384:
as a function of time under a constant load, and in relaxation mode, the force is measured as a function of time under constant displacement. In creep mode, the tissue displacement is measured as a function of time under a constant load. During this mode, the deformation of the tissue has two main regions. In the first region, the displacement is rapid due to the initial flow of fluid out of the cartilage, and in the second region, the displacement slows down to an eventual constant equilibrium value. Under the commonly used loading conditions, the equilibrium displacement can take hours to reach.
427:
additional stresses on deeper layers which are not designed to support the same deformations. Another common effect of aging is increased crosslinking of collagen fibers. This leads to stiffer cartilage as a whole, which again can lead to early failure as stiffer tissue is more susceptible to fatigue based failure. Aging in calcified regions also generally leads to a larger number of mineral deposits, which has a similarly undesired stiffening effect. Osteoarthritis has more extreme effects and can entirely wear down cartilage, causing direct bone-to-bone contact.
872:, or feather duster worms, have cartilage tissue with cellular and matrix specialization supporting their tentacles. They present two distinct extracellular matrix regions. These regions are an acellular fibrous region with a high collagen content, called cartilage-like matrix, and collagen lacking a highly cellularized core, called osteoid-like matrix. The cartilage-like matrix surrounds the osteoid-like matrix. The amount of the acellular fibrous region is variable. The model organisms used in the study of cartilage in sabellid polychaetes are
396:
displacement. This method of testing can be used to measure the aggregate modulus, Poisson's ratio, and permeability of the tissue. Initially, there was a misconception that due to its predominantly water-based composition, cartilage had a
Poisson's ratio of 0.5 and should be modeled as an incompressible material. However, subsequent research has disproven this belief. The Poisson’s ratio of articular cartilage has been measured to be around 0.4 or lower in humans and ranges from 0.46–0.5 in bovine subjects.
40:
508:
541:: Osteoarthritis is a disease of the whole joint, however, one of the most affected tissues is the articular cartilage. The cartilage covering bones (articular cartilage—a subset of hyaline cartilage) is thinned, eventually completely wearing away, resulting in a "bone against bone" within the joint, leading to reduced motion, and pain. Osteoarthritis affects the joints exposed to high stress and is therefore considered the result of "wear and tear" rather than a true disease. It is treated by
330:
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decrease to equilibrium. Typically, the permeability of articular cartilage is in the range of 10^-15 to 10^-16 m^4/Ns. However, permeability is sensitive to loading conditions and testing location. For example, permeability varies throughout articular cartilage and tends to be highest near the joint surface and lowest near the bone (or “deep zone”). Permeability also decreases under increased loading of the tissue.
354:
but can also refer to both the growth and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Due to the great stress on the patellofemoral joint during resisted knee extension, the articular cartilage of the patella is among the thickest in the human body. The ECM of articular cartilage is classified into three regions: the pericellular matrix, the territorial matrix, and the interterritorial matrix.
388:
modulus of cartilage, which is typically in the range of 0.5 to 0.9 MPa for articular cartilage, and the Young’s
Modulus, which is typically 0.45 to 0.80 MPa. The aggregate modulus is “a measure of the stiffness of the tissue at equilibrium when all fluid flow has ceased”, and Young’s modulus is a measure of how much a material strains (changes length) under a given stress.
260:. The compression of the articular cartilage or flexion of the elastic cartilage generates fluid flow, which assists the diffusion of nutrients to the chondrocytes. Compared to other connective tissues, cartilage has a very slow turnover of its extracellular matrix and is documented to repair at only a very slow rate relative to other tissues.
832:. The cephalopod cranial cartilage is the invertebrate cartilage that shows more resemblance to the vertebrate hyaline cartilage. The growth is thought to take place throughout the movement of cells from the periphery to the center. The chondrocytes present different morphologies related to their position in the tissue. The embryos of
321:
mass of the cartilage itself. It has been identified that non-coding RNAs (e.g. miRNAs and long non-coding RNAs) as the most important epigenetic modulators can affect the chondrogenesis. This also justifies the non-coding RNAs' contribution in various cartilage-dependent pathological conditions such as arthritis, and so on.
