Carboniferous - Knowledge

1796: 1711: 2214: 2331:, carbon isotopes of organic material, isotope mass balance and forward modelling. Results from these different methods for the Carboniferous vary. For example, the increasing occurrence of charcoal produced by wildfires from the Late Devonian into the early Carboniferous indicates increasing oxygen levels, with calculations showing oxygen levels above 21% for much of the Carboniferous, whilst halite gas inclusions from the Visean give estimates at c. 15.3%, although with large uncertainties. Combined results from the different methods, to give an estimate of atmospheric oxygen levels, show levels climbed rapidly from c. 20% at the start of the Carboniferous to c. 30% by its end. The rise in atmospheric oxygen is attributed to the increased burial of organic matter in the widespread coal swamps. 4366: 4160: 4189: 3624: 4341: 1895: 3791: 3809: 3234: 3366: 3319: 3897: 3407: 3658: 3492: 4259: 4113: 3383: 3639: 4141: 3261: 3281: 1501: 4547: 2444:. The concentration of calcium in seawater is largely controlled by ocean pH, and as this increased the calcium concentration was reduced. At the same time, the increase in weathering, increased the amount of magnesium entering the marine environment. As magnesium is removed from seawater and calcium added along mid-ocean ridges where seawater reacts with the newly formed lithosphere, the reduction in length of mid-ocean ridge systems increased the Mg/Ca ratio further. The Mg/Ca ratio of the seas also affects the ability of organisms to 4071: 3300: 3851: 4658: 4626: 4601: 3878: 3773: 9179: 4521: 3354: 2116:

deposition including, during more temperate intervals, coal swamps in Western Australia. The Mexican terranes along the northwestern Gondwana margin, were affected by the subduction of the Rheic Ocean. However, they lay to west of the Ouachita orogeny and were not impacted by continental collision but became part of the active margin of the Pacific. The Moroccan margin was affected by periods of widespread dextral strike-slip deformation, magmatism and metamorphism associated with the Variscan orogeny.

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Devonian, even if the specific enzymes used by basidiomycetes had not. The second theory is that the geographical setting and climate of the Carboniferous were unique in Earth's history: the co-occurrence of the position of the continents across the humid equatorial zone, high biological productivity, and the low-lying, water-logged and slowly subsiding sedimentary basins that allowed the thick accumulation of peat were sufficient to account for the peak in coal formation.

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epicontinental seas relative to the more open waters. However, large scale trends can still be determined. δC rose rapidly from c. 0 to 1‰ (parts per thousand) to c. 5 to 7‰ in the Early Mississippian and remained high for the duration of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (c. 3–6‰) into the early Permian. Similarly from the Early Mississippian there was a long-term increase in δO values as the climate cooled.

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regions c. -23 °C (-10 °F), whilst during the Early Tournaisian Warm Interval (358-353 Ma) the GAT was c. 22 °C (72 °F), the tropics c. 30 °C (86 °F) and polar regions c. 1.5 °C (35 °F). Overall, for the Ice Age the GAT was c. 17 °C (62 °F), with tropical temperatures c. 26 °C and polar temperatures c. -9.0 °C (16 °F).

1718:. A marine limestone at the base of the cliff is overlain by an orange-coloured fluvial sandstone. Subaerial exposure of the limestone during a period of falling sea level resulted in the formation of a karstic surface, which has then been infilled by the river sands. A thin, estuarine silty mudstone overlays the sandstone, which in turn is overlain by a second marine limestone. 2522:

case was caused by increased continental weathering of the growing Central Pangean Mountains and the influence of the orogeny on precipitation and surface water flow rather than increased burial of organic matter. δC values show more regional variation, and it is unclear whether there is a positive δC excursion or a readjustment from previous lower values.

