482:Bagaudae 10472:Adoption 10467:Marriage 10440:Assembly 10345:Religion 10320:Folklore 10300:Clothing 10295:Calendar 10252:Currency 10242:Commerce 10140:Strategy 10102:Military 10088:Triumvir 10068:Dictator 10063:Interrex 10042:Governor 10027:Quaestor 9990:Ordinary 9972:Province 9962:Tetrarch 9952:Augustus 9917:Vicarius 9907:Officium 9844:Imperium 9794:Plebeian 9754:Republic 9676:Dominate 9643:Republic 9604:Timeline 9502:Archived 9459:Archived 9413:27795332 9212:(2019). 9141:(2014). 8803:(2010). 8772:Archived 8751:Archived 8727:Archived 8637:(1978). 8520:47237751 8378:archived 8351:Archived 8085:Archived 7892:Archived 7881:(1978). 7857:Archived 7831:Archived 7787:Archived 7767:Seeck O. 7240:Archived 6960:Archived 6168:Archived 6021:Archived 5876:Archived 5508:Archived 5220:Archived 5167:archived 5159:"XXXIII" 5057:(2007). 5021:receptio 4859:19805043 4773:16489531 4689:Archived 4633:27615720 4575:Pocock, 4559:Daedalus 4466:Archived 4179:Collapse 4177:(2011). 3963:See also 3840:Syagrius 3836:Dalmatia 3801:Campania 3780:Piacenza 3702:Gundobad 3690:Olybrius 3682:Gundobad 3647:Arvandus 3635:Cape Bon 3627:Sardinia 3586:Soissons 3582:Aegidius 3563:Aegidius 3555:Lugdunum 3492:Majorian 3470:Hilderic 3428:Pannonia 3381:infantry 3330:Carthage 3327:captured 3320:Genseric 3273:Vegetius 3260:Bagaudae 3252:Toulouse 3248:Litorius 3239:Carthage 3179:Genseric 3167:Bagaudae 3098:Castinus 3082:Boulogne 3053:Augustus 2943:In 411, 2905:Hispania 2839:— 2800:Dalmatia 2783:Refugees 2766:a church 2751:reports 2728:verbatim 2680:Pannonia 2666:en masse 2640:Olympius 2555:STELICHO 2534:Stilicho 2511:Dalmatia 2457:In 399, 2416:Honorius 2404:Synesius 2365:Thessaly 2329:Stilicho 2317:Claudian 2303:and son 2297:Stilicho 2249:Bagaudae 2216:Stilicho 2207:Arcadius 2203:Honorius 2176:Eugenius 2171:Frankish 2167:Arbogast 2163:Augustus 2156:Bagaudae 2152:Armorica 2144:Augustus 2130:and the 2003:Hispania 1999:Augustus 1907:apoplexy 1872:in 299. 1761:Constans 1732:Armorica 1674:Payrolls 1615:In 313, 1484:rhetoric 1354:flattery 1198:for the 1179:Receptio 1171:Germania 1164:mistrust 1137:Augustus 1120:Aurelian 1073:Germanic 995:— 979:— 939:in 480. 897:Augustus 893:Commodus 881:humanism 877:Commodus 858:and the 794:Timespan 664:Germanic 612:epidemic 596:emperors 576:polities 541:Soissons 506:Cape Bon 419:Aquileia 372:Narbonne 338:Carthage 271:Massilia 244:Faesulae 239:Florence 187:Frigidus 155:Dibaltum 12990:Baroque 12889:Majorca 12801:Francia 12552:Varisci 12540:Silingi 12530:Vandals 12505:Tulingi 12495:Triboci 12490:Treveri 12470:Teutons 12460:Taifals 12435:Sitones 12375:Nemetes 12333:Helisii 12306:Lemovii 12224:Gutones 12157:Firaesi 12152:Favonae 12132:Cugerni 12122:Cobandi 12077:Chamavi 12072:Chaemae 12062:Casuari 12057:Caritni 12027:Betasii 11998:Paemani 11933:Auiones 11798:Warfare 11776:Scripts 11744:Numbers 11568:History 11457:Legions 11417:Fiction 11387:Consuls 11382:Climate 11336:Ravenna 11331:Pompeii 11321:Lutetia 11286:Bononia 11281:Berytus 11271:Antioch 11246:Zosimus 11241:Zonaras 11216:Sozomen 11201:Priscus 