395:
Indentation testing is an additional type of test commonly used to characterize cartilage. Indentation testing involves using an indentor (usually <0.8 mm) to measure the displacement of the tissue under constant load. Similar to confined compression testing, it may take hours to reach equilibrium
387:
In both the creep mode and the relaxation mode of a confined compression test, a disc of cartilage is placed in an impervious, fluid-filled container and covered with a porous plate that restricts the flow of interstitial fluid to the vertical direction. This test can be used to measure the aggregate
320:
Following the initial chondrification that occurs during embryogenesis, cartilage growth consists mostly of the maturing of immature cartilage to a more mature state. The division of cells within cartilage occurs very slowly, and thus growth in cartilage is usually not based on an increase in size or
383:
Since cartilage has interstitial fluid that is free-moving, it makes the material difficult to test. One of the tests commonly used to overcome this obstacle is a confined compression test, which can be used in either a 'creep' or 'relaxation' mode. In creep mode, the tissue displacement is measured
353:
and with itself. These aggregates are negatively charged and hold water in the tissue. The collagen, mostly collagen type II, constrains the proteoglycans. The ECM responds to tensile and compressive forces that are experienced by the cartilage. Cartilage growth thus refers to the matrix deposition,
840:
embryo expresses hh, whose presence causes ColAa and ColAb expression and is also able to maintain proliferating cells undiferentiated. It has been observed that this species presents the expression SoxD and SoxE, analogs of the vertebrate Sox5/6 and Sox9, in the developing cartilage. The cartilage
561:
sulfate supplements, have been claimed to reduce the symptoms of osteoarthritis, but there is little good evidence to support this claim. In osteoarthritis, increased expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines cause aberrant changes in differentiated chondrocytes function which leads to an
417:
The body solves this problem with stiffer, higher modulus layers near bone, with high concentrations of mineral deposits such as hydroxyapatite. Collagen fibers (which provide mechanical stiffness in cartilage) in this region are anchored directly to bones, reducing the possible deformation. Moving
391:
The confined compression test can also be used to measure permeability, which is defined as the resistance to fluid flow through a material. Higher permeability allows for fluid to flow out of a material’s matrix more rapidly, while lower permeability leads to an initial rapid fluid flow and a slow
413:
which, over the millions of loading cycles experienced by human joins over a lifetime, would eventually lead to failure. For example, the elastic modulus of human bone is roughly 20 GPa while the softer regions of cartilage can be about 0.5 to 0.9 MPa. When there is a smooth gradient of materials
408:
In addition to its role in load-bearing joints, cartilage serves a crucial function as a gradient material between softer tissues and bone. Mechanical gradients are crucial for your body’s function, and for complex artificial structures including joint implants. Interfaces with mismatched material
422:
increases and collagen fibers are rearranged to optimize for stress dissipation and low friction. The outermost layer near the articular surface is known as the superficial zone, which primarily serves as a lubrication region. Here cartilage is characterized by a dense extracellular matrix and is
268:
elastic cartilage; there is more intercellular space. Hyaline cartilage is found in the nose, ears, trachea, parts of the larynx, and smaller respiratory tubes. Fibrous cartilage has the fewest cells so it has the most intercellular space. Fibrous cartilage is found in the spine and the menisci.
267:
There are three different types of cartilage: elastic (A), hyaline (B), and fibrous (C). In elastic cartilage, the cells are closer together creating less intercellular space. Elastic cartilage is found in the external ear flaps and in parts of the larynx. Hyaline cartilage has fewer cells than
399:
The mechanical properties of articular cartilage are largely anisotropic, test-dependent, and can be age-dependent. These properties also depend on collagen-proteoglycan interactions and therefore can increase/decrease depending on the total content of water, collagen, glycoproteins, etc. For
811:
express ColA and hyaluronan in the gill cartilage and the endosternite, which indicates that these tissues are fibrillar-collagen-based cartilage. The endosternite cartilage forms close to Hh-expressing ventral nerve cords and expresses ColA and SoxE, a Sox9 analog. This is also seen in gill
426:
Osteoarthritis and natural aging both have negative effects on cartilage as a whole as well as the proper function of the materials gradient within. The earliest changes are often in the superficial zone, the softest and most lubricating part of the tissue. Degradation of this layer can put
854:. The odontophore is a vesicular cell rich cartilage, consisting of vacuolated cells containing myoglobin, surrounded by a low amount of extra cellular matrix containing collagen. The odontophore contains muscle cells along with the chondrocytes in the case of
499:, and lubrication, and thus are considered superior to polyethylene-based cartilages. A two-year implantation of the PVA hydrogels as artificial meniscus in rabbits showed that the gels remain intact without degradation, fracture, or loss of properties.
