Colha, Belize - Knowledge

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development of quadrants and numbering schemes, the beginning of a regional survey program, and the outlining of a preliminary ceramic chronology by Adams and Valdez. The 1980 season confirmed that Colha was an important center for the production of lithics for the area and the formalization of the regional survey under the title, Colha Regional Survey(CRS). The CRS program was important in the locating of several preceramic sites in Northern Belize including; Ladyville, Lowe Ranch, and Sand Hill. The following season, 1980, contributed significant information about how control and distribution of Colha lithics was managed at the site and accommodated the establishment of a detailed lithic chronology for the region, by the end of the 1981 season. Excavations in 1983 were the most expansive in the number of people and area covered of all the years of the Colha Project and covered several aspects of the site in the Preclassic and the transition from the Classic to the Postclassic. the latter being the subject again in 1984. 1985 saw no work of the Colha Project, but 1986 saw a return to this transition with a greater influence on expanding the knowledge on the Late Classic, especially as it pertained to Lithic production. In 1987, while research continued on the 1986 studies, a new emphasis was developed on the Preceramic Period. Operation 4046 located off mound at the edge of an aguada recovered lithic tools and debitage from the Preceramic period. Investigations at 4046 continued during brief investigations in 1988 and recovered additional lithic material below the Maya ceramic zone. 1989 saw the first inclusion of a field school from the University of Texas at Austin under the direction of Fred Valdez Jr. The research centered around preclassic deposits at Operation 2031, while John Jacob's important soil coring project started in the adjacent Cobweb Swamp. Jacobs work was the main focus in 1990, but in 1991 attention turned back to the preceramic and operation 4046 through Valdez's second Colha field school.

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surrounding area and the lack of construction at the site. Colha's Hiatus allowed a regeneration of the environment, something that has been suggested as a causal factor in the sites reoccupation in the Early Postclassic period. The impetus for the re-occupation has also been inferred to be the site's location in the vicinity of the chert bearing lands, as evidenced by the 12 lithics workshops attributed to the Postclassic. Hester and Shafer further note that the lithics produced in these workshops were made from more than the local chert. Imported chalcedony and large amount of obsidian (relative to previous occupations) are important sources of worked stone in Postclassic Colha and new forms like the "side-notched dart points" are evident at this time. However, Colha of the Postclassic was likely a small society of agrarian farmers who used lithic production to either supplement their subsistence or to serve a greater polity in the Yucatan. The agrarian subsistence strategy of choice for the people who re-occupy Colha seems to be a type of tree cropping. Consider the following excerpt from Buttles (2002):

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temporary settlement and selective adaptation through agriculture, with most sites located near easily attained natural recourses and adjacent to "swamp and lagoon margins, river valleys, near-coastal areas, upland settings along ecotonal boundaries, rockshelters, and caves". Despite the understanding of where to look for these evidences, concrete habitation sites for this period have been illusive to archaeologists, who must rely heavily on lithics and pollen studies to reconstruct the settlement patterns for the Late Archaic in Belize. Colha falls in an area of one particularly important natural resource, chert, and is very near to Cobweb Swamp. Therefore it was an optimal area to search for evidence of Late Archaic evidence in Belize. On this assumption, Thomas Hester and Harry Shafer dedicated the 1993-1995 Colha Project field seasons toward the investigation of the Late Archaic near Colha.

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Lowe points and Sawmill points. Both of these points are found predominantly between Colha and Ladyville. A shift in lithics is seen at around 1500 B.C. just as the hiatus ends. Iceland calls this period (1500 B.C. -900B.C.)the Late Preceramic based on radiocarbon dating of the associated assemblage. He further demonstrates how this shift is indicative of a shift in agricultural strategies. The most diagnostic tool in the Late Preceramic assemblage is a distinctive type of uniface that appears to have been used for extensive clearing of land for farming.

459:. The Blossom Red complex is indicative of this transitional period and is dominated by Sierra Red ceramics, although several other types (San Filipe, Chactoc, and Sarteneja) make up part of the complex. At least two buildings have been attributed to the Protoclassic Period and these have demonstrated a shift in layout from the apsidal form of earlier periods toward the square/rectangular form that is found in the Classic Period. Anthony suggests that these structures may have been used for ritual purposes, as evidenced by the use of extensive 283:. According to Palma Buttles, “Archaeological evidence from Colha allows for the interpretation occupation from the Early Preceramic (3400-1900B.C.) to Middle Postclassic (A.D. 1150-1300) with population peaks occurring in the Late Preclassic (400B.C.- A.D. 100) and again in the Late Classic ( A.D. 600-850)”. These peaks in population are directly related to the presence of stone tool workshops at the site. Colha's proximity to an important source of high quality 542:

both ceremonial in nature, appear to have been burnt. Within operation 2011, an 80 cm by 110 cm pit was found in the 1980 field season and dates to between A.D. 659 and A.D. 782. It contained skulls of 10 men, 10 women, and 10 children. These had been removed through decapitation and burnt. Massey notes that the skulls in the skull pit were likely those of elite citizens as evidenced by their cranial shaping and filled teeth.

