96:
693:
819:
78:
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25:
545:. Extensive spreading monotypic fields of yellow star-thistle are not uncommon. Its growth plasticity, competitiveness, preference for the Mediterranean climate, and a lack of natural herbivore enemies and co-evolved species, make it a very successful invader. The plant is an invasive pest in field crops, degrades native plant habitats and natural ecosystems, prevents the grazing of
1682:
Campobasso, G.; Sobhian, R.; Knutson, L.; Terragitti, G. 1998. Host specificity of
Bangasternus orientalis Capiomont (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) introduced into the United States for biological control of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L., Asteraceae: Carduae). Environmental entomology,.
1672:
Pitcairn, M. J., B.Villegas, D. M. Woods, R. Yacoub, and D. B. Joley. 2008. Evaluating implementation success for seven seed head insects on
Centaurea solstitialis in California, USA, pp. 610-616. In M. H. Julien, R. Sforza, M. C. Bon, H. C. Evans, P. E. Hatcher, H. L. Hinz, and B. G. Rector (eds.),
1038:
or "chewing disease", a neurological condition. The disease generally follows consumption of 60–200% of the horse's body weight over an extended period of a month or more, or 2.3–2.6 kilograms (5.1–5.7 pounds) of star-thistle per 100 kg (220 lb) body weight per day. Though star-thistle is
521:
with it in its native habitat. However, it has been introduced in several parts of the world, including
Australia, Argentina, Chile, and the U.S. In many of these non-native regions, where the particular array of natural biological controls found in the native regions do not exist, it has become an
983:
They compared subclover seeding, grazing, two mowings, grazing + mowing without subclover – and an untouched control without grazing, subclover, or mowing. Thistle seed production was 130 times higher where only one mowing was done, and 1,720 times higher where nothing was done, as compared to the
1745:
Pitcairn, M. J., D. M. Woods, and V. Popescu. 2005. Update on the long-term monitoring of the combined impact of biological control insects on yellow starthistle, pp. 27-30. In D. M. Woods (ed.), Biological control program annual summary, 2004. California
Department of Food and Agriculture, Plant
966:
Grazing by goats, cattle, or sheep can be effective in controlling yellow star-thistle. Goats will eat star-thistle even in its spiny stage. Because yellow star-thistle growth is particularly difficult to inhibit in canyon rangelands since its remoteness limits control options, goats and other
496:
system, it has a crucial role in restoring the soil by bringing up vital micronutrients. Similar to many plants classified as 'weeds', they (in the words of Mark
Schonbeck) "quickly establish in, protect, and restore soil that has been left exposed by natural and human-caused disturbances".
749:
may be used. Pre-emergence herbicides used for yellow star-thistle control include chlorsulfuron and sulfometuron. Pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides may be used effectively together to kill growing plants as well as any new seedlings that may emerge from the copious
613:
have and continue to contribute to the successful thriving and spread of this plant. Yellow star-thistle is now a very common sight in vacant lots and fields, along roadsides and trails, in pastures and ranch lands, and in parks, open-space preserves and natural areas.
1735:
Pitcairn, M. J., G. L. Piper, and E. M. Coombs. 2004. Yellow starthistle, pp. 421-435. In E. M. Coombs, J. K. Clark, G. L. Piper, and A. F. Cofrancesco, Jr. (eds.), Biological control of invasive plants in the United States. Oregon State
University Press, Corvallis,
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L. (Asteraceae). In: Nechols, J.R. (Ed.), Biological
Control in the U.S. Western Region: Accomplishments and Benefits of Regional Research Project W-84 (1964-1989). Division of Agriculture and Natural Research, University of California, Berkeley, pp.
979:
California researchers (Thomsen et al., 1996) tested mowing, controlled sheep grazing and subterranean clover plantings to control star-thistle growth. According to the researchers, subclover would help fill the void left by star-thistle populations.
1211:
Graebner, R. C., Callaway, R. M., & Montesinos, D. (2012). Invasive species grows faster, competes better, and shows greater evolution toward increased seed size and growth than exotic non-invasive congeners. Plant
Ecology, 213(4), 545–553.
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for pollinators. Yellow star-thistle, a noted pest plant, is a major nectar source for many central valleys and foothill butterflies. Star-thistle populates ground that has been abused: dry, compacted, or scraped clean. A plant with a
1039:
most dangerous when it is the only plant available or is delivered as a contaminant in dried hay, horses may develop a taste for it and seek it out. Many other grazing species, including mules and burros, are not affected.