312:
and collagen type II) that form the extracellular matrix. In all vertebrates, cartilage is the main skeletal tissue in early ontogenetic stages; in osteichthyans, many cartilaginous elements subsequently ossify through
375:
have been studied extensively at macro, micro, and nano-scales. These mechanical properties include the response of cartilage in frictional, compressive, shear and tensile loading. Cartilage is resilient and displays
462:
is difficult to heal. Also, because hyaline cartilage does not have a blood supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow. Over the last years, surgeons and scientists have elaborated a series of
990:
423:
rich in proteoglycans (which dispel and reabsorb water to soften impacts) and thin collagen oriented parallel to the joint surface which have excellent shear resistant properties.
803:
is the endosternite cartilage, a fibrous-hyaline cartilage with chondrocytes of typical morphology in a fibrous component, much more fibrous than vertebrate hyaline cartilage, with
1982:
Cole AG, Hall BK (2004). "The nature and significance of invertebrate cartilages revisited: distribution and histology of cartilage and cartilage-like tissues within the
Metazoa".
1214:
Chremos A, Horkay F (September 2023). "Coexistence of
Crumpling and Flat Sheet Conformations in Two-Dimensional Polymer Networks: An Understanding of Aggrecan Self-Assembly".
799:. It is a vesicular cell-rich cartilage due to the large, spherical and vacuolated chondrocytes with no homologies in other arthropods. Other type of cartilage found in
836:
express ColAa, ColAb, and hyaluronan in the cranial cartilages and other regions of chondrogenesis. This implies that the cartilage is fibrillar-collagen-based. The
1079:
Cervantes-Diaz, Fret; Contreras, Pedro; Marcellini, Sylvain (March 2017). "Evolutionary origin of endochondral ossification: the transdifferentiation hypothesis".
2157:
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example, increased glucosaminoglycan content leads to an increase in compressive stiffness, and increased water content leads to a lower aggregate modulus.
807:
immunoreactive against chondroitin sulfate antibodies. There are homologous tissues to the endosternite cartilage in other arthropods. The embryos of
202:
Because of its rigidity, cartilage often serves the purpose of holding tubes open in the body. Examples include the rings of the trachea, such as the
2116:
1035:
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scans, the outer soft tissue is most likely removed, so the cartilage and air boundary are enough to contrast the presence of cartilage due to the
2147:
2020:
Tarazona OA, Slota LA, Lopez DH, Zhang G, Cohn MJ (May 2016). "The genetic program for cartilage development has deep homology within
Bilateria".
1958:
96:
2195:
1824:
Adelnia, Hossein; Ensandoost, Reza; Shebbrin
Moonshi, Shehzahdi; Gavgani, Jaber Nasrollah; Vasafi, Emad Izadi; Ta, Hang Thu (2022-02-05).
1124:"Cartilage growth and remodeling: modulation of balance between proteoglycan and collagen network in vitro with beta-aminopropionitrile"
550:
1901:"Butein Activates Autophagy Through AMPK/TSC2/ULK1/mTOR Pathway to Inhibit IL-6 Expression in IL-1β Stimulated Human Chondrocytes"
1447:"Comparison of the Equilibrium Response of Articular Cartilage in Unconfined Compression, Confined Compression and Indentation"
487:
as a base material for such a purpose. These gels have exhibited great promises in terms of biocompatibility, wear resistance,
1736:
1638:"Preparation and Characterization of Biomimetic Functional Scaffold with Gradient Structure for Osteochondral Defect Repair"
1123:
962:
de Buffrénil, Vivian; de Ricqlès, Armand J; Zylberberg, Louise; Padian, Kevin; Laurin, Michel; Quilhac, Alexandra (2021).
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properties, however, stresses are distributed evenly across the interface, which puts less wear on each individual part.
