420:. Chapman struts, and their wide separation of load paths into the chassis, were a good fit to a stressed-skin structure such as the Elite and may have been an influence on its choice. They were less appropriate for a backbone chassis, requiring broad outriggers to carry the strut top loads, an un-Chapman-like feature that added weight for only a single purpose and was difficult to make stiff enough. It has been suggested that the spring forces from these struts would have been better supported as
209:
471:
397:
348:
22:
153:, but is also advantageous for unitary construction as it distributes suspension loads over a greater volume of the bodyshell. New car designs were also lighter and faster than pre-war cars, a cheap mass-production car now having performance that would previously have been the preserve of an expensive sports car. Drivers demanded roadholding and comfort that required
647:
628:
439:
led to an excessive sideways movement of the driveshafts. In this case, sideways location of the hubs was controlled by an enlarged diagonal radius rod to the front. Rubber sandwich mounts were developed that allowed vertical movement whilst controlling lateral movement. Similar vibration problems
288:
changes with suspension travel, in favour of a drive shaft with two universal joints. The connection between the hub carrier and the shock absorber base was made rigid, making the spring unit into a strut and also controlling the camber angle. Using the drive shaft itself to control the rear track
257:
meeting in 1957, Chapman saw the
Goggomobil system and was impressed by its Lotus-like simplicity and light weight. The use of the drive shafts for both drive and as a suspension component appealed to Chapman, who always favoured solutions that could make one component do double duty.
327:
bearing, for steering movement. There is little reason why a
Chapman strut could not be used similarly, although there is no record of this being tried on a front-wheel or four-wheel drive car. Both designs are struts, where the strut base is rigidly attached to the hub carrier.
322:
As it requires a drive shaft, the
Chapman strut can only be used at the driven end of the vehicle. For the Lotus designs to which it was applied, this was their rear. MacPherson struts are most commonly used for front suspension and the strut axis forms the
489:
rear suspension with wide-based tube lower wishbones carrying coilover shocks. The upper wishbones though were, once again in the style of the
Chapman strut, using the driveshafts themselves and a front radius rod. This is similar to the
516:
uses multi-link
Chapman strut suspension at the rear, with MacPherson struts at the front. Although the driveshafts are a suspension link, making this a Chapman strut, there are additional transverse links as well.
335:. These were unsuccessful, owing to the stiction problems that Chapman had worked to avoid with the sliding drive shaft joint. A wishbone conversion kit was later developed by ex-Lotus engineer
440:
were encountered with the Elite, but as these only had the vibration of the differential to control rather than engine vibration, it could be managed by suitable design of the rubber mounts.
169:, not only for control of body roll but also re-using it as an integral part of the suspension and so avoiding the need for a wishbone or radius rod in favour of a simple track control arm.
546:
Porsche used something similar with the early 911, where the front MacPherson struts were supported by torsion bars into its platform chassis, rather than the monocoque of the front wings.
138:
for cars: the stub axle was rigidly fixed to the strut, thus always keeping the same angle with it, rather than being attached through a swivelling joint as for Stout's Scarab.
200:. The swing axle shafts were only carried by the trailing radius rods, rather than an axle casing, and the long struts were shortened to a simple coilover shock absorber.
1030:
243:, the need for sliding splines in the rear driveshafts, and also (a typical Chapman fixation) its insensitivity to changes in weight as fuel is consumed. The first
180:
was already well-established for the front of high-performance cars. A front strut would also have required much greater height than was available in a racing car.
172:
The MacPherson strut appears to have had little influence on
Chapman at this time (although he would later use it unsuccessfully for the front suspension of his
315:, as both use a near-vertical upper strut, The distinction is that the MacPherson strut always requires a lower track control arm where the Chapman uses the
131:
537:
for longitudinal control as well, thus allowing a simpler one-bearing track control arm, rather than a broad-based wishbone with two inner bearings.
2376:
114:
The lower ends of the struts were attached to the swing axle casings by swivel bushes. Forward radius rods handled the longitudinal forces.
2647:
303:
of 1958. In 1959 this design was revised to use a lower wishbone. This in turn required a return to a sliding joint in the drive shaft.
239:, but later changed to coilover shock absorbers. Chapman had identified some of the de Dion's disadvantages as including its high
645:, Earle S. MacPherson, "Wheel suspension for motor vehicles", published 24 November 1953, assigned to Ford Motor Co.