621:
were also likely sources of the invasion's seed in
California. Since its introduction to California in the mid-19th century, it has become a large-scale invasive species (noxious weed or invasive exotic) throughout 23
325:
feet) in height. The leaves at the base are lobed and range between 5–8 cm (2–3 in) in length, while the ones on the stem are unlobed and smaller. Between May and
October, the stem produces numerous spinous
1875:: The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic & Applied Research Vol. 11 Agricultural Applications. 2nd edition Eds: K. Esser & F. Kempken. New York: Springer pp. 243–270.
944:, has shown promise as an agent against yellow star-thistle, dramatically damaging leaves and hampering growth. The rust causes widespread pathology in the leaves of the plant and slows its dispersal. The fungus
1620:
1591:
Fuerst E.P., Sterling T.M., Norman M.A., Prather T.S., Irzyk G.P., Wu Y., Lownds N.K., and Callihan R.H., 1996. Physiological characterization of picloram resistance in yellow star-thistle. Pest Biochem Physiol
1201:
Hierro, J. L., Eren, Ö., Khetsuriani, L., Diaconu, A., Török, K., Montesinos, D., … Callaway, R. M. (2009). Germination responses of an invasive species in native and non-native ranges. Oikos, 118(4), 529–538.
870:) is a brownish weevil that lays eggs in the flowers as it feeds on the pollen. The larvae then eat the seeds when they hatch. This insect has failed to established dense populations in the United States.
826:
Yellow star-thistle is sometimes resistant to removal methods such as mowing and burning, because of its long root system and the seeds' ability to withstand fire. The plant has been the target of
2049:
Smith, L. 2004. Prospective new agents for biological control of yellow starthistle, pp. 136-138. Proceedings 56th Annual California Weed Science Society, 12–14 January 2004, Sacramento, CA
754:
often produced by yellow star-thistle. Controlled burning may also be used in conjunction with clopyralid application as an effective integrated approach to yellow star-thistle management.
480:), it has developed local adaptations to the different habitats colonized, and an incipient level of reproductive isolation between native and non-native ranges has been detected—a case of
1726:
L. (Asteraceae: Cardueae). In: Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. 2–7 February 1992. Lincoln University, Canter- 1bury, New Zealand, 385-391
1014:(Illiger) (Coleoptera: Apionidae), which develops in the root crown of rosettes have been evaluated and proposed for introduction. Also under evaluation are a stem-feeding flea beetle
967:
herbivores have become an excellent option to curb the plant's spread. According to one study, grazing has decreased yellow star-thistle presence by 58% when compared to the study's
898:, respectively, the latter released unintentionally) are small nectar-feeding flies that deposit eggs into the seedheads, where their larvae consume the seeds and flower ovaries.
1317:
1833:
1543:
1999:
1221:
Montesinos, D., Santiago, G., & Callaway, R. M. (2012). Neo-allopatry and rapid reproductive isolation. The American Naturalist, 180(4), 529–33. doi:10.1086/667585
1245:
46:
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area that had been grazed and mowed twice. Excellent yellow star-thistle control can be achieved with the combination of competing plants, mowing, and
745:, which has both post- and preemergence activity, is the most commonly used, most effectively after an early summer prescribed burn. Alternatively,
1776:(Herng)(Dipt., Tephritidae), an agent for biological control of yellow starthistle, with remarks on the host plant. J. Appl. Entomol. 116: 381–390.
1340:
2517:
773:
2336:
2089:
2102:(Diptera: Tephritidae): Is this natural enemy of yellow starthistle a threat to safflower growers?"; Environ. Entomol. 30: 953-963; pub. 2001.
2703:
2592:
2610:
2132:
605:, such as mowing, land grading for development and roads, domestic animal grazing, and disturbance of the soil surface for agricultural
2677:
1601:
Sabba R.P., Ray I.M., Lownds N. and Sterling T.N., 2003. Inheritance of resistance to clopyralid and picloram in yellow star-thistle (
1082:
711:
Most herbicides used for controlling yellow star-thistle are registered for range lands, right-of-way, and other non-crop areas. Many
33:
2060:
1061:
799:
to other auxin-like herbicides, especially clopyralid. Resistance was discovered to be conveyed by a single nuclear recessive gene.
2442:
861:) is a long-snouted, hairy-looking weevil that lays a single egg inside each flower bud. The larva then consumes the seeds within.
2543:
2468:
2118:
1923:
Goehring, Brianna J.; Launchbaugh, Karen L.; Wilson, Linda M. (2010-04-01). "Late-Season Targeted Grazing of Yellow Starthistle (
1886:
1803:
1273:
830:
programs with positive results. Seven types of seed-feeding insects have been released (one accidentally) to control the plant.
597:
In California, yellow star-thistle was dispersed into agricultural fields and immediately took hold in the state's areas with a
2628:
2003:
1673:
Proceedings of the XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. La Grande Motte, Montpellier, France (in press).