11176:Photius 11018:Terence 11013:Tacitus 10998:Statius 10983:Servius 10968:Sallust 10923:Plautus 10903:Orosius 10883:Martial 10838:Juvenal 10813:Hyginus 10798:Gellius 10657:Writers 10588:History 10570:Thermae 10560:Temples 10510:Bridges 10477:Slavery 10425:Equites 10397:Society 10377:Theatre 10350:Deities 10310:Cuisine 10290:Bathing 10272:Culture 10247:Finance 10224:Economy 10115:Borders 10110:History 10012:Tribune 10007:Praetor 9897:Legatus 9892:Emperor 9779:Curiate 9749:Kingdom 9744:History 9720:History 9703:decline 9661:History 9631:Kingdom 9614:History 9599:Outline 9364:to the 9202:2504190 9009:2504258 6462:1 April 5968:1088885 5948:Phoenix 5710:Corbulo 5697:Tacitus 5636:1088885 5616:Phoenix 4850:2762679 4827:Bibcode 4702:quoting 4463:72.36.4 4382:3824699 4040:Gratian 3899:viceroy 3821:Odoacer 3771:Odoacer 3760:Ravenna 3752:Scirian 3737:Orestes 3733:Ravenna 3719:In 474 3584:around 3553:around 3496:Ricimer 3457:Huneric 3453:Eudocia 3441:Batavis 3412:Honoria 3385:cavalry 3374:Numidia 3361:Eudocia 3357:Huneric 3316:Huneric 3256:Rechiar 3243:Numidia 3191:Numidia 3149:), and 3130:Augusta 3102:Joannes 3074:Cologne 3066:Tuscany 3045:Honoria 3023:Arelate 3010:Baetica 3006:Vandals 2945:Jovinus 2921:Arelate 2917:Maximus 2913:Vandals 2862:Athaulf 2825:chicken 2715:Athaulf 2711:Tuscany 2688:Ravenna 2657:Bononia 2632:Ticinum 2600:Noricum 2552:VIVATIS 2526:Chi-rho 2495:Liguria 2438:in the 2430:museum 2369:Zosimus 2353:Thracia 2337:Rufinus 2293:diptych 2220:Rufinus 2191:Eastern 2140:Ambrose 2072:Ambrose 2064:Ambrose 2043:rioting 2005:called 1911:Gratian 1866:Nisibis 1825:ban on 1804:Sirmium 1788:Solidus 1724:Isauria 1720:bandits 1646:Bishops 1589:Malaria 1462:to the 1460:Armenia 1371:cruelty 1341:dominus 1330:of the 1308:treason 1304:shrines 1300:temples 1156:regimes 1063:in the 1045:tropics 954:British 917:times. 764:emperor 668:Odoacer 608:endemic 592:economy 566:or the 501:Bergamo 496:Orleans 454:Corsica 291:Tarraco 150:Willows 13473:Second 13439:Second 13365:Fourth 13355:Second 13328:Second 12877:Aragon 12856:Amalfi 12841:Venice 12829:Second 12572:Warini 12525:Vagoth 12510:Tungri 12475:Thelir 12455:Swedes 12450:Sunici 12415:Saxons 12410:Rugini 12343:Manimi 12328:Diduni 12266:Heruli 12204:Gepids 12189:Frisii 12167:Franks 12117:Cimbri 12107:Chauci 12102:Chatti 12015:Nervii 12010:Morini 11968:Belgae 11963:Batavi 11938:Avarpi 11903:Angles 11863:Groups 11813:Viking 11759:Gothic 11737:Gothic 11643:Family 11467:Nomina 11452:Legacy 11432:Gentes 11369:topics 11365:Lists 11346:Smyrna 11226:Strabo 11156:Lucian 11146:Julian 11096:Arrian 11091:Appian 11081:Aelian 11058:Vergil 10833:Justin 10818:Jerome 10803:Horace 10788:Fronto 10778:Florus 10753:Ennius 10733:Cicero 10713:Caesar 10611:Vulgar 10435:Tribes 10362:Romans 10172:Legion 10155:castra 10032:Aedile 10002:Censor 9997:Consul 9957:Caesar 9927:Lictor 9849:Status 9789:Tribal 9769:Senate 9759:Empire 9653:Empire 9589:topics 9526:about 9481: 9428: 9411: 9392: 9373: 9336: 9319: 9289: 9260: 9241: 9220: 9200: 9169: 9149: 9129: 9105: 9095: 9066: 9049: 9033: 9007: 8978: 8944: 8928: 8883: 8868: 8849: 8830: 8811: 8789: 8742: 8738:2013. 