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presumed to be empty. This chronology was supported by the pollen data from Cobweb Swamp. In his dissertation, Jones (1994) suggests that manioc and maize were being cultivated by the people of Colha at Cobweb Swamp. Jones documented evidence that "early human forest modification, disturbance and domesticated plant cultivation was established for the period prior to 2,500 B.C. (or nearly 1500 years before any other Maya site).

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Iceland, John S. Jacob, John G. Jones, Thomas C. Kelly, Eleanor M. King, Jon C. Lohse, Virginia K. Massey, Marilyn A. Masson, Roberta McGregor, Richard Meadows, Frances Meskill, George H. Michaels, Shirley B. Mock, Daniel R. Potter, Ketherine V. Reese, Erwin Roemer, Robert F. Scott IV, Harry J. Shafer, Leslie C. Shaw, Janet Stock, Lauren A. Sullivan, A.J. Taylor, Fred Valdez Jr., Richard r. Wilk, and Lori Wright.

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ceramic complexes are directly correlated to certain periods during the Postclassic; the Yalam complex to the Early Postclassic (A.D.950-1250), the Canos complex to the Middle Postclassic (A.D.1250-1300), and the Ranas complex to the Late Postclassic (A.D.1300-1400). The Yalam and Canos complexes are complete, but the Ranas complex seems to only reflect an influx of "Mayapan-style (visitation) censers".

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possible importance of Colha in the archaeological discussion of Maya lithics and craft specialization prompted a call for a long term investigation at the site. It was decided that Thomas R. Hester and Harry J. Shafer should be in charge of this project due to their experience with lithics. The result was a 14-year project by Hester, Shafer, and colleagues under the auspices of the

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become a center of importance in the region. Hester and Shafer document that as many as 36 workshops are present during this period. While domestic structures remained architecturally similar, some did increase in size during the Late Preclassic. Burials become more frequent in this period and the contents show more diverse contents, especially as it pertains to imported items.

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Steele, D. Gentry, Jack D. Eaton, and A. J. Taylor. 1980. The Skulls from Operation 2011 at Colha: A Preliminary Examination. In The Colha Project: Second Season 1980 Interim Report, edited by T.R. Hester, J.D. Eaton, and H.J. Shafer, pp. 163-172. Center for Archaeological Research, The University of

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Hester, Thomas R. and Shafer, Harry J. 1994. The Ancient Maya Craft Community at Colha, Belize and Its External Relationships. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside: Village Communities in Early Complex Societies. Edited by G. Schwartz and S. Falconer. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington

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Shafer, Harry J. 1994. Community-wide Lithic Craft Specialization in the Late Preclassic Lowland Maya: A Case for Northern Belize. In Continuing Archaeology at Colha, Belize. Studies in Archaeology 16. Edited by T.Hester, H.Shafer, and J.Eaton. pp.137-154.Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory, The

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The end of the Classic period may be seen through the cessation of maintenance of building 2012 and through a unique deposit at operation 2011. While building 2012 shows some evidence of continued use through the Terminal Classic construction of two small shrines at its base, buildings 2011 and 2025,

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Additionally, the first signs of the importing of raw materials and goods from afar appear in the Middle Preclassic. This is suggested to be evidence of the development of long distance trade and causal for the expansion of Colha in population and prestige. Middle Preclassic architecture is dominated

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In his 1997 Ph.D. Dissertation, Harry Iceland put together a compilation of 23 calibrated radio-carbon dates from between 3400 B.C. and 900 B.C. that demonstrated regular utilization of the site throughout the Late Archaic, with the exception of a gap between 1900 B.C. and 1500 B.C., when the site is

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mapped, named, tested, and reported the site for the first time In 1975, Hammond returned to Colha for further investigations which uncovered large deposits of lithic production debitage and showed that the site had a long history of occupation. At the 1976 Maya Lithic Conference, a discussion on the

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After the Classic period, Colha seems to be abandoned for a short time. According to Buttles, "following the apparent violent end of Colha during the Terminal Classic the site remained unoccupied for a period of 50-100 years until around A.D.950". This hiatus is evident in the pollen analysis of the

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In Belize, there is sparse evidence for occupation during the Archaic period before 3400 B.C. This date has been used in conjunction with the Colha chronology, introduced by Iceland (1997), to outline the delineation of the Late Archaic period (3400-900B.C.). This period seems to have been a time of

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According to Buttles, "During the Early Classic Cobweb complex are apparent decreases in population, lithic production, settlement patterns, mortuary practices, and in general, material culture". While Cobweb complex ceramics are found throughout the site, the assemblage is the smallest numerically

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Important contributors to the knowledge and publications available on Colha include (alphabetically, not by importance); Richard E.W. Adams, Dana Anthony, Jaime Awe, Palma Buttles, Meredith Dreiss, Jack D. Eaton, James T. Escobedo Jr., Lawrence H. Feldman, Eric C. Gibson, Thomas R. Hester, Harry B.