1389:
1141:
1056:
2656:
2835:
2548:
1970:
1871:
Voigt K., A.V. Marano, & F.H. Gleason. 2013. Ecological & Economical Importance of Parasitic Zoosporic True Fungi.
311:, between 5–20 centimetres (2–8 inches) in diameter. As the summer approaches, it produces a flowering stem up to 1 metre (
1249:
852:) is a fuzzy brown weevil that lays its eggs in the flowers, and when its larvae hatch, they feed on the developing seed.
1696:(Coleoptera' Curculionidae), a promising biological control agent for yellow starthistle. Environ. Entomol. 22: 684-692.
2370:
2331:
2183:
2830:
1169:
931:
460:, being typically found on roadsides and cereal crop margins. After introduction in several parts of the world as an
537:
stands and habitats in the cultivated soil of fields, graded dirt sites, and disturbed natural ecosystem lands. Its
2754:
2597:
2455:
2246:
1709:(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) with Centaurea solstitialis in Idaho. Environmental entomology, v. 30 (2), pp. 439–442.
1476:
DiTomaso, Joseph (January–March 2015). "Effects of Aminopyralid on California Annual Grassland Plant Communities".
2504:
2173:
1303:
1231:
2820:
2749:
2633:
1316:
Directorate, Government of Canada, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Plant Health and Biosecurity (2012-03-15).
1035:
2695:
2579:
2411:
1422:
1405:
700:
2300:
1295:
2530:
2310:
2280:
2265:
1567:
2424:
2155:
1387:
1970 UCD Yellow Starthistle Information website - Map of Distribution of yellow star-thistle in the U.S.
1004:, there is interest in finding additional agents to further control the species. Two weevils, including
2690:
1763:(Compositae), in the western USA: establishment and seed destruction. Bull. Entomol. Res. 86: 1 77-182.
2473:
1615:
95:
2620:
2147:
2385:
2189:
2825:
2815:
2571:
2124:
1269:
2682:
1819:
O’Brien, Jon M.; Kyser, Guy B.; Woods, Dale M.; DiTomaso, Joseph M. (2010). "Effects of the rust
1563:
848:
842:
in the beetle subfamily Cleoninae effectively reduce seed production in the yellow star-thistle.
827:
38:
2764:
2522:
2406:
2208:
1354:
1131:
1093:
971:. Subplots also showed a 94% decrease in seed heads after only three years of experimentation.
888:
626:. It currently dominates over 15,000,000 acres (61,000 square kilometres) in California alone.
1799:
350: in) across, containing between 10–50 yellow flowers, with spines between 1–2.5 cm (
2731:
894:
598:
481:
212:
2646:
594:). Star-thistle has been introduced throughout North and South America, Africa, and Europe.
2496:
2344:
1705:
Connett, J.F.; Wilson, L.M.; McCaffrey, J.P.; Harmon, B.L. 2001. Phenological synchrony of
1097:
788:
666:
582:
574:
398:
386:
2774:
2067:
1650:
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species, and will die after reproduction is completed, normally by the end of the summer.
8:
2194:
1571:
903:
857:
757:
630:
392:
261:
2810:
2782:
2669:
2419:
2398:
1952:
1902:
1522:
1006:
985:
968:
674:
90:
2708:
1884:
2641:
2318:
1944:
1854:
1850:
1334:
1165:
1137:
781:
590:
2138:
2094:
as a Biological control agent for Centaurea solstitialis (flowerhead feeding weevil)
1956:
1452:
715:-like or growth-regulator herbicides are used for post-emergence control, including
669:). The plant is considered an invasive species in six of the 41 states: California,
541:
eliminates and prevents other plant species from growing, terminating the habitat's
2787:
2164:
1936:
1846:
1485:
1456:
1448:
1047:
Although the spines make the plant a pain to deal with, it produces a light honey.
796:
546:
523:
410:
404:
304:
265:
2460:
2323:
2257:
1436:
1386:
1133:
National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region
2270:
2058:
1890:
1605:
L.) is controlled by a single nuclear recessive gene. J. Heredity 94(6): 523-527.
1393:
1299:
955:
634:
369:
133:
2741:
2584:
2558:
2664:
2231:
1978:
1718:
Fornasari, L. and C.E. Turner. 1992. Host specificity of the Palearctic weevil
866:
751:
461:
430:
120:
1940:
1503:
DiTomaso, Joseph (2006). "Control of Invasive Weeds with Prescribed Burning".