626:, Earle S. MacPherson, "Vehicle wheel suspension system", published 6 January 1953, assigned to General Motors Co.
409:
Lotus road cars after the Twelve also used the
Chapman strut for rear suspension. These included the fibreglass platform-chassis
583:
485:
of 1960 no longer had the high bodywork behind the driver's seat on which to mount the tops of the struts. Instead it used a
1027:
2657:
2576:
491:
250:
cars used the same system, although the de Dion's mass was a drawback for a lightweight single-seater racing car.
2369:
2164:
939:
800:
755:
676:
1510:
1473:
284:, there was no need to pass the braking torque through the radius rods. Chapman also avoided the swing axle and its
104:
2144:
157:. MacPherson's strut was cheap to manufacture and reliable in service, having few moving joints and using the new
1064:
2119:
2070:
2417:
2362:
2065:
154:
991:
36:
2571:
2553:
177:
642:
623:
2605:
1582:
324:
158:
289:
meant that the shaft could be of fixed length, avoiding the need for a sliding spline joint and its
58:
The characteristic feature of the
Chapman strut is a long upright strut combining a coil spring and
2457:
2432:
162:
2228:
2174:
533:
Although some strut suspensions use lower wishbones, MacPherson's patent covered the use of the
2563:
509:
280:
There were two differences from these precursors to the
Chapman strut. As the Lotus Twelve had
84:
2600:
2412:
1503:
1464:
192:
used a similar suspension design to the Scarab. Much simpler though, the
Goggomobil had bare
196:
that also acted as the suspension links, with suspension forces passing through the inboard
2442:
2134:
2193:
931:
925:
431:
used a modified version of the Chapman strut. Owing to the need to isolate the engine and
149:: the strut requires a high top mounting point, which would be difficult to arrange for a
8:
2652:
2583:
2397:
2329:
1057:
1028:
http://www.fiatpress.com/download/2014/FIAT/schede-tecniche/141110_Fiat_Fiat-500X_ENG.pdf
486:
123:
100:
2203:
2198:
2129:
1625:
436:
2223:
2620:
1345:
935:
796:
788:
751:
747:
672:
664:
579:
1010:
2588:
2467:
2095:
2040:
1482:
814:
812:
592:
452:
417:
414:
403:
400:
312:
274:
127:
2482:
2472:
2045:
1639:
1634:
1352:
1034:
502:
240:
67:
63:
2154:
863:
809:
2516:
2506:
2501:
2402:
2295:
2269:
2262:
2159:
1735:
1577:
1549:
1457:
1450:
1050:
739:
702:
692:
690:
688:
571:
254:
150:
103:. Stout had also been an aircraft designer and considered that the long-travel
59:
907:
905:
446:
410:
2641:
2462:
2427:
2285:
2218:
2149:
2114:
1740:
1730:
1648:
1427:
1357:
892:
890:
534:
513:
470:
378:
336:
300:
281:
220:
166:
48:
824:
685:
208:
2615:
2537:
2213:
2139:
2124:
1745:
1725:
1704:
1689:
1568:
1542:
1537:
1362:
902:
851:
457:
428:
368:
285:
262:
244:
224:
212:
146:
88:
25:
887:
841:
839:
2496:
2491:
2422:
2233:
2208:
2169:
1661:
1610:
1605:
1561:
1554:
1526:
1521:
1487:
1432:
719:
717:
659:
657:
495:
421:
396:
316:
236:
197:
193:
783:
781:
779:
2610:
2334:
2324:
2300:
2243:
2238:
2109:
2060:
2055:
2010:
1443:
1073:
972:
948:
875:
836:
228:
189:
92:
52:
44:
40:
2354:
714:
654:
604:
261:
Chapman struts were introduced in Lotus' first single-seater car, the
2532:
2452:
2407:
2305:
2290:
2248:
2188:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2050:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
776:
734:
732:
506:
432:
347:
270:
266:
247:
215:. The strut spring, driveshaft below and radius rod can just be seen
21:
555:
Although some sources describe it as having MacPherson at both ends.
424:, which could then have been anchored to the main suspension spine.
2437:
2339:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1406:
1399:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
482:
474:
383:
373:
351:
332:
290:
173:
96:
1496:
729:
331:
Chapman did use MacPherson struts for the front suspension of the
296:
Chapman applied for a patent on his strut design on 13 June 1957.