4490:). Synapsids quickly became huge and diversified in the Permian, only for their dominance to stop during the Mesozoic. Sauropsids (reptiles, and also, later, birds) also diversified but remained small until the Mesozoic, during which they dominated the land, as well as the water and sky, only for their dominance to stop during the Cenozoic. 2852:, continuing through the end of the Carboniferous, although cephalopod and nektonic conodont diversity declined. This evolutionary radiation was known as the Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event. For the first time foraminifera took a prominent part in the marine faunas. The large spindle-shaped genus 4811:

Amphibians, the dominant vertebrates at the time, fared poorly through this event with large losses in biodiversity; reptiles continued to diversify through key adaptations that let them survive in the drier habitat, specifically the hard-shelled egg and scales, both of which retain water better than

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concentrations rapidly rose. There was a steady increase in arid conditions across tropical regions and a major reduction in the extent of tropical rainforests, as shown by the widespread loss of coal deposits from this time. The resulting reduction in productivity and burial of organic matter led to

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isotopic composition (Sr/Sr) of seawater represents a mix of strontium derived from continental weathering which is rich in Sr and from mantle sources e.g. mid-ocean ridges, which are relatively depleted in Sr. Sr/Sr ratios above 0.7075 indicate continental weathering is the main source of Sr, whilst

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The Carboniferous climate was dominated by the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA), the most extensive and longest icehouse period of the Phanerozoic, which lasted from the Late Devonian to the Permian (365 Ma-253 Ma). Temperatures began to drop during the late Devonian with a short-lived glaciation in the

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developed above an east-dipping subduction zone, whilst further south, the Zharma-Saur arc formed along the northeastern margin of Kazakhstania. By the late Carboniferous, all these complexes had accreted to the Siberian craton as shown by the intrusion of post-orogenic granites across the region. As

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during the Devonian. At the beginning of the Carboniferous it lay at low latitude in the southern hemisphere and drifted north during the Carboniferous, crossing the equator during the mid-to-late Carboniferous and reaching low latitudes in the northern hemisphere by the end of the Carboniferous. The

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swamps, known as peat mires, and is then buried, compressing the peat into coal. The majority of Earth's coal deposits were formed during the late Carboniferous and early Permian. The plants from which they formed contributed to changes in the Carboniferous Earth's atmosphere, and the coal fueled the

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The LPIA peaked across the Carboniferous-Permian boundary. Widespread glacial deposits are found across South America, western and central Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Tasmania, the Arabian Peninsula, India, and the Cimmerian blocks, indicating trans-continental ice sheets across southern Gondwana

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capable of breaking down lignin, supports this theory by suggesting this fungi evolved in the Permian. However, significant Mesozoic and Cenozoic coal deposits formed after lignin-digesting fungi had become well established, and fungal degradation of lignin may have already evolved by the end of the

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were high, meaning they were often periods of non-deposition. Erosion during sea level falls could also result in the full or partial removal of previous cyclothem sequences. Individual cyclothems are generally less than 10 m thick because the speed at which sea level rose gave only limited time for

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Sr/Sr values varied through the Carboniferous, although they remained above 0.775, indicating continental weathering dominated as the source of Sr throughout. The Sr/Sr during the Tournaisian was c. 0.70840, it decreased through the Visean to 0.70771 before increasing during the Serpukhovian to the

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The oscillating climate conditions also led to repeated restructuring of Laurasian tropical forests between wetlands and seasonally dry ecosystems, and the appearance and diversification of tetrapods species. There was a major restructuring of wetland forests during the Kasimovian glacial interval,

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of the island arc was complete by the Tournaisian, but subduction of the Ural Ocean between Kazakhstania and Laurussia continued until the Bashkirian when the ocean finally closed and continental collision began. Significant strike-slip movement along this zone indicates the collision was oblique.

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in Laurussia, and around the margins of the North and South China cratons. During glacial periods, low sea levels exposed large areas of the continental shelves. Major river channels, up to several kilometres wide, stretched across these shelves feeding a network of smaller channels, lakes and peat

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within many sequences of this age. This has created difficulties in finding suitable marine fauna that can used to correlate boundaries worldwide. The Kasimovian currently lacks a defined GSSP; potential sites in the southern Urals, southwest USA and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are

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occurred. On land this event is referred to as the Carboniferous rainforest collapse. Vast tropical rainforests collapsed suddenly as the climate changed from hot and humid to cool and arid. This was likely caused by intense glaciation and a drop in sea levels. The new climatic conditions were not

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levels dropped. Its onset was accompanied by a global fall in sea level and widespread multimillion-year unconformities. This main phase consisted of a series of discrete several million-year-long glacial periods during which ice expanded out from up to 30 ice centres that stretched across mid- to

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The Kazakhstanian microcontinent is composed of a series of Devonian and older accretionary complexes. It was strongly deformed during the Carboniferous as its western margin collided with Laurussia during the Uralian orogen and its northeastern margin collided with Siberia. Continuing strike-slip