1489:
2804:
2375:
1948:
1858:
879:
761:
602:
566:
477:
257:
228:
2535:
1437:"Linking Ecological Principles to Tools and Strategies in an EBIPM Program"
1371:
1157:
1018:(Illiger) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) (Cristofaro et al. 2004a), a lacebug
792:
765:
742:
722:
692:
629:
By 1970, yellow star-thistle had reached 23 U.S. states. According to the
542:
538:
527:
327:
296:
2721:
2566:
2481:
2290:
2240:
950:
941:
928:
875:
806:
has been observed which had cross-resistance to clopyralid, dicamba, and
658:
517:
373:
2434:
1785:
Turner, C.E., Johnson, J.B., McCaffrey, J.P., 1994. Yellow starthistle,
1461:
553:, and is a physical barrier to indigenous animal movement in wildlands.
2447:
997:
807:
769:
746:
726:
686:
646:
623:
570:
504:
361:
300:
253:
179:
2000:"Natural Control of Yellow Star Thistle | Organic Gardening Blog"
818:
617:
After the turn of the 20th century, Spain, France, Italy, and perhaps
77:
2486:
2393:
2357:
2179:
1759:(Diptera: Tephritidae) for biological control of yellow starthistle,
777:
738:
654:
618:
610:
550:
534:
512:
469:
465:
368:
and each capitula produces 10–50 seeds, some with and some without a
248:
189:
169:
2202:
2716:
2605:
2225:
2135:. Lists general information and resources for Yellow Star Thistle.
2059:
Joseph M. Ditomaso; Guy B. Kyser; Michael J. Pitcairn (June 2006).
1842:
1416:
1365:
734:
650:
457:
159:
146:
2509:
2362:
1625:
730:
662:
642:
633:, as of 2006 the plant has been reported present in 41 of the 48
606:
585:
508:
493:
454:
365:
24:
2349:
2113:
1629:
1292:
839:
670:
578:
488:
446:
438:
434:
308:
2098:
Balciunas, J. K., and B. Villegas; "Unintentionally released
958:) is also being considered as an agent of biological control.
717:
712:
678:
638:
473:
450:
442:
107:
908:
682:
426:
1922:
1818:
533:
The yellow star-thistle plant has the ability to create
511:, where it is kept in check by an assortment of natural
1772:
Sobhian, R. 1993. Life history and host specificity of
1722:
Hochut (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a natural enemy of
1188:
886:
Yellow star-thistle peacock fly and false peacock fly (
1651:"Biology and Biological Control of Yellow Starthistle"
1692:
Fornasari, L., and R. Sobhain. 1993. Life history of
1000:
agents have proven somewhat effective at controlling
1814:
1812:
2066:. California Invasive Plant Council. Archived from
1746:
Health and Pest Prevention Services, Sacramento, CA
1382:
1380:
1374:Interpretive Association. Retrieved on 2008-10-15.
1246:"An Ecological Understanding of Weeds - eXtension"
1150:
487:Star-thistle is a valuable source of pollen, thus
1903:"Yellow Starthistle Management Guidelines-UC IPM"
1809:
2802:
2131:, National Invasive Species Information Center,
1755:Turner, C.E., G.L. Piper and E.M. Coombs. 1996.
1377:
1318:"Yellow starthistle – Centaurea solstitialis L."
940:, first released in July 2003 on a ranch in the
1232:"Toby Hemenway - Author & Permaculturalist"
795:, in 1988. This biotype was determined to have
1831:(yellow starthistle) growth and competition".
1800:Fungus Unleashed To Combat Yellow Star-thistle
1164:. Frederick Warne & Co. pp. 386–387.
911:within the flower and disrupt seed production.
453:), consequently, it inhabits highly disturbed
1469:
907:) produces larvae that pupate within a woody
791:to picloram was discovered in a pasture near
384:Similar species include purple star-thistle (
2156:Invasive Plants of California's Wildlands -
2027:, a prospective biological control agent of
2023:Smith, L. 2007. Physiological host range of
1339:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1276:National Invasive Species Information Center
246:, is a species of thorny plant in the genus
2133:United States National Agricultural Library
1560:Pacific Northwest Pest Management Handbooks
1315:
1129:
1022:Germar (Heteroptera: Tingidae), and a mite
918:was released in 1969 but never established.
1183:
1181:
268:in many other places. It is also known as
76:
1460:
1062:List of invasive species in North America
1034:Grazing of the plant by horses can cause
556:
360:–1 in). Flowers within capitula are
303:. During the vegetative stage it forms a
2031:(Asteraceae). Biol. Control 41: 120-133.
1502:
1475:
1434:
1080:
817:
691:
49:of all important aspects of the article.