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This re-occupation has been suggested to be by a group with strong ties to the Yucatan and significantly different material culture than those who occupied Colha before the hiatus and no monumental architecture. After A.D.950, the site is occupied throughout the remainder of the Postclassic. Three

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and 4,000 within a six square kilometer area. Consequently, a majority of architectural remains, both public and domestic are erected in the late Classic and there is a large increase in the number of raised fields found at Cobweb Swamp during this period. However, while evidence of ritual caching

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The classic period represents a time of fluctuation in population and power for Colha. Three occupational phases are recognized at Colha during the classic period. Each has an associated ceramic complex. The Early Classic (A.D. 250-600) is associated with the Cobweb complex. The Late Classic (A.D.

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and may have been independent or semi-independent. To support this growth, Colha further developed its system of raised fields at Cobweb Swamp and expanded its lithic production specialization, in scale and types of lithics produced (i.e. stemmed macroblades and bifacial symbolic flaked stones) to

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Another tool used for the investigation of Late Archaic period Colha is lithic type analysis. Macroblades, microblades, pointed unifaces, and other specific lithic types have been noted for Colha and used to extrapolate dating for the region. Early entrants into the lithics record at Colha include

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The Colha Project is a long running dig at and around Colha. The project began in 1979 with an extensive investigation of the lithic production sites noted by Hammond and his associates, under the direction of Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and Robert Heizer. Highlights from this season included the

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Hester, Thomas R., G. Ligabue, Jack D. Eaton, Harry J. Shafer, and R.E.W. Adams. 1980. The 1980 Season at Colha, Belize: An Overview. In The Colha Project Second Season, 1980 Interim Report, edited by T.R. Hester, J.D. Eaton, and Harry J. Shafer, pp. 1-14. Center for Archaeological Research, The

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is less than found during these previous times. Lithics, on the other hand, return to prominence at this time, but the control and distribution of these throughout the site shifts considerably. In number, lithics workshops of the Late Classic exceed the Preclassic or Protoclassic. However, their

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Hester, Thomas R. and Harry J. Shafer 1991. Lithics of the Early Postclassic at Colha, Belize. In Maya Stone Tools Selected Papers from the Second Maya Lithic Conference, edited by T.R. Hester and H.J. Shafer, pp.155-162. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 1. Prehistory Press, Madison,

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Eaton, Jack D. 1994 Archeological Investigations at the Main Datum Mound, Colha Belize. In Continuing Archeology at Colha, Belize, edited by T.R. Hester, H.J. Shafer, and J.D. Eaton, pp. 99-108. Studies in Archeology 16. The University of Texas at Austin, Texas Archeological Research

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Potter, Daniel R. 1994 Strat 55, Operation 2012, and Comments on Lowland Maya Blood Ritual. In Continuing Archeology at Colha Belize: Selected Papers from the 1983 and 1984 Seasons. Studies in Archaeology, No. 4, edited by T.R. Hester and H.J. Shafer. Texas Archeological Research

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Massey, Virginia K. 1994 Osteological Analysis of the Skull Pit Children. In Continuing Archeology at Colha, Belize, edited by T.R. Hester, H.J. Shafer, and J.D. Eaton, pp. 209-220. Studies in Archeology 16. The University of Texas at Austin, Texas Archeological Research

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Potter, Daniel R.; Hester, Thomas R.; Black, Stephen L.; and Valdez, Fred (Jr.). 1984. Relationships Between Early Preclassic and Early Middle Preclassic Phases in Northern Belize: A Comment on "Lowland Maya Archaeology at the Crossroads". American Antiquity. 49(3):

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Eaton, Jack D. 1982. Colha: An Overview of Architecture and Settlement. In Archaeology at Colha, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report. Edited by T.Hester, H.Shafer, and J.Eaton. Center for Archaeological Research. The University of Texas at San Antonio.

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Despite the noted reduction and size and importance during the Early classic, Colha may have reached its fluorescence during the Late Classic. According to Jack Eaton, Late Classic Colha may have grown to a population of nearly 1,000 people in its

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Further increases in population and complexity are evident in the Late Preclassic, at Colha. The site grew to an estimated population of 600 during this period and began to construct its first monumental architecture, in the form of formal plazas,

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In terms of material culture it is difficult to differentiate between the Terminal Classic and Late Classic. On exception to this may be seen in a shift in lithic assemblages and ceramics toward a style that is influenced by major sites on the

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Valdez, Fred (Jr.). 1994. The Colha Ceramic Complexes. In Continuing Archaeology at Colha, Belize: Studies in Archaeology 16. Edited by T. Hester, H.Shafer, and J.Eaton. Texas Archaeological Research Laboratory, The University of Texas at