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The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian boundary positive δO excursion occurred at the same time as global sea level falls and widespread glacial deposits across southern Gondwana, indicating climate cooling and ice build-up. The rise in Sr/Sr just before the δO excursion suggests climate cooling in this

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to northwest China, is the remains of this accretionary complex and forms the suture between Kazakhstania and Tarim. A continental magmatic arc above a south-dipping subduction zone lay along the northern North China margin, consuming the Paleoasian Ocean. Northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys

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Ideally, this sequence would be reversed as sea levels began to fall again; however, sea level falls tend to be protracted, whilst sea level rises are rapid, ice sheets grow slowly but melt quickly. Therefore, the majority of a cyclothem sequence occurred during falling sea levels, when rates of

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were highly numerous during the Carboniferous, though they suffered a gradual decline in diversity during the Middle Mississippian. Dense submarine thickets of long-stemmed crinoids appear to have flourished in shallow seas, and their remains were consolidated into thick beds of rock. Prominent

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preserved in the fossil record can be affected by regional factors. Carboniferous δO and δC records show regional differences between the South China open-water setting and the epicontinental seas of Laurussia. These differences are due to variations in seawater salinity and evaporation between

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The Carboniferous rainforest collapse slowed the evolution of amphibians who could not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Amniotes, however, prospered because of specific key adaptations. One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which

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Temperatures across the Carboniferous reflect the phases of the LPIA. At the extremes, during the Permo-Carboniferous Glacial Maximum (299-293 Ma) the global average temperature (GAT) was c. 13 °C (55 °F), the average temperature in the tropics c. 24 °C (75 °F) and in polar

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levels was triggered by tectonic factors with increased weathering of the growing Central Pangean Mountains and the influence of the mountains on precipitation and surface water flow. Closure of the oceanic gateway between the Rheic and Tethys oceans in the early Bashkirian also contributed to

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The main phase of the LPIA was considered a crisis for marine biodiversity with the loss of many genera, followed by low biodiversity. However, recent studies of marine life suggest the rapid climate and environmental changes that accompanied the onset of the main glacial phase resulted in an

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levels, caused by the increased burial of organic matter and widespread ocean anoxia led to climate cooling and glaciation across the south polar region. During the Visean Warm Interval glaciers nearly vanished retreating to the proto-Andes in Bolivia and western Argentina and the Pan-African

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are widespread across Gondwana and indicate multiple ice centres and long-distance movement of ice. The northern to northeastern margin of Gondwana (northeast Africa, Arabia, India and northeastern West Australia) was a passive margin along the southern edge of the Paleo-Tethys with cyclothem

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Position of the continents in the late Carboniferous. Gondwana, Laurussia and Kazakhstania are already amalgamated as Pangea. Key: PA Panthalassa; S Siberia; AR Amuria; NC North China; SC South China; AN Annamia; PT Paleo-Tethys; red line approximate position of Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita

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South China and Annamia (Southeast Asia) rifted from Gondwana during the Devonian. During the Carboniferous, they were separated from each other and North China by the Paleoasian Ocean with the Paleo-Tethys to the southwest and Panthalassa to the northeast. Cyclothem sediments with coal and

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of the foreland basins and continental margins allowed this accumulation and burial of peat deposits to continue over millions of years resulting in the formation of thick and widespread coal formations. During the warm interglacials, smaller coal swamps with plants adapted to the temperate

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Hyden Formation over Pikeville Formation in the Pennsylvanian of Kentucky, US. The exposure has Pennsylvanian-aged cyclothemic sedimentary rocks of the Breathitt Group. The upper part of the roadcut is Hyden Formation, consisting of mixed siliciclastics and coal. The lower part is Pikeville

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led to major climate and sea level changes, which restricted marine fauna to particular geographic areas thereby reducing widespread biostratigraphic correlations. Extensive volcanic events associated with the assembling of Pangea means more radiometric dating is possible relative to the

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The first 15 million years of the Carboniferous had very limited terrestrial fossils. While it has long been debated whether the gap is a result of fossilisation or relates to an actual event, recent work indicates there was a drop in atmospheric oxygen levels, indicating some sort of

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lowermost Gzhelian where it plateaued at 0.70827, before decreasing again to 0.70814 at the Carboniferous-Permian boundary. These variations reflect the changing influence of weathering and sediment supply to the oceans of the growing Central Pangean Mountains. By the Serpukhovian

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Menning, M.; Alekseev, A.