8713: 8694: 8667: 8625: 8606: 8576: 8518: 8508: 8460: 7875:Gildas 7805: 6453: 6156:Livy ( 5966: 5868: 5861: 5702:Annals 5634: 5585: 5557: 5217:IV: 23 5114: 5104: 5067: 5011: 4947: 4904: 4892:: 97. 4857: 4847: 4771: 4666: 4631: 4433: 4408: 4380: 4343: 4287: 4226: 4185: 4160: 4098:book 5 3933:Legacy 3862:. The 3797:solidi 3748:Heruli 3729:Salona 3622:Alypia 3506:wrote 3484:Avitus 3461:Avitus 3401:Attila 3338:Sicily 3289:Gildas 3264:Attila 3183:Tarifa 3159:Suevic 3118:Aetius 3114:regent 2980:Wallia 2964:clique 2909:Sueves 2749:Jerome 2592:rebels 2549:SERHNA 2542:HONORI 2538:Louvre 2503:Verona 2483:Raetia 2452:laetus 2384:Thrace 2376:Gainas 2361:Burns' 2357:Epirus 2341:Hunnic 2321:Athens 2301:Serena 2265:Alaric 2087:Valens 2085:, and 2060:notary 2049:, and 2035:Alaric 2021:, the 1975:Balkan 1920:) and 1886:) and 1877:Valens 1854:Jovian 1820:) won 1811:Julian 1748:well. 1740:villas 1736:pirate 1708:Franks 1665:, and 1659:clergy 1634:pagans 1565:Sewage 1559:, the 1542:Judaea 1456:Trajan 1439:Danube 1264:. The 1262:Danube 1186:coloni 1143:Caesar 1059:, and 1015:While 676:Senate 578:. The 409:Asemus 350:Rimini 328:Africa 318:Mérida 227:Verona 86: 82:Empire 76: 70: 64: 49:(film) 42:(film) 13478:Third 13468:First 13444:Third 13434:First 13360:Third 13350:First 13333:Third 13323:First 12846:Genoa 12824:First 12445:Suebi 12430:Sciri 12405:Rugii 12395:Quadi 12380:Njars 12365:Marsi 12323:Lugii 12291:Jutes 12256:Harii 12251:Gutes 12209:Goths 12199:Geats 12137:Danes 12082:Chali 12003:Segni 11943:Baemi 11786:Runes 11771:Rings 11764:Norse 11732:Names 11725:Norse 11708:Norse 11691:Norse 11131:Galen 11073:Greek 11043:Varro 10853:Lucan 10665:Latin 10580:Latin 10555:Ships 10545:Roads 10530:Domes 10462:Women 10410:Plebs 10335:Music 9877:Forum 9872:Curia 9409:JSTOR 9198:JSTOR 9103:S2CID 9005:JSTOR 8976:S2CID 7420:2014. 5975:(PDF) 5964:JSTOR 5944:(PDF) 5632:JSTOR 5112:S2CID 4902:S2CID 4769:S2CID 4664:S2CID 4378:JSTOR 4093:See: 4065:] 4026:Notes 3868:Latin 3775:Pavia 3725:Leo I 3651:Euric 3590:Narbo 3517:Rhône 3416:dowry 3235:Trier 3163:Narbo 3070:Loire 3001:modii 2954:Narbo 2897:Sarus 2684:Comes 2609:Sarus 2545:MARIA 2530:Maria 2507:comes 2428:Aosta 2349:Syria 1966:Alans 1958:Goths 1712:Rhine 1663:monks 1526:cults 1476:Greek 1472:elite 1435:Rhine 1266:Rhine 1258:Dacia 1194:laeti 864:Islam 652:Rhine 635:Roman 631:Goths 546:Badon 531:Pavia 511:Déols 429:Milan 424:Padua 256:Ostia 12851:Pisa 12515:Ubii 12162:Fosi 12047:Buri 11447:Laws 11422:Film 11341:Roma 10908:Ovid 10848:Livy 10616:Late 10430:Gens 10387:Wine 10199:Navy 10167:Army 9806:SPQR 9708:fall 9686:fall 9479:ISBN 9426:ISBN 9390:ISBN 9371:ISBN 9334:ISBN 9317:ISBN 9300:The 9287:ISBN 9258:ISBN 9239:ISBN 9218:ISBN 9167:ISBN 9147:ISBN 9127:ISBN 9093:ISBN 9064:ISBN 9047:ISBN 9031:ISBN 8942:ISBN 8926:ISBN 8881:ISBN 8866:ISBN 8847:ISBN 8828:ISBN 8809:ISBN 8787:ISBN 8740:ISBN 8711:ISBN 8692:ISBN 8665:ISBN 8623:ISBN 8604:ISBN 8574:ISBN 8516:OCLC 8506:ISBN 8458:ISBN 7803:ISBN 6464:2013 