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Kelly, Thomas C. 1980. The Colha Regional Survey. In The Colha Project, Second Season, 1980 Interim Report, edited by T.R. Hester, J.D. Eaton, and H.J. Shafer, pp. 51-70. Center for Archaeological Research, The University of Texas at San

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Wilk, Richard L. 1976 Work in Progress at Colha, Belize, 1976. In Maya Lithic Studies: Papers from the 1976 Field Symposium, edited by T.R. Hester and N. Hammond:35-40. Center for Archaeological Research, The University of Texas at San

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Subsistence strategies may be best revealed through the paleobotanical and faunal remains. The paleobotanical data recovered from Operations 2001 and 2010 indicate the use of a variety of cultigens and tree cropping including maize

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of ceramics (found primarily in caches), with evidence of wetland agriculture and "garden hunting" in nearby Cobweb Swamp as a subsistence strategy The community of Colha quickly progressed from there. According to Buttles,

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distribution is spread throughout the site and seem to be more independent of state control at this time. These household workshops seem to specialize what they are creating and how they are creating these lithics.

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Hester, Thomas R., and Norman Hammond (editors). 1976 Maya Lithic Studies: Papers from the 1976 Belize Field Symposium. Special Report Number 4, Center For Archaeological Research. The University of Texas at San

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Adams, Richard E.W. 1982. Rank Size Analysis of northern Belize Maya Sites. In Archaeology of Colha, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report. Center for Archaeological Research, The University of Texas at San Antonio.

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in the Masson complex and the appearance trade wares from the Yucatan (Ticul Thin Slate ceramics). While others note the specialization in smaller stemmed blades to indicate this shift through the adoption of

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King, Eleanor M. 2000. The Organization of Late Classic Lithic Production at The Prehistoric Maya Site of Colha, Belize: A Study in Complexity and Heterarchy. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

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King, Eleanon M. 2000 The Organization of Late Classic Lithic Production at The Prehistoric Maya Site of Colha, Belize: A Study in Complexity and Heterarchy. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

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King, Eleanor M. 2000 The Organization of Late Classic Lithic Production at The Prehistoric Maya Site of Colha, Belize: A Study in Complexity and Heterarchy. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

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Santone L. 1997. Transport Costs, Consumer Demand, and Patterns of Intraregional Exchange: A Perspective on Commodity Production and Distribution from Northern Belize. Latin American Antiquity 8(1):71-88.

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Lohse, Jon C.; Awe, Jaime; Griffith, Cameron; Rosenwig, Robert M.; and Vadez, Fred. 2006. Preceramic Occupations in Belize: Updating the Paleoindian and Archaic Record. Latin American Antiquity, 17(2),

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Hester, Thomas R., G. Ligabue, Harry J. Shafer, Jack D. Eaton , Robert F. Heizer, and Sandro Salvatori. 1979. Colha, Belize: A Preliminary Statement on the 1979 Season. In Belizean Studies, Vol. 7, No.

412:"By the Late Middle Preclassic (600 - 400B.C.), Chiwa complex (or Mamom phase) settlement patterns suggest that the series of interactive households became unified and probably represented a low-level 1084:

Masson, Marilyn A. 1989 Lithic Production Changes in Late Classic Maya Workshops at Colha, Belize: A Study of Debitage Variation. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University.

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of the complexes associated with Colha and there have been no lithics workshops attributed to this period at the site. The latter may be an indication of the growing importance of lithic workshops at

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Meadows, Richard. 2001. Crafting K'awil: A Comparative Analysis of Maya Symbolic Flaked Stone Assemblages from Three Sites in Northern Belize. PhD Dissertation for The University of Texas at Austin.

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that is found in the Cenozoic limestone of the region and well traveled trade routes was utilized by the inhabitants to develop a niche in the Maya trade market that may have extended to the

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Shaw, Leslie C. 1991. The Articulation of Social Inequality and Fuanal Resource Use in the Preclassic Community of Colha, Northern Belize. PhD Dissertation for University of Massachusetts.

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The early portion of the Middle Preclassic, as the inception of permanent settlement in Colha, was characterized by small households that are dispersed throughout the site and the Bolay

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Hester, Thomas R., Harry Iceland, Dale Hudler, and Harry J. Shafer 1996 The Colha Preceramic Project: Preliminary Results from the 1993-1995 Field Seasons. Mexicon 18:3 (June):45-50.

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Buttles, Palma J. 2002. Material and Meaning: A Contextual Examination of Select Portable Material Culture from Colha, Belize. Dissertation for University of Texas at Austin. p.100.

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Buttles, Palma J. 2002. Material and Meaning: A Contextual Examination of Select Portable Material Culture from Colha, Belize. Dissertation for University of Texas at Austin, p. 87.

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Buttles, Palma J. 2002. Material and Meaning: A Contextual Examination of Select Portable Material Culture from Colha, Belize. Dissertation for University of Texas at Austin. p.95.