232:
142:
696:
663:
1042:
435:
from the chassis in order to reduce noise and vibration, the
2319:
47:. It takes its name from, and is best known for its use by,
2447:
112:
the easiest type of running gear for comfort yet devised.'
1668:
978:
954:
911:
881:
869:
857:
845:
830:
818:
764:
723:
708:
610:
598:
570:
960:
896:
787:
564:
306:
95:
independent rear suspension, with long near-vertical
269:
in 1957, but re-engined in 1958 it also competed in
1011:"2016 Fiat 500X: little crossover with 500 styling"
641:
622:
2639:
635:
616:
494:, which also uses the driveshafts as an upper
2370:
1058:
311:The Chapman strut is often confused with the
795:. Chicago: Follett Publishing. p. 107.
145:car bodies appearing in new factories after
2377:
2363:
1065:
1051:
1008:
770:
738:
667:(1976). "Suspension". In Ian Ward (ed.).
141:MacPherson's strut took advantage of the
469:
395:
346:
207:
165:. MacPherson's strut also integrated an
99:struts from high mounting points on the
20:
2384:
2150:Opel Lotus Omega/Vauxhall Lotus Carlton
299:The Chapman strut also appeared on the
273:. This same car also introduced Lotus'
2640:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
966:
923:
235:. These had initially used transverse
2358:
1046:
1086:
465:
265:. This was developed as a 1.5-litre
16:Type of automotive suspension design
576:Colin Chapman: Inside the Innovator
203:
117:
13:
2648:Automotive suspension technologies
992:"Fiat 500X Suspension and Chassis"
697:Setright, Anatomy of the Motor Car
578:. Haynes Publishing. p. 116.
492:Jaguar independent rear suspension
307:Comparison to the MacPherson strut
39:used for light cars, particularly
14:
2669:
356:Note the height of the rear strut
1021:
1002:
984:
979:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
955:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
917:
912:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
882:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
870:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
858:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
846:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
831:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
819:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
724:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
709:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
611:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
599:Ludvigsen, Colin Chapman (2010)
549:
540:
527:
342:
78:
66:drive shaft itself forming the
1072:
897:Setright, The Designers (1976)
360:
83:The design's origin lies with
1:
2160:Opel Speedster/Vauxhall VX220
520:
183:
91:. This rear-engined car used
2418:Electronic Stability Control
601:, pp. 114–115, 120–121.
391:
155:independent front suspension
7:
481:The successful mid-engined
161:, rather than the previous
134:. This was the first true
109:'the airplane landing gear
37:independent rear suspension
10:
2674:
2658:Telescopic shock absorbers
1695:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1656:
1654:
1645:
1629:
1618:
1616:
1609:
1600:
1598:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1572:
1553:
1541:
1532:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1486:
1472:
1468:
1440:
1438:
1431:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
178:Double wishbone suspension
159:telescopic shock absorbers
73:
2562:
2546:
2525:
2515:
2481:
2390:
1688:
1686:
1667:
1660:
1658:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1631:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1602:
1594:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1567:
1560:
1558:
1548:
1546:
1536:
1534:
1525:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1442:
1436:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1405:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1344:
1080:
231:racing cars and also the
188:In 1957, the lightweight
1009:David Zatz (June 2015).
872:, pp. 123–124, 127.
821:, pp. 116, 119–123.
711:, pp. 114, 119–120.
669:Anatomy of the Motor Car
477:with wishbone suspension
319:and a light radius rod.
2175:Lotus-Radford Type 62-2
2145:Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1
744:Classic Grand Prix Cars
924:Hidges, David (1997).
671:. Orbis. p. 160.
478:
406:
357:
216:
28:
473:
399:
350:
211:
24:
2120:Talbot Sunbeam Lotus
930:. Parragon. p.
833:, pp. 116, 123.
2385:Automotive handling
1033:9 June 2016 at the
899:, pp. 110–111.
860:, pp. 123–124.
282:inboard disk brakes
227:rear axles for his
101:space frame chassis
70:of the suspension.
2183:Concept cars
2130:Hennessey Venom GT
2115:Ford Cortina Lotus
2104:Related cars
914:, p. 118,123.
665:Setright, L. J. K.