2125:Species Profile - Yellow Star Thistle (
1865:
1608:
1178:
637:states, with the only exceptions being
2803:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
2207:
2206:
2061:"Yellow Starthistle Management Guide"
1929:Invasive Plant Science and Management
1536:
1478:Invasive Plant Science and Management
1406:"Yellow Star-thistle species profile"
1057:Invasive species in the United States
974:
901:Banded yellow star-thistle gall fly (
813:
2755:47a77b75-f837-4445-b72a-0ae8841075ff
2621:5c6d05f3-d30d-4e84-b10f-265425e10587
2170:, Texas A&M University Extension
1398:
1202:doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.17283.x
1156:
1136:(rev ed.). Knopf. p. 364.
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
588:seed, also known as Chilean clover (
330:(capitula) about 12–16 millimetres (
18:
2161:, California Invasive Plant Council
1279:
1270:Yellow star-thistle species profile
1010:, a flowerhead feeding weevil, and
864:Yellow star-thistle flower weevil (
706:
515:enemies and other plants that have
13:
2184:University of California, Berkeley
1435:DiTomaso, Joseph (December 2012).
1355:"Mount Diablo Review, Autumn 2007"
855:Yellow star-thistle hairy weevil (
379:
14:
2847:
2106:
1621:Agriculture and Forestry Ministry
1114:
1083:"Element Stewarship Abstract for
2696:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:191626-1
2112:
1851:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.10.019
846:Yellow star-thistle bud weevil (
822:Specimen in California in autumn
573:sometime after the start of the
503:grows as a balanced part of the
94:
23:
2148:U.C. Jepson Manual treatment -
2052:
2043:
2034:
2017:
1992:
1963:
1916:
1895:
1878:
1793:
1779:
1766:
1749:
1739:
1729:
1712:
1699:
1686:
1676:
1666:
1643:
1595:
1585:
1562:. Pacific Northwest Extension (
1515:
1496:
1453:10.2111/RANGELANDS-D-12-00060.1
1428:
1347:
1309:
1304:University of California, Davis
1263:
1026:de Lillo (Acari: Eriophyidae).
772:, clopyralid + 2,4-D, dicamba,
37:may be too short to adequately
1971:"Thistle Control Alternatives"
1804:U.S. Department of Agriculture
1293:Yellow Starthistle Information
1274:U.S. Department of Agriculture
1238:
1224:
1215:
1205:
1195:
1130:Spellenberg, Richard (2001) .
1074:
1036:nigropallidal encephalomalacia
810:, but not triclopyr or 2,4-D.
787:A yellow star-thistle biotype
287:
252:, which is part of the family
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
2165:Plants of Texas Rangelands -
1905:. Ipm.ucdavis.edu. 2005-05-20
1525:. Ipm.ucdavis.edu. 2005-05-20
1212:doi:10.1007/s11258-012-0020-x
1067:
581:seed contaminant in imported
701:Klickitat County, Washington
7:
2836:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
1050:
1029:
991:
402:), and rough star-thistle (
85:Yellow star-thistle flower
10:
2852:
1425:. Retrieved on 2008-10-15.
1392:December 31, 2006, at the
961:
833:
417:
16:Species of flowering plant
2215:
1941:10.1614/IPSM-D-09-00004.1
1683:v. 27 (6), pp. 1525–1530.
1490:10.1614/IPSM-D-14-00010.1
776:+ dicamba, picloram, and
396:), Maltese star-thistle (
390:), sulphur star-thistle (
218:
211:
91:Scientific classification
89:
84:
75:
70:
2831:Plants described in 1753
2190:"Centaurea solstitialis"
1927:) with Goats in Idaho".
922:
882:of yellow star-thistle.
2139:USDA PLANTS Database -
1042:
946:Synchytrium solstitiale
849:Bangasternus orientalis
828:biological pest control
2611:Centaurea~solstitialis
2425:Centaurea solstitialis
2337:Centaurea_solstitialis
2311:centaurea-solstitialis
2247:Centaurea solstitialis
2217:Centaurea solstitialis
2175:Centaurea solstitialis
2158:Centaurea solstitialis
2150:Centaurea solstitialis
2141:Centaurea solstitialis
2127:Centaurea solstitialis
2119:Centaurea solstitialis
2029:Centaurea solstitialis
1925:Centaurea solstitialis
1889:June 11, 2010, at the
1829:Centaurea solstitialis
1787:Centaurea solstitialis
1761:Centaurea solstitialis
1757:Chaetorellia australis
1724:Centaurea solstitialis
1603:Centaurea solstitialis
1546:Centaurea solstitialis
1544:"Starthistle, yellow (
1094:The Nature Conservancy
1085:Centaurea solstitialis
1002:Centaurea solstitialis
889:Chaetorellia australis
823:
703:
557:As an invasive species
433:European range (e.g.,
423:Centaurea solstitialis
408:). Bachelor's button (
293:Centaurea solstitialis
260:, it is native to the
239:Centaurea solstitialis
222:Centaurea solstitialis
2821:Flora of North Africa
2143:(yellow star-thistle)
2100:Chaetorellia succinea
1016:Psylliodes chalcomera
895:Chaetorellia succinea
821:
780:+ clopyralid for the
695:
599:Mediterranean climate
569:probably occurred in
482:ecological speciation
299:herb from the family
278:St. Barnaby's thistle
2121:at Wikimedia Commons
2040:de Lillo et al. 2003
2025:Ceratapion basicorne
1550:Centaurea calcitrapa
1321:www.inspection.gc.ca
1081:DiTomaso, J (2001).