6451:ISBN 6029:2018 5866:ISSN 5859:ISBN 5583:ISBN 5555:ISBN 5179:fuit 5102:ISBN 5065:ISBN 5009:ISBN 4945:ISBN 4855:PMID 4629:PMID 4431:ISBN 4406:ISBN 4341:ISBN 4285:ISBN 4224:ISBN 4183:ISBN 4158:ISBN 3891:Zeno 3881:The 3754:and 3494:and 3455:and 3397:Huns 3367:and 3215:Huns 3047:and 2882:Alan 2876:The 2829:Rome 2618:The 2590:and 2513:and 2501:and 2479:Alps 2434:The 2398:per 2392:Huns 2382:for 2347:and 2193:and 2189:The 2066:the 1962:Huns 1728:Gaul 1667:nuns 1593:Rome 1482:and 1478:and 1377:and 1345:deus 1302:and 1097:Huns 909:and 820:The 813:The 683:Zeno 639:Huns 610:and 588:army 558:The 404:Utus 217:Asti 182:Save 12390:Osi 11698:Law 11628:Art 11555:of 10601:Old 10285:Art 10058:Rex 9902:Dux 9816:Law 9451:doi 9190:doi 9085:doi 8997:doi 8968:doi 8684:doi 7848:by 6449:–. 6447:190 5956:doi 5624:doi 5094:doi 4937:doi 4894:doi 4845:PMC 4835:doi 4823:106 4759:doi 4656:doi 4619:doi 4563:105 4370:doi 4317:doi 4252:doi 4248:107 3344:to 3008:in 2493:in 2481:to 2386:by 2062:of 1528:of 1343:et 13639:: 12887:, 12883:, 12879:, 9500:. 9496:. 9457:. 9447:15 9445:. 9441:. 9403:. 9384:. 9351:85 9349:, 9281:. 9196:. 9184:. 9101:. 9091:. 9029:. 9003:. 8991:. 8974:. 8964:22 8962:. 8940:. 8757:). 8734:. 8690:. 8659:. 8514:. 8480:^ 8376:, 8324:^ 8165:^ 7867:^ 7579:^ 7440:^ 7425:^ 7400:^ 7325:^ 7250:^ 7120:^ 7009:^ 6970:^ 6923:^ 6908:^ 6869:^ 6770:^ 6707:^ 6608:^ 6593:^ 6578:^ 6561:^ 6532:^ 6369:^ 6342:^ 6255:^ 6124:^ 6085:^ 6019:. 6013:. 6002:^ 5962:. 5952:49 5950:. 5946:. 5899:^ 5846:^ 5699:, 5630:. 5620:49 5618:. 5506:. 5417:^ 5255:^ 5212:, 5186:^ 5176:, 5161:, 5157:, 5110:. 5100:. 5088:. 5030:^ 5017:. 4983:^ 4943:. 4935:. 4900:. 4890:15 4888:. 4853:. 4843:. 4833:. 4821:. 4817:. 4781:^ 4767:. 4755:43 4753:. 4749:. 4700:, 4687:. 4662:. 4650:. 4627:. 4615:22 4613:. 4609:. 4561:. 4537:^ 4390:^ 4376:. 4366:49 4364:. 4327:^ 4246:, 4121:^ 4082:^ 4063:nl 3929:. 3750:, 3743:. 3688:. 3645:, 3472:. 3322:. 3125:. 3035:c. 2956:. 2790:. 2642:. 2359:. 2327:. 2222:, 2081:, 2058:, 1943:. 1927:r. 1916:r. 1893:r. 1882:r. 1816:r. 1792:c. 1685:, 1661:, 1318:. 1177:. 1166:. 971:. 899:. 685:. 641:, 626:. 13235:e 13228:t 13221:v 12891:) 12875:( 12662:e 12655:t 12648:v 11675:) 11536:e 11529:t 11522:v 9579:e 9572:t 9565:v 9511:. 9487:. 9468:. 9453:: 9432:. 9415:. 9405:5 9377:. 9340:. 9323:. 9293:. 9247:. 9226:. 9204:. 9192:: 9186:8 9155:. 9133:. 9109:. 9087:: 9072:. 9011:. 8999:: 8993:1 8982:. 8970:: 8887:. 8874:. 8853:. 8836:. 8817:. 8795:. 8746:( 8717:. 8700:. 8686:: 8673:. 8629:. 8612:. 8582:. 8522:. 8360:. 8112:. 8070:. 8002:. 7898:. 6678:. 6466:. 6177:. 6031:. 5984:. 5958:: 5651:. 5638:. 5626:: 5591:. 5563:. 5517:. 5118:. 5096:: 5073:. 4953:. 4939:: 4908:. 4896:: 4861:. 4837:: 4829:: 4775:. 4761:: 4698:. 4670:. 4658:: 4652:8 4635:. 4621:: 4508:. 4439:. 4414:. 4384:. 4372:: 4349:. 4319:: 4293:. 4254:: 4232:. 4191:. 4135:. 4105:. 4001:) 3997:( 3153:( 3137:( 2563:. 2557:. 2311:) 2247:" 1924:( 1913:( 1890:( 1879:( 1813:( 1806:. 1196:) 1188:) 844:. 116:e 109:t 102:v 51:. 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Index