479:
407:
358:
217:
29:
2635:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2624:
2621:Semi-trailing arm
2597:
2580:
2352:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2330:Lotus Engineering
2314:Group Lotus
2280:Key figures
2257:Future cars
1720:Racing cars
1714:
1713:
1569:Grand tourer
1346:Sports racer
969:, pp. 8, 30.
927:Lotus: The Legend
748:Haynes Publishing
585:978-1-84425-413-2
466:Successor designs
64:universal-jointed
2665:
2618:
2591:
2589:MacPherson strut
2574:
2547:Semi-independent
2523:
2522:
2468:Vehicle dynamics
2379:
2372:
2365:
2356:
2355:
2320:Official website
1717:
1716:
1708:
1701:
1084:
1083:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1044:
1043:
1037:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1006:
1000:
999:
988:
982:
976:
970:
964:
958:
952:
946:
945:
921:
915:
909:
900:
894:
885:
879:
873:
867:
861:
855:
849:
843:
834:
828:
822:
816:
807:
806:
789:Setright, L.J.K.
785:
774:
771:Ludvigsen (2006)
768:
762:
761:
736:
727:
721:
712:
706:
700:
694:
683:
682:
661:
652:
651:
650:
646:
639:
633:
632:
631:
627:
620:
614:
608:
602:
596:
590:
589:
568:
556:
553:
547:
544:
538:
531:
427:The mid-engined
415:backbone chassis
404:backbone chassis
313:MacPherson strut
275:wobbly-web wheel
204:Chapman's design
136:strut suspension
128:MacPherson strut
124:Earle MacPherson
118:MacPherson strut
2673:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2627:
2572:Double wishbone
2558:
2542:
2511:
2477:
2473:Weight transfer
2386:
2383:
2353:
2348:
2135:Westfield Sport
1715:
1699:
1698:
1076:
1071:
1041:
1040:
1035:Wayback Machine
1026:
1022:
1007:
1003:
998:. 11 June 2015.
990:
989:
985:
977:
973:
965:
961:
953:
949:
942:
922:
918:
910:
903:
895:
888:
880:
876:
868:
864:
856:
852:
844:
837:
829:
825:
817:
810:
803:
786:
777:
769:
765:
758:
750:. p. 184.
740:Ludvigsen, Karl
737:
730:
722:
715:
707:
703:
695:
686:
679:
662:
655:
648:
640:
636:
629:
621:
617:
609:
605:
597:
593:
586:
572:Ludvigsen, Karl
569:
565:
560:
559:
554:
550:
545:
541:
532:
528:
523:
505:version of the
503:all wheel drive
468:
394:
363:
355:
345:
309:
241:unsprung weight
206:
186:
132:Chevrolet Cadet
130:for use on the
120:
81:
76:
35:is a design of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2671:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2633:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2613:
2608:
2606:Sliding pillar
2603:
2598:
2586:
2581:
2568:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2520:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2403:Center of mass
2400:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2381:
2374:
2367:
2359:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2315:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2296:Romano Artioli
2293:
2288:
2281:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2267:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2229:Esprit Concept
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2184:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2165:Tesla Roadster
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2110:Caterham Seven
2105:
2101:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1721:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1501:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1448:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1404:
1402:
1397:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1070:
1069:
1062:
1055:
1047:
1039:
1038:
1020:
1001:
983:
981:, p. 128.
971:
959:
957:, p. 167.
947:
940:
916:
901:
886:
884:, p. 204.
874:
862:
850:
848:, p. 117.
835:
823:
808:
801:
775:
773:, p. 162.
763:
756:
728:
726:, p. 119.
713:
701:
699:, p. 161.
684:
677:
653:
643:A US 2660449 A
634:
615:
613:, p. 120.