1012:Ceratapion basicorne
575:California Gold Rush
561:The introduction of
387:Centaurea calcitrapa
204:C. solstitialis
71:Yellow star-thistle
2195:Plants for a Future
1774:Urophora sirunaseva
1707:Eustenopus villosus
1694:Eustenopus villosus
1423:USDA Forest Service
1162:The Wild Flower Key
1024:Aceria solstitialis
904:Urophora sirunaseva
876:tephritid fruit fly
858:Eustenopus villosus
802:Picloram-resistant
758:Aminocyclopyrachlor
631:U.S. Forest Service
262:Mediterranean Basin
244:yellow star-thistle
2092:Larinus filiformis
1975:www.agrisk.umn.edu
1834:Biological Control
1298:2005-07-11 at the
1007:Larinus filiformis
986:rotational grazing
975:Integrated methods
824:
814:Biological control
784:of North America.
704:
645:, and five of the
399:C. melitensis
372:. It is an annual
270:golden starthistle
2798:
2797:
2642:Open Tree of Life
2209:Taxon identifiers
2117:Media related to
1554:Centaurea iberica
1143:978-0-375-40233-3
927:A variety of the
916:Urophora jaculata
914:Another gall fly
838:Three species of
782:Pacific Northwest
768:, chlorsulfuron,
741:. In California,
591:Trifolium macraei
583:Chilean-harvested
414:) is a relative.
393:C. sulphurea
235:
234:
64:
63:
2843:
2791:
2790:
2778:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2758:
2757:
2745:
2744:
2735:
2734:
2725:
2724:
2712:
2711:
2699:
2698:
2686:
2685:
2673:
2672:
2660:
2659:
2650:
2649:
2637:
2636:
2624:
2623:
2614:
2613:
2601:
2600:
2588:
2587:
2585:NBNSYS0000004511
2575:
2574:
2562:
2561:
2552:
2551:
2539:
2538:
2526:
2525:
2513:
2512:
2500:
2499:
2490:
2489:
2477:
2476:
2464:
2463:
2451:
2450:
2438:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2415:
2414:
2402:
2401:
2389:
2388:
2379:
2378:
2366:
2365:
2353:
2352:
2340:
2339:
2327:
2326:
2314:
2313:
2304:
2303:
2294:
2293:
2284:
2283:
2274:
2273:
2261:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2204:
2203:
2199:
2182:photo database,
2116:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2072:
2065:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2032:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2002:. Archived from
1996:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1977:. Archived from
1967:
1961:
1960:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1910:
1899:
1893:
1882:
1876:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1816:
1807:
1797:
1791:
1783:
1777:
1770:
1764:
1753:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1716:
1710:
1703:
1697:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1612:
1606:
1599:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1552:), and Iberian (
1540:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1530:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1402:
1396:
1384:
1375:
1369:
1361:
1359:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1330:
1328:
1327:
1313:
1307:
1290:
1277:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1257:
1248:. Archived from
1242:
1236:
1235:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1185:
1176:
1175:
1154:
1148:
1147:
1127:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1102:
1096:. Archived from
1091:
1078:
878:also attack the
874:Four species of
797:cross resistance
720:
707:Chemical control
547:domestic animals
524:invasive species
520:
359:
358:
354:
349:
348:
344:
339:
338:
334:
324:
323:
319:
316:
224:
99:
98:
80:
68:
67:
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2826:Biennial plants
2816:Flora of Europe
2801:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2786:
2781:
2773:
2771:
2763:
2761:
2753:
2748:
2740:
2738:
2730:
2728:
2720:
2715:
2707:
2702:
2694:
2689:
2681:
2676:
2668:
2663:
2655:
2653:
2645:
2640:
2632:
2627:
2619:
2617:
2609:
2604:
2596:
2591:
2583:
2578:
2570:
2565:
2557:
2556:MichiganFlora:
2555:
2547:
2542:
2534:
2529:
2521:
2516:
2508:
2503:
2495:
2493:
2485:
2480:
2472:
2467:
2459:
2454:
2446:
2441:
2433:
2431:
2423:
2418:
2410:
2405:
2397:
2392:
2384:
2382:
2374:
2369:
2361:
2356:
2348:
2343:
2335:
2330:
2322:
2317:
2309:
2307:
2299:
2297:
2289:
2287:
2279:
2277:
2269:
2264:
2256:
2254:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2211:
2188:
2109:
2086:
2085:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2022:
2018:
2009:
2007:
1998:
1997:
1993:
1984:
1982:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1891:Wayback Machine
1883:
1879:
1870:
1866:
1821:Puccinia jaceae
1817:
1810:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1780:
1771:
1767:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1717:
1713:
1704:
1700:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1635:
1633:
1616:"Pest Selector"
1614:
1613:
1609:
1600:
1596:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1528:
1526:
1523:"UC IPM Online"
1521:
1520:
1516:
1505:Weed Technology
1501:
1497:
1474:
1470:
1433:
1429:
1414:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1394:Wayback Machine
1385:
1378:
1363:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1332:
1331:
1325:
1323:
1314:
1310:
1300:Wayback Machine
1291:
1280:
1268:
1264:
1255:
1253:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1196:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1172:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1128:
1115:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1089:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1053:
1045:
1032:
996:Although these
994:
977:
964:
956:Chytridiomycota
933:Puccinia jaceae
925:
836:
816:
804:C. solstitialis
716:
709:
697:C. solstitialis
635:contiguous U.S.
563:C. solstitialis
559:
516:
501:C. solstitialis
420:
411:C. cyaneus
382:
380:Similar species
356:
352:
351:
346:
342:
341:
336:
332:
331:
321:
317:
314:
312:
290:
282:Barnaby thistle
274:yellow cockspur
231:
226:
220:
207:
93:
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2849:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2792:
2788:wfo-0000035974
2779:
2769:
2759:
2746:
2736:
2726:
2713:
2700:
2687:
2674:
2661:
2651:
2638:
2625:
2615:
2602:
2589:
2576:
2563:
2553:
2540:
2527:
2514:
2501:
2491:
2478:
2465:
2452:
2439:
2429:
2416:
2403:
2390:
2380:
2367:
2354:
2341:
2328:
2315:
2305:
2295:
2285:
2275:
2262:
2252:
2237:
2221:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2201:
2200:
2186:
2171:
2162:
2153:
2145:
2136:
2122:
2108:
2107:External links
2105:
2104:
2103:
2096:
2084:
2083:
2051:
2042:
2033:
2016:
1991:
1962:
1935:(2): 148–154.
1915:
1894:
1877:
1864:
1808:
1792:
1778:
1765:
1748:
1738:
1728:
1720:Larinus curtus
1711:
1698:
1685:
1675:
1665:
1642:
1607:
1594:
1584:
1535:
1514:
1495:
1468:
1427:
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1376:
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1237:
1223:
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993:
990:
976:
973:
963:
960:
924:
921:
920:
919:
912:
899:
872:
871:
867:Larinus curtus
862:
853:
835:
832:
815:
812:
752:soil seed bank
708:
705:
558:
555:
462:exotic species
419:
416:
405:C. aspera
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82:
81:
73:
72:
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2848:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2806:
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2603:
2599:
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2395:
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2329:
2325:
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2296:
2292:
2286:
2282:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2248:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2227:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2110:
2101:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2088:
2087:
2073:on 2016-09-17
2069:
2062:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2006:on 2016-06-08
2005:
2001:
1995:
1981:on 2016-03-14
1980:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1888:
1885:
1881:
1874:
1868:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1845:BV: 174–181.