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Buttles, Palma J. 2002. Material and Meaning: A Contextual Examination of Select Portable Material Culture from Colha, Belize. Dissertation for University of Texas at Austin: pg.72

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Iceland, Harry B. 1997 The Preceramic Origins of the Maya: The Results of the Colha Preceramic Project in Northern Belize. Ph.D. dissertation. The University of Texas at Austin.

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Buttles, Palma J. 2002. Material and Meaning: A Contextual Examination of Select Portable Material Culture from Colha, Belize. Dissertation for University of Texas at Austin.

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Hester, Thomas R. 1983. A Preliminary Report on the 1983 Investigations at Colha. Colha Project, Center for Archaeological Research, The University of Texas at San Antonio.

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Wilson, Samuel M.; Iceland, Harry B.; Hester, Thomas R. 1998. Preceramic Connections Between Yucatan and the Caribbean. Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 9(4): 342-352.

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Brown DO, Dreiss ML, and Hughes RE. 2004. Preclassic Obsidian Procurement and Utilization at the Maya Site of Colha, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 15(2):222-240

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Roemer, Erwin 1984 A Late Classic Maya Lithic Workshop at Colha, Belize. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station.

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Shafer, Harry J. and Hester, Thomas J. 1991. Lithic Craft Specialization and Product Distribution at the Maya Site of Colha. World Archaeology. 23(1): 79-97.

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During this period a general pattern of development is evident at the site through evidence of increasing complexity, socially, culturally and economically.

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Anthony, Dana S. 1987. Analysis of the Preclassic Households Beneath the Main Plaza at Colha, Belize. Master's thesis for the University of Texas at Austin.

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Wood, Gregory, Excavations at Op. 4046, Colha, Belize: A Buried Preceramic Lithic Deposit, unpublished MA Thesis, University of Texas at San Antonio, 1990

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Sullivan, Lauren A. Preclassic Domestic Architecture at Colha, Belize. Masters thesis, Department of Anthropology, The University of Texas at Austin.

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The Protoclassic Period, sometimes referred to as the Terminal Preclassic, at Colha is a time of change in ceramics and patterns found in Colha's

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Scarborough, Vernon L. 1986. Civic and Residential Settlement at a Late Preclassic Maya Center. Journal of Field Archaeology. Vol 13: 155-175.

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Hammond, Norman. 1973 Corozal Project Interim Report, edited by N. Hammond. Centre of Latin American Studies, Cambridge University, England.

279:. The site is one of the earliest in the Maya region and remains important to the archaeological record of the Maya culture well into the 247: 467:

paraphernalia. This ritual evidence may coincide with the first observations of mathematics and writing at Colha, which includes

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600-700)is associated with the Bomba complex. And, the Terminal Classic (A.D. 700-875) is associated with the Masson complex.

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for the region. It has been estimated that the 36 workshops at Colha produced nearly 4 million chert and obsidian tools and

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Jacob, John S. 1992. The Agroecological Evolution of Cobweb Swamp, Belize. PhD Dissertation Texas A&M University. p.61.

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Jacob, John S. 1992. The Agroecological Evolution of Cobweb Swamp, Belize. Doctoral Dissertation. Texas A&M University.

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Jones, John G. 1994. Pollen Evidence from Early Settlement and Agriculture in Northern Belize. Palynology. Vol. 18; 205-211

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at structure 2012. Caches for the Protoclassic tend to be in lip-to-lip pottery vessels and include an important cache of

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return, they do not reach the levels found in the Late Preclassic or Protoclassic and the quantity of imported prestige

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Jacob, John S. 1992. The Agroecological Evolution of Cobweb Swamp, Belize. PhD Dissertation Texas A&M University.

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Valdez, Fred R. 1987 The Ceramics of Colha. Doctoral dissertation for Harvard University, Cambridge. pp. 130-131.

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technology and/or the increased demand for these points in the export market to accommodate an increase in

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during the Maya era. This made it an important player in the trade of essential good throughout the area.

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There are three generally recognized phases in Preclassic Period (900 B.C. – A.D. 250) Colha. These are:

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archaeological site located in northern portion of the country, about 52 km. north of

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Despite evidence of periodic utilization in the Preceramic (Formative) Period through

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The first archaeological excavations at Colha were in 1973. As part of the

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and indicative of a shift in political power in the region.