587:: Reduced proliferation of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate of long bones during infancy and childhood, resulting in
477:
1617:
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574:
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Traumatic rupture or detachment: The cartilage in the knee is frequently damaged but can be partially repaired through
139:. It is a semi-transparent and non-porous type of tissue. It is usually covered by a tough and fibrous membrane called
300:
germ layer. Chondrification (also known as chondrogenesis) is the process by which cartilage is formed from condensed
1055:
1010:
2188:
848:, a cartilaginous structure that supports the radula. The most studied species regarding this particular tissue is
1445:
Korhonen, R. K.; Laasanen, M. S.; Töyräs, J.; Rieppo, J.; Hirvonen, J.; Helminen, H. J.; Jurvelin, J. S. (2002).
2138:
897:, and the stems of some mushrooms, are sometimes called "cartilaginous", although they contain no cartilage.
577:. Often when athletes talk of damaged "cartilage" in their knee, they are referring to a damaged meniscus (a
17:
2301:
349:. The main proteoglycan in cartilage is aggrecan, which, as its name suggests, forms large aggregates with
2113:
2181:
644:, can occur. They usually appear in bone, rarely in pre-existing cartilage. The benign tumors are called
1538:"Determination of Poisson's Ratio of Articular Cartilage by Indentation Using Different-Sized Indenters"
2573:
2144:
1955:
463:
1825:
1763:"The secreted glycoprotein lubricin protects cartilage surfaces and inhibits synovial cell overgrowth"
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techniques are being developed to generate new cartilage, using a cellular "scaffolding" material and
2306:
850:
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652:. Tumors arising from other tissues may also produce a cartilage-like matrix, the best-known being
618:
79:
1395:"A Systematic Review and Guide to Mechanical Testing for Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering"
2092:
1267:"Articular cartilage tensile integrity: modulation by matrix depletion is maturation-dependent"
604:
473:
115:
103:
91:
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Razmara E, Bitaraf A, Yousefi H, Nguyen TH, Garshasbi M, Cho WC, Babashah S (September 2019).
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that is rich in proteoglycan and elastin fibers. Cartilage is classified into three types —
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2070:
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1223:
545:, the replacement of the joint by a synthetic joint often made of a stainless steel alloy (
410:
338:
218:
175:, it constitutes a much greater proportion of the skeleton. It is not as hard and rigid as
65:
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of its soft content. The hernia often compresses the adjacent nerves and causes back pain.
8:
2477:
653:
608:
554:
164:
156:
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625:, of cartilage, especially of the nose and ears, causing disfiguration. Death occurs by
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to grow artificial cartilage. Extensive researches have been conducted on freeze-thawed
39:
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61:
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Rhee DK, Marcelino J, Baker M, Gong Y, Smits P, Lefebvre V, et al. (March 2005).
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The mechanical properties of articular cartilage in load-bearing joints such as the
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1991:
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are a group of diseases, characterized by the disturbance of growth and subsequent
488:
467:
459:
222:
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337:
The articular cartilage function is dependent on the molecular composition of the
2450:
2409:
2151:
2141:, Information on Articular Cartilage Injury Prevention, Repair and Rehabilitation
2126:
2120:
1962:
668:
594:
377:
84:
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1334:
915:"The basic science of articular cartilage: structure, composition, and function"
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1995:
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excess of chondrocyte catabolic activity, mediated by factors including matrix
538:
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of cartilage. Some common diseases that affect the cartilage are listed below.
443:
283:
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of cartilage from one individual to another without fear of tissue rejection.
507:
2562:
2543:
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1926:
1881:
1859:
1569:"Tissue Stiffness Dictates Development, Homeostasis, and Disease Progression"
1504:
930:
454:
Cartilage has limited repair capabilities: Because chondrocytes are bound in
329:
289:
140:
1394:
1265:
Asanbaeva A, Tam J, Schumacher BL, Klisch SM, Masuda K, Sah RL (June 2008).
1047:
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closer to soft tissue into the region known as the tidemark, the density of
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2003:
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702:
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521:
439:
419:
342:
314:
305:
188:
1489:"Assessment of Native Human Articular Cartilage: A Biomechanical Protocol"
1342:
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of the knee cartilage can often be surgically trimmed to reduce problems.
446:, plays a major role in bio-lubrication and wear protection of cartilage.