603:
591:
584:
562:
561:
558:
557:
548:
539:
525:
524:
522:
519:
467:
464:
463:
462:
461:
460:
455:
450:
393:
390:
389:
388:
387:
386:
381:
376:
371:
362:
359:
354:Grand Prix car
344:
341:
308:
305:
255:750 Motor Club
205:
202:
185:
182:
151:ladder chassis
119:
116:
80:
77:
75:
72:
60:shock absorber
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2670:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2622:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2594:Chapman strut
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2463:Unsprung mass
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2428:Inboard brake
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2389:
2380:
2375:
2373:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2360:
2357:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2286:Colin Chapman
2284:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2204:Elise Concept
2202:
2200:
2199:Elite Concept
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1707:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1650:
1641:
1636:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1612:
1607:
1597:
1584:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1556:
1551:
1550:Europa S
1544:
1539:
1531:
1528:
1523:
1512:
1505:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1452:
1445:
1434:
1429:
1423:
1408:
1401:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1347:
1343:
1116:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1036:
1032:
1029:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1005:
997:
993:
987:
980:
975:
968:
967:Hidges (1997)
963:
956:
951:
943:
941:0-7525-2074-1
937:
933:
929:
928:
920:
913:
908:
906:
898:
893:
891:
883:
878:
871:
866:
859:
854:
847:
842:
840:
832:
827:
820:
815:
813:
804:
802:0-695-80584-3
798:
794:
793:The Designers
790:
784:
782:
780:
772:
767:
759:
757:1-84425-318-X
753:
749:
745:
741:
735:
733:
725:
720:
718:
710:
705:
698:
693:
691:
689:
680:
678:0-85613-230-6
674:
670:
666:
660:
658:
644:
638:
625:
619:
612:
607:
600:
595:
587:
581:
577:
573:
567:
563:
552:
543:
536:
535:anti-roll bar
530:
526:
518:
515:
514:Jeep Renegade
512:based on the
511:
508:
504:
499:
497:
493:
488:
484:
476:
472:
459:
456:
454:
451:
448:
445:
444:
443:
442:
441:
438:
437:rubber mounts
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
416:
412:
405:
402:
398:
385:
382:
380:
379:Lotus Sixteen
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
366:
365:
364:
353:
349:
340:
338:
334:
329:
326:
320:
318:
314:
304:
302:
301:Lotus Sixteen
297:
294:
292:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
259:
256:
251:
249:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
214:
210:
201:
199:
195:
191:
181:
179:
175:
170:
168:
167:anti-roll bar
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
137:
133:
129:
126:patented the
125:
115:
113:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
85:William Stout
71:
69:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
49:Colin Chapman
46:
42:
38:
34:
33:Chapman strut
27:
23:
19:
2616:Trailing arm
2593:
2538:De Dion tube
2398:Car handling
2270:
2263:
2194:Elan Concept
2140:Isuzu Piazza
1703:
1087:
1023:
1014:
1004:
996:Fiat 500 USA
995:
986:
974:
962:
950:
926:
919:
877:
865:
853:
826:
792:
766:
743:
704:
668:
637:
618:
606:
594:
575:
566:
551:
542:
529:
500:
480:
458:Lotus Europa
426:
422:torsion bars
408:
369:Lotus Twelve
343:Applications
330:
321:
310:
298:
295:
279:
263:Lotus Twelve
260:
252:
245:Lotus Twelve
237:leaf springs
225:de Dion
218:
213:Lotus Twelve
198:Hooke joints
194:drive shafts
187:
171:
147:World War II
140:
135:
121:
111:
108:
89:Stout Scarab
82:
79:Stout Scarab
57:
32:
30:
26:Lotus Twelve
18:
2564:Independent
2448:Tire / Tyre
2423:Fishtailing
2391:Main topics
2170:Proton EMAS
496:control arm
447:Lotus Elite
361:Racing cars
317:drive shaft
105:oleo struts
45:racing cars
2653:Lotus Cars
2642:Categories
2611:Swing axle
2601:Multi-link
2577:Jaguar IRS
2554:Twist beam
2517:Suspension
2458:Understeer
2443:Suspension
2335:Team Lotus
2325:Lotus Cars
2301:Dany Bahar
2224:Esprit M70
2096:E23 Hybrid
1074:Lotus Cars
624:US 2624592
521:References
453:Lotus Elan
449:(Lotus 14)
401:Lotus Elan
293:problems.
223:was using
190:Goggomobil
184:Goggomobil
163:lever arms
93:swing axle
68:lower link
2533:Beam axle
2526:Dependent
2502:Pneumatic
2453:Transaxle
2433:Oversteer
2408:Downforce
2306:Len Terry
2291:Tony Rudd
1483:Elan M100
510:crossover
507:Fiat 500X
501:The 2016
433:transaxle
392:Road cars
337:Len Terry
271:Formula 1
267:Formula 2
248:Formula 2
62:, with a
2584:Dubonnet
2438:Steering
2413:Drifting
2340:Lotus F1
2271:Type 135
2264:Type 134
2155:Kia Elan
2125:DeLorean
2071:T128 LMP
1736:Mark III
1705:Electric
1465:Roadster
1458:3-Eleven
1451:2-Eleven
1031:Archived
791:(1976).