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Maya sites that survived the end of the Classic Period

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for more articles see Category:Maya sites in Mexico

1167: 1165: 1163: 975: 973: 971: 969: 496: 818: 816: 814: 812: 731: 2167: 1160: 668: 666: 664: 1144: 1142: 1140: 988: 986: 966: 391:utilization around the site as far back as the 1101: 1099: 1042: 1040: 809: 1194: 661: 241: 1137: 983: 1096: 1037: 421:by low-walled circular structures built on 1201: 1187: 1011: 1009: 959: 957: 835: 833: 831: 829: 654: 652: 650: 373:Late Preclassic (400 B.C. – A.D. 100), and 361: 248: 234: 904: 902: 900: 898: 896: 894: 892: 648: 646: 644: 642: 640: 638: 636: 634: 632: 630: 600:)(Caldwell 1980:261; Miksicek 1979:158)". 471:incised into one of these cache vessels. 442:. This suggests that Colha had developed 387:at nearby Cobweb Swamp and debitage from 306: 919: 917: 915: 451:Protoclassic Period Colha (A.D. 100-250) 1006: 954: 826: 429:Late Preclassic Colha (400B.C.-A.D.100) 2168: 889: 627: 1182: 912: 545: 399:Middle Preclassic Colha (900-400B.C.) 516:Terminal Classic Colha(A.D. 700-875) 335: 751:University of Texas at San Antonio. 344: 13: 16:Maya archaeological site in Belize 14: 2197: 484:Early Classic Colha(A.D. 250-600) 474: 370:Middle Preclassic (900-400 B.C.), 328:Colha Project (discussed below). 1384: 215: 40: 1151: 1127: 1117: 1108: 1087: 1078: 1069: 1059: 1049: 1028: 1018: 996: 944: 935: 926: 879: 870: 861: 852: 842: 800: 791: 782: 773: 764: 754: 744: 497:Late Classic Colha(A.D.600-700) 326:University of Texas at Austin's 299:that were dispersed throughout 1208: 721: 711: 702: 693: 684: 675: 1: 951:University of texas at Austin 620: 376:Protoclassic (A.D. 100-250). 179:Spanish conquest of the Maya 7: 608: 10: 2202: 2151: 2149: 2106: 1784: 1761: 1393: 1382: 1216: 22:This article is part of 362:Preclassic Period Colha 596:), and custard apple ( 418: 307:Archaeological history 222:Mesoamerica portal 1226:Actun Tunichil Muknal 1124:Texas at San Antonio. 580:), epiphytic cactus ( 568:)achiote or annatto ( 444:social stratification 410: 170:Classic Maya collapse 2181:Maya sites in Belize 1408:Altar de Sacrificios 317:Cambridge University 527:polychrome ceramics 275:, near the town of 566:Gossypium hirstum 562:Phaseolus vulgariz 546:Postclassic Period 281:Postclassic Period 2161: 2160: 2154:Pre-Columbian era 2099: 1608:Motul de San José 1241:Barton Creek Cave 598:Annona reticulata 586:Acrocomia mexican 576:), jauacte palm ( 572:), bitter gourd ( 336:The Colha Project 319:Corozal Project, 258: 257: 33:Maya civilization 2193: 2091: 1643:Punta de Chimino 1413:Arroyo de Piedra 1388: 1203: 1196: 1189: 1180: 1179: 1173: 1169: 1158: 1155: 1149: 1146: 1135: 1131: 1125: 1121: 1115: 1112: 1106: 1103: 1094: 1091: 1085: 1082: 1076: 1073: 1067: 1063: 1057: 1053: 1047: 1044: 1035: 1032: 1026: 1022: 1016: 1013: 1004: 1000: 994: 990: 981: 977: 964: 961: 952: 948: 942: 939: 933: 930: 924: 921: 910: 906: 887: 883: 877: 874: 868: 865: 859: 856: 850: 846: 840: 837: 824: 820: 807: 804: 798: 795: 789: 786: 780: 777: 771: 768: 762: 758: 752: 748: 742: 738: 729: 725: 719: 715: 709: 706: 700: 697: 691: 688: 682: 679: 673: 670: 659: 656: 491:Altun Ha, Belize 457:material culture 345:Formative Period 289:Greater Antilles 250: 243: 236: 220: 219: 218: 44: 34: 19: 18: 2201: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2194: 2192: 2191: 2190: 2166: 2165: 2162: 2157: 2156: 2145: 2102: 1780: 1757: 1389: 1380: 1212: 1207: 1177: 1176: 1170: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1138: 1132: 1128: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1097: 1092: 1088: 1083: 1079: 1074: 1070: 1064: 1060: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1038: 1033: 1029: 1023: 1019: 1014: 1007: 1001: 997: 991: 984: 980:D.C. pp. 48-63. 