1844:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1788:
1782:
1775:
1769:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1742:
1732:
1725:
1721:
1715:
1708:
1702:
1695:
1689:
1679:
1669:
1652:
1646:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1611:
1604:
1598:
1588:
1574:). 2015-11-10
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1547:
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1524:
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1510:
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1499:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
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1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1424:
1418:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1391:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1367:
1356:
1350:
1342:
1336:
1322:
1319:
1312:
1306:(UCD) website
1305:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1252:on 2015-10-05
1251:
1247:
1241:
1233:
1227:
1218:
1208:
1198:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1173:
1171:0-7232-2419-6
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:Rose, Francis
1153:
1145:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1103:on 2007-02-21
1099:
1095:
1088:
1086:
1077:
1073:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1048:
1040:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1020:Tingis grisea
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1003:
999:
989:
987:
981:
972:
970:
959:
957:
953:
952:
947:
943:
939:
938:
934:
930:
917:
913:
910:
906:
905:
900:
897:
896:
891:
890:
885:
884:
883:
881:
877:
869:
868:
863:
860:
859:
854:
851:
850:
845:
844:
843:
841:
831:
829:
820:
811:
809:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
785:
783:
779:
775:
774:diflufenzopyr
771:
767:
763:
762:chlorsulfuron
759:
755:
753:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
719:
714:
702:
698:
694:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
627:
625:
620:
615:
612:
609:and wildland
608:
604:
603:Human factors
600:
595:
593:
592:
587:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
567:North America
564:
554:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
531:
529:
525:
519:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
495:
490:
485:
483:
479:
478:United States
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
415:
413:
412:
407:
406:
401:
400:
395:
394:
389:
388:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
329:
310:
307:of non-spiny
306:
302:
298:
294:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:winter annual
255:
251:
250:
245:
241:
240:
230:
225:
223:
217:
214:
213:Binomial name
210:
206:
205:
200:
197:
196:
193:
192:
188:
185:
184:
181:
178:
175:
174:
171:
168:
165:
164:
161:
158:
155:
152:
151:
148:
145:
142:
139:
138:
135:
132:
129:
126:
125:
122:
121:Tracheophytes
119:
116:
113:
112:
109:
106:
103:
102:
97:
92:
88:
83:
79:
74:
69:
66:
58:
48:
42:
40:
35:
30:
26:
21:
20:
2216:
2193:
2174:
2167:Starthistles
2166:
2157:
2149:
2140:
2126:
2099:
2091:
2075:. Retrieved
2068:the original
2054:
2045:
2036:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2008:. Retrieved
2004:the original
1994:
1983:. Retrieved
1979:the original
1974:
1965:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1907:. Retrieved
1897:
1880:
1872:
1867:
1838:
1832:
1828:
1825:solstitialis
1824:
1820:
1795:
1786:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1741:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1706:
1701:
1693:
1688:
1678:
1668:
1657:. Retrieved
1645:
1634:. Retrieved
1632:. 2011-11-24
1619:
1610:
1602:
1597:
1587:
1576:. Retrieved
1559:
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539:colonization
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528:noxious weed
500:
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2482:iNaturalist
2241:Wikispecies
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951:Synchytrium
942:Napa Valley
929:rust fungus
659:Mississippi
624:U.S. states
374:semelparous
288:Description
264:region and
134:Angiosperms
2805:Categories
2762:WisFlora:
2670:gcc-134792
2665:Plant List
2298:Calflora:
2281:286-138-2a
2077:2016-09-06
2010:2015-06-11
1985:2016-03-01
1909:2012-04-28
1659:2012-04-28
1636:2021-03-03
1578:2021-03-03
1568:Washington
1529:2012-04-28
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1441:Rangelands
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1326:2016-03-01
1256:2015-06-11
1107:2007-06-01
1068:References
998:biocontrol
954:of phylum
808:fluroxypyr
770:clopyralid
747:glyphosate
727:clopyralid
687:New Jersey
675:Washington
647:Deep South
611:firebreaks
571:California
551:rangelands
518:co-evolved
505:ecosystems
362:pollinated
301:Asteraceae
254:Asteraceae
180:Asteraceae
2811:Centaurea
2412:242416255
2394:FloraBase
2308:Cal-IPC:
2180:CalPhotos
2090:USDA - "
1949:1939-7291
1859:1049-9644
1802:from the
1272:from the
880:seedheads
789:resistant
778:triclopyr
739:triclopyr
655:Louisiana
619:Turkestan
535:monotypic
513:herbivore
470:Argentina
466:Australia
249:Centaurea
198:Species:
191:Centaurea
170:Asterales
104:Kingdom:
39:summarize
2750:VicFlora
2739:VASCAN:
2717:Tropicos
2606:NSWFlora
2572:2.136039
2523:10598824
2510:191626-1
2332:eFloraSA
2288:BioLib:
2232:Q2068262
2226:Wikidata
1957:86184511
1887:Archived
1843:Elsevier
1390:Archived
1335:cite web
1296:Archived
1160:(1981).
1051:See also
1030:Toxicity
992:Research
969:controls
735:picloram
651:Arkansas
649:states (
458:habitats
266:invasive
176:Family:
160:Asterids
147:Eudicots
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2178:in the
1806:website
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667:Georgia
663:Alabama
643:Vermont
607:tillage
586:alfalfa
577:, as a
509:Eurasia
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455:ruderal
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166:Order:
108:Plantae
2729:uBio:
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2678:PLANTS
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1564:Oregon
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671:Oregon
665:, and
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476:, the
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439:Greece
435:Turkey
431:native
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309:leaves
297:annual
295:is an
242:, the
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2371:EUNIS
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639:Maine
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1945:ISSN
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1341:link
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