2507:
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214:
53:
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2414:
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2110:, International Cartilage Regeneration & Joint Preservation Society
869:
793:
The most studied cartilage in arthropods is the branchial cartilage of
782:
713:
664:
622:
598:
350:
301:
256:
has partial blood supply. Nutrition is supplied to the chondrocytes by
237:— which differ in their relative amounts of collagen and proteoglycan.
172:
45:
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121:
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2419:
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2173:
2135:, I've heard 'Ears and nose do not ever stop growing.' Is this false?
1826:"Freeze/thawed polyvinyl alcohol hydrogels: Present, past and future"
1778:
968:(Firstiton ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. xii + 825.
645:
496:
257:
148:
144:
57:
1537:
1487:
Kabir, W.; Di Bella, C.; Choong, P. F. M.; O’Connell, C. D. (2021).
1122:
Asanbaeva A, Masuda K, Thonar EJ, Klisch SM, Sah RL (January 2008).
2482:
1899:
Ansari, Mohammad Y.; Ahmad, Nashrah; Haqqi, Tariq M. (2018-09-05).
762:
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The matrix of cartilage acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of
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309:
297:
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1393:
Patel, J. M.; Wise, B. C.; Bonnevie, E. D.; Mauck, R. L. (2019).
1078:
856:
820:
In cephalopods, the models used for the studies of cartilage are
773:
Cartilage tissue can also be found among some arthropods such as
705:
film between the bone and meniscus represents the cartilage. For
689:
196:
159:, and is a structural component of many body parts including the
2445:
2353:
991:"An Overview of the Embryonic Development of the Bony Skeleton"
641:
612:
546:
180:
248:, it is insensitive. However, some fibrocartilage such as the
2073:. University of Sydney (2010-06-16). Retrieved on 2015-10-26.
1165:"Non-Coding RNAs in Cartilage Development: An Updated Review"
778:
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176:
2123:, Cartilage tutorial, University of Kansas Medical Center
372:
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that help to postpone the need for joint replacement. A
2019:
955:
841:
growth pattern is the same as in vertebrate cartilage.
1760:
1392:
1316:"Viscoelastic properties of human articular cartilage"
27:
Resilient and smooth elastic tissue present in animals
1689:"Effects of aging on articular cartilage homeostasis"
701:
to be absorbed by the dye. The resulting void on the
511:
Human skeleton with articular cartilage shown in blue
179:, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than
1965:. Osteoarthritis.about.com. Retrieved on 2015-10-26.
913:
Sophia Fox, AJ; Bedi, A; Rodeo, SA (November 2009).
2015:
2013:
912:
458:, they cannot migrate to damaged areas. Therefore,
333:
Section from mouse joint showing cartilage (purple)
213:Cartilage is composed of specialized cells called
989:Buffrénil, Vivian de; Quilhac, Alexandra (2021).
597:: Inflammation of cartilage in the ribs, causing
2560:
2010:
1898:
1040:Vertebrate Skeletal Histology and Paleohistology
995:Vertebrate Skeletal Histology and Paleohistology
988:
965:Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology
765:have a skeleton composed entirely of cartilage.
1977:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1440:
1438:
785:, and some annelids like sabellid polychaetes.
693:conditions, but a dye can be injected into the
629:as the larynx loses its rigidity and collapses.
1882:"Supplements for osteoarthritis 'do not work'"
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1968:
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163:, the neck and the bronchial tubes, and the
2086:
1810:International Cartilage Repair Society ICRS
1349:
1307:
1169:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
581:structure) and not the articular cartilage.
217:that produce a large amount of collagenous
143:. In tetrapods, it covers and protects the
2196:
2182:
1207:
860:and other mollusks that graze vegetation.
38:
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1290:
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1180:
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768:
1981:
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844:In gastropods, the interest lies in the
722:
551:ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene
506:
502:
430:
403:
362:
328:
262:
183:. The matrix of cartilage is made up of
1566:
1529:
1372:
1271:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics
1033:
863:
526:Several diseases can affect cartilage.
14:
2561:
2203:
611:ruptures the sac-like disc, causing a
324:
199:. It usually grows quicker than bone.
2177:
1819:
1817:
1767:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
1314:Hayes WC, Mockros LF (October 1971).