978: 967: 962: 955: 949: 945: 940: 936: 931: 927: 922: 913: 907: 890: 884: 880: 875: 871: 866: 862: 857: 853: 847: 843: 838: 827: 821: 810: 805: 801: 796: 792: 787: 783: 778: 774: 769: 765: 759: 755: 749: 745: 739: 732: 726: 722: 716: 712: 707: 703: 698: 694: 689: 685: 680: 676: 671: 662: 657: 628: 623: 611: 548: 518: 499: 486: 477: 453: 431: 401: 385:pollen analysis 364: 347: 338: 309: 254: 216: 214: 207: 165:Preclassic Maya 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2199: 2189: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2159: 2158: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2144: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2112: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2101: 2100: 2086: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1994:Plan de Ayutla 1991: 1986: 1981: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1821: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1796: 1790: 1788: 1782: 1781: 1779: 1778: 1773: 1767: 1765: 1759: 1758: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1685: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1638:Piedras Negras 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1399: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1383: 1381: 1379: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1323: 1318: 1316:Marco Gonzalez 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1222: 1220: 1214: 1213: 1206: 1205: 1198: 1191: 1183: 1175: 1174: 1159: 1150: 1136: 1126: 1116: 1107: 1095: 1086: 1077: 1068: 1058: 1048: 1036: 1027: 1017: 1005: 995: 982: 965: 953: 943: 934: 925: 911: 888: 878: 869: 860: 851: 841: 825: 808: 799: 790: 781: 772: 763: 753: 743: 730: 720: 710: 701: 692: 683: 674: 660: 625: 624: 622: 619: 618: 617: 610: 607: 602: 601: 582:Slenecereus sp 547: 544: 517: 514: 498: 495: 485: 482: 476: 475:Classic Period 473: 452: 449: 430: 427: 400: 397: 378: 377: 374: 371: 363: 360: 346: 343: 337: 334: 321:Norman Hammond 313:British Museum 308: 305: 256: 255: 253: 252: 245: 238: 230: 227: 226: 225: 224: 209: 208: 206: 205: 200: 195: 190: 182: 181: 175: 174: 173: 172: 167: 159: 158: 152: 151: 150: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 46: 45: 37: 36: 28: 27: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2198: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2173: 2171: 2164: 2155: 2148: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2132: 2131:Joya de Cerén 2129: 2127: 2124: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2097: 2096: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1972: 1970: 1969:Moral Reforma 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1889:Dzibilchaltun 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1820: 1817: 1815: 1812: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1777: 1774: 1772: 1769: 1768: 1766: 1764: 1760: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1679: 1676: 1674: 1671: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1604: 1601: 1599: 1596: 1594: 1591: 1589: 1586: 1584: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1536: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1458:Cotzumalhuapa 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1336:Nohoch Cheʼen 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1304: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1223: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1185: 1184: 1181: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1154: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1130: 1120: 1111: 1102: 1100: 1090: 1081: 1072: 1062: 1052: 1043: 1041: 1031: 1021: 1012: 1010: 999: 989: 987: 976: 974: 972: 970: 960: 958: 947: 938: 929: 920: 918: 916: 905: 903: 901: 899: 897: 895: 893: 882: 873: 864: 855: 845: 836: 834: 832: 830: 819: 817: 815: 813: 803: 794: 785: 776: 767: 757: 747: 737: 735: 724: 714: 705: 696: 687: 678: 669: 667: 665: 655: 653: 651: 649: 647: 645: 643: 641: 639: 637: 635: 633: 631: 626: 616: 613: 612: 606: 599: 595: 591: 590:Achras zapota 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 570:Bixa orellana 567: 563: 559: 554: 553: 552: 543: 539: 537: 533: 528: 524: 513: 510: 505: 494: 492: 481: 472: 470: 466: 465:blood letting 462: 458: 448: 445: 441: 437: 426: 424: 417: 415: 409: 406: 396: 394: 390: 386: 381: 375: 372: 369: 368: 367: 359: 355: 351: 342: 333: 329: 327: 322: 318: 314: 304: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 251: 246: 244: 239: 237: 232: 231: 229: 228: 223: 213: 212: 211: 