742:(2006).
574:(2010).
487:wishbone
483:Lotus 18
475:Lotus 18
413:and the
384:Lotus 17
374:Lotus 15
352:Lotus 16
333:Lotus 17
291:stiction
219:In 1956
174:Lotus 17
122:In 1947
97:coilover
87:'s 1932
2507:Torsion
2219:Emotion
2209:CityCar
2066:T128 F1
1741:Mark IV
1731:Mark II
1649:Carlton
1640:Cortina
1635:Cortina
1578:Elan +2
1428:Mark VI
325:kingpin
233:Vanwall
221:Chapman
143:unitary
74:Origins
2483:Spring
2214:Eterne
1746:Mark V
1726:Mark I
1702:
1700:
1690:Eletre
1626:Saloon
1543:Esprit
1538:Europa
1363:Eleven
1113:2020s
1110:2010s
1107:2000s
1104:1990s
1101:1980s
1098:1970s
1095:1960s
1092:1950s
1015:Allpar
938:
799:
754:
675:
649:
630:
582:
429:Europa
286:camber
107:made,
41:sports
2519:types
2485:types
2234:Ethos
1662:Emeya
1611:Excel
1606:Eclat
1583:Elite
1562:Evija
1555:Evora
1527:Emira
1522:Exige
1504:Elite
1497:Coupé
1488:Elise
1433:Seven
411:Elite
253:At a
229:Lotus
53:Lotus
2497:Leaf
2492:Coil
2244:M250
2239:Etna
2076:T129
2061:T127
2056:T125
2011:100T
1511:Elan
1474:Elan
1444:340R
1353:VIII
1088:Type
936:ISBN
797:ISBN
752:ISBN
673:ISBN
580:ISBN
418:Elan
43:and
31:The
2249:M90
2189:APX
2091:E22
2086:E21
2081:E20
2051:119
2046:115
2041:114
2036:112
2031:109
2026:107
2021:102
2016:101
2006:99T
2001:98T
1996:97T
1991:96T
1986:95T
1981:94T
1976:93T
1669:SUV
176:).
51:of
2644::
1971:92
1966:91
1961:88
1956:87
1951:86
1946:81
1941:80
1936:79
1931:78
1926:77
1921:76
1916:74
1911:73
1906:72
1901:70
1896:69
1891:66
1886:64
1881:63
1876:61
1871:59
1866:56
1861:49
1856:48
1851:44
1846:43
1841:42
1836:41
1831:39
1826:38
1821:34
1816:33
1811:32
1806:31
1801:29
1796:27
1791:25
1786:24
1781:22
1776:21
1771:20
1766:18
1761:17
1756:16
1751:12
1407:62
1400:47
1393:40
1388:30
1383:23
1378:19
1373:17
1368:15
1358:IX
1340:4
1325:9
1295:9
1265:9
1235:9
1205:9
1175:9
1145:9
1013:.
994:.
934:.
932:27
904:^
889:^
838:^
811:^
778:^
746:.
731:^
716:^
687:^
656:^
498:.
339:.
277:.
55:.
2623:)
2619:(
2596:)
2592:(
2579:)
2575:(
2378:e
2371:t
2364:v
1337:3
1334:2
1331:1
1328:0
1322:8
1319:7
1316:6
1313:5
1310:4
1307:3
1304:2
1301:1
1298:0
1292:8
1289:7
1286:6
1283:5
1280:4
1277:3
1274:2
1271:1
1268:0
1262:8
1259:7
1256:6
1253:5
1250:4
1247:3
1244:2
1241:1
1238:0
1232:8
1229:7
1226:6
1223:5
1220:4
1217:3
1214:2
1211:1
1208:0
1202:8
1199:7
1196:6
1193:5
1190:4
1187:3
1184:2
1181:1
1178:0
1172:8
1169:7
1166:6
1163:5
1160:4
1157:3
1154:2
1151:1
1148:0
1142:8
1139:7
1136:6
1133:5
1130:4
1127:3
1124:2
1121:1
1118:0
1066:e
1059:t
1052:v
1017:.
944:.
805:.
760:.
681:.
588:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