744:
1905:Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry
1686:
1635:
1542:Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
1036:"An Overview of Cartilage Histology"
636:made up of cartilage tissue, either
308:and begins secreting the molecules (
1615:
885:
24:
2079:
1814:
906:
575:knee cartilage replacement therapy
341:(ECM). The ECM consists mainly of
304:tissue, which differentiates into
135:is a resilient and smooth type of
25:
2585:
2101:
1567:Handorf, Andrew (27 April 2015).
607:: Asymmetrical compression of an
409:properties lead to areas of high
739:
2064:
1949:
1892:
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1842:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110974
1803:
1729:
1680:
1629:
1609:
1560:
1081:Development Genes and Evolution
777:, some mollusks such as marine
671:. This property allows for the
317:and perichondral ossification.
2089:Vertebrate Histology, ZOOL 400
1687:Lotz, Martin (28 March 2012).
1655:10.3390/bioengineering10020213
1536:Jin, H.; Lewis, J. L. (2004).
1258:
1236:10.1103/PhysRevLett.131.138101
1156:
1115:
1072:
1027:
982:
277:
240:As cartilage does not contain
13:
1:
1585:10.1080/15476278.2015.1019687
1463:10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00052-0
1323:Journal of Applied Physiology
900:
788:
1636:Chen, Li (6 February 2023).
1128:Osteoarthritis and Cartilage
272:
7:
1335:10.1152/jappl.1971.31.4.562
1034:Quilhac, Alexandra (2021).
815:
464:cartilage repair procedures
357:
296:system is derived from the
10:
2590:
2169:Cartilage photomicrographs
2129:, text from Gray's anatomy
1996:10.1016/j.zool.2004.05.001
1705:10.1016/j.bone.2012.03.023
1141:10.1016/j.joca.2007.05.019
683:Cartilage does not absorb
678:
621:: a destruction, probably
519:
515:
442:abundant in cartilage and
281:
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2341:
2315:
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2215:
1619:Biomechanics of Cartilage
1411:10.1089/ten.tec.2019.0116
1399:Tissue Eng Part C Methods
1375:Biomechanics of Cartilage
1283:10.1016/j.abb.2008.03.012
1093:10.1007/s00427-016-0567-y
851:Busycotypus canaliculatus
449:
167:. In other taxa, such as
114:
102:
90:
78:
73:
37:
32:
1830:European Polymer Journal
1505:10.1177/1947603520973240
931:10.1177/1941738109350438
619:Relapsing polychondritis
1625:. MDPI. pp. 66–79.
1451:Journal of Biomechanics
1373:Mansour, J. M. (2013).
1216:Physical Review Letters
1048:10.1201/9781351189590-7
1003:10.1201/9781351189590-2
735:, under polarized light
195:fibers and, sometimes,
2093:Boise State University
2087:Keller-Peck C (2008).
1499:(2 Suppl): 427S–437S.
1042:. CRC Press: 123–146.
769:Invertebrate cartilage
736:
733:haematoxylin and eosin
727:Histological image of
605:Spinal disc herniation
512:
474:Biological engineering
334:
269:
116:Anatomical terminology
2230:fibrocartilage callus
879:Myxicola infundibulum
726:
648:, the malignant ones
510:
503:Clinical significance
431:Frictional properties
404:Tendon-bone interface
363:Mechanical properties
332:
266:
2165:on TheFreeDictionary
2163:Different cartilages
1888:. 16 September 2010.
1182:10.3390/ijms20184475
997:. CRC Press: 29–38.
870:Sabellid polychaetes
864:Sabellid polychaetes
749:Cartilaginous fish (
697:that will cause the
468:tear of the meniscus
411:stress concentration
339:extracellular matrix
219:extracellular matrix
165:intervertebral discs
2139:CartilageHealth.com
2042:10.1038/nature17398
2034:2016Natur.533...86T
1228:2023PhRvL.131m8101C
838:S. officinalis
834:S. officinalis
805:mucopolysaccharides
654:pleomorphic adenoma
609:intervertebral disc
555:Chondroitin sulfate
325:Articular cartilage
157:articular cartilage
2150:2011-07-07 at the
2119:2011-04-08 at the
1961:2011-07-07 at the
812:cartilage tissue.