210: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 185: 184: 183: 180: 177: 176: 171: 168: 166: 163: 162: 161: 160: 157: 154: 153: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 63: 60: 58: 55: 53: 50: 49: 48: 47: 43: 39: 38: 35: 30: 29: 25: 21: 20: 2163: 2093: 2014:San Gervasio 1854:Chichen Itza 1799:Aguada Fénix 1753:Zapote Bobal 1683:Takalik Abaj 1673:San Clemente 1326:Nim Li Punit 1265: 1153: 1129: 1119: 1110: 1089: 1080: 1071: 1061: 1051: 1030: 1020: 998: 946: 937: 928: 881: 872: 863: 854: 844: 802: 793: 784: 775: 766: 756: 746: 723: 713: 704: 695: 686: 677: 603: 597: 594:Carica papya 593: 589: 585: 581: 578:Bactis major 577: 574:Momordia sp. 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 549: 540: 536:Maya warfare 519: 500: 487: 478: 454: 432: 419: 411: 402: 382: 379: 365: 356: 352: 348: 339: 330: 310: 260: 259: 92:Architecture 2121:Casa Blanca 2108:El Salvador 1859:Chunchucmil 1814:Balankanche 1723:Wajxaklajun 1688:Tamarindito 1668:San Bartolo 1598:Mixco Viejo 1553:Kaminaljuyu 1488:El Porvenir 1433:Cerro Quiac 1376:Xunantunich 1351:San Estevan 1306:Lower Dover 1134:Laboratory. 1056:Laboratory. 1025:Laboratory. 592:), papaya ( 588:), chicle ( 564:), cotton ( 393:Paleolithic 301:Mesoamerica 293:stone tools 277:Orange Walk 273:Belize City 2176:Maya sites 2170:Categories 2152:See also: 2136:San Andrés 2116:Cara Sucia 2029:Tortuguero 1904:Hormiguero 1879:Comalcalco 1849:Chinkultic 1834:Chacchoben 1708:Tres Islas 1593:Machaquila 1583:La Joyanca 1493:El Temblor 1478:El Mirador 1453:Chutixtiox 1443:Chitinamit 1356:Santa Rita 1301:Louisville 1261:Chaa Creek 1246:Cahal Pech 1236:Baking Pot 1210:Maya sites 1172:Wisconsin. 1066:Laboratory 823:pp.209-226 621:References 560:), beans ( 416:society". 297:eccentrics 2074:Yaxchilan 2004:Punta Sur 1939:Kohunlich 1899:Ekʼ Balam 1884:Dzibanche 1869:Chunlimón 1864:Chunhuhub 1776:El Puente 1653:Qʼumarkaj 1588:La Muerta 1578:La Corona 1573:La Blanca 1568:La Amelia 1498:El Tintal 1463:Dos Pilas 1395:Guatemala 1311:Lubaantun 1281:KaʼKabish 1003:pp.60-64. 993:pp.11-20. 584:), supa ( 509:artifacts 504:epicenter 440:ballcourt 198:Guatemala 97:Astronomy 82:Sacrifice 77:Mythology 62:Languages 2126:Cihuatán 2089:Yoʼokop 1989:Palenque 1984:Oxkintok 1844:Chicanná 1829:Calakmul 1824:Bonampak 1763:Honduras 1743:Zacpeten 1713:Uaxactun 1658:Río Azul 1648:Quiriguá 1613:Naachtun 1563:Kʼatepan 1543:Ixtonton 1418:Balberta 1403:Aguateca 1341:Pacbitun 1291:La Milpa 1276:El Pilar 1231:Altun Ha 886:628-631. 728:Antonio. 718:Antonio. 609:See also 558:Zea mays 438:, and a 414:chiefdom 137:Medicine 117:Textiles 102:Calendar 72:Religion 24:a series 2141:Tazumal 2069:Xtampak 2009:Río Bec 1979:Ocomtún 1959:Mayapan 1944:Komchen 1839:Chactún 1809:Balamku 1794:Acanceh 1748:Zaculeu 1703:Topoxte 1693:Tayasal 1633:Pajaral 1628:Naranjo 1603:Montana 1528:Iximche 1508:Guaytán 1503:El Zotz 1483:El Perú 1473:El Chal 1468:El Baúl 1448:Chocolá 1428:Cancuén 1423:Bejucal 1366:Uxbenka 1346:Pusilha 1321:Minanha 1296:Lamanai 1251:Caracol 761:Antonio 523:Yucatan 461:caching 436:temples 423:middens 405:Complex 193:Chiapas 188:Yucatán 156:History 147:Warfare 142:Cuisine 67:Writing 57:Society 2079:Yaxuná 2064:Xpuhil 2059:Xlapak 2049:Xcaret 2024:Toniná 1999:Pomona 1954:La Mar 1924:Joljaʼ 1909:Izamal 1786:Mexico 1733:Xultun 1728:Witzna 1718:Ucanal 1678:Seibal 1548:Ixtutz 1518:Holtun 1513:Holmul 1371:Xnaheb 1331:Nohmul 1286:Kʼaxob 1271:Cuello 1256:Cerros 1218:Belize 909:Austin 849:p.214. 741:6:1-7. 615:Cuello 532:atlatl 469:glyphs 389:lithic 265:Belize 107:Stelae 87:Cities 52:People 26:on the 2054:Xelha 2039:Uxmal 2034:Tulum 2019:Sayil 1974:Muyil 1949:Labna 1934:Kiuic 1929:Kabah 1919:Jaina 1914:Izapa 1894:Edzna 1819:Becan 1771:Copán 1738:Yaxha 1698:Tikal 1663:Sacul 1623:Nakum 1618:Nakbe 1558:Kinal 1533:Ixkun 1523:Itzan 1438:Chama 1266:Colha 285:chert 267:is a 261:Colha 203:Petén 132:Dance 127:Music 122:Trade 2084:Yula 2044:Uxul 1964:Maní 1874:Coba 1538:Ixlu 1361:Tipu 269:Maya 1804:Aké 112:Art 2172:: 1162:^ 1139:^ 1098:^ 1039:^ 1008:^ 985:^ 968:^ 956:^ 914:^ 891:^ 828:^ 811:^ 733:^ 663:^ 629:^ 263:, 2098:) 2092:( 1202:e 1195:t 1188:v 556:( 315:- 249:e 242:t 235:v

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