809:Limulus polyphemus
801:L. polyphemus
796:Limulus polyphemus
745:Cartilaginous fish
737:
564:metalloproteinases
528:Chondrodystrophies
513:
335:
270:
185:glycosaminoglycans
2574:Connective tissue
2556:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2461:connective tissue
2456:Volkmann's canals
2071:Eflora – Glossary
1918:10.1159/000493225
1616:Mansour, Joseph.
1554:10.1115/1.1688772
1377:. pp. 69–83.
829:Sepia officinalis
729:hyaline cartilage
695:synovial membrane
231:hyaline cartilage
227:elastic cartilage
204:cricoid cartilage
137:connective tissue
130:
129:
125:
50:hyaline cartilage
48:of undecalcified
16:(Redirected from
2581:
2503:medullary cavity
2478:Sharpey's fibres
2451:Haversian canals
2406:epiphyseal plate
2396:subchondral bone
2285:
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2184:
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886:Plants and fungi
823:Octopus vulgaris
719:
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667:or diffusion of
489:shock absorption
460:cartilage damage
223:ground substance
122:edit on Wikidata
119:
42:
30:
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2410:epiphyseal line
2384:
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2302:intramembranous
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2158:Cartilage types
2152:Wayback Machine
2121:Wayback Machine
2104:
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2080:Further reading
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891:Vascular plants
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673:transplantation
669:immunoglobulins
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595:Costochondritis
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1956:Osteoarthritis
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1911:(3): 932–946.
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1642:Bioengineering
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585:Achondroplasia
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579:fibrocartilage
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539:Osteoarthritis
520:Main article:
517:
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478:cultured cells
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284:Chondrogenesis
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18:Cartilaginous
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2349:bone mineral
2307:endochondral
2297:primary bone
2289:Ossification
2243:chondroblast
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2127:Bartleby.com
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1744:. Retrieved
1740:
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1374:
1329:(4): 562–8.
1326:
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876:species and
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703:radiographic
688:
682:
662:
632:
627:asphyxiation
568:aggrecanases
543:arthroplasty
532:ossification
525:
522:Chondropathy
472:
453:
440:glycoprotein
434:
425:
420:chondrocytes
416:
407:
398:
394:
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386:
382:
380:properties.
378:viscoelastic
366:
343:proteoglycan
336:
319:
315:endochondral
287:
239:
215:chondrocytes
212:
201:
132:
131:
97:A02.0.00.005
54:chondrocytes
2508:bone marrow
2248:chondrocyte
1741:Mayo Clinic
1579:(1): 1–15.
1134:(1): 1–11.
846:odontophore
783:cephalopods
665:lymphocytes
559:glucosamine
497:flexibility
278:Development
244:vessels or
221:, abundant
173:cyclostomes
74:Identifiers
2563:Categories
2498:trabeculae
2493:canaliculi
2471:periosteum
2430:epicondyle
2415:metaphysis
2375:cancellous
2333:osteoclast
2323:osteoblast
2235:metaphysis
2133:MadSci.org
1836:: 110974.
1648:(2): 213.
901:References
789:Arthropods
714:refraction
623:autoimmune
613:herniation
599:chest pain
351:hyaluronan
302:mesenchyme
149:long bones
58:organelles
46:micrograph
2539:irregular
2466:endosteum
2439:Structure
2420:diaphysis
2401:epiphysis
2328:osteocyte
2217:Cartilage
2209:cartilage
2145:About.com
1927:1015-8987
1868:245576810
1860:0014-3057
1493:Cartilage
1252:263252529
1066:236413810
1021:236422314
874:Potamilla
763:chimaeras
646:chondroma
642:malignant
485:hydrogels
347:collagens
273:Structure
258:diffusion
133:Cartilage
33:Cartilage
2544:sesamoid
2483:enthesis
2380:cortical
2148:Archived
2117:Archived
2114:KUMC.edu
2050:27111511
2004:16351944
1959:Archived
1943:52166938
1935:30184535
1886:BBC News
1797:15719068
1723:22487298
1674:36829707
1603:25915734
1523:33218275
1471:12052392
1429:31288616
1301:18394422
1244:37832020
1201:31514268
1150:17631390
1109:21024809
1101:27909803
949:23015907
816:Mollusks
589:dwarfism
493:friction
436:Lubricin
358:Function
310:aggrecan
298:mesoderm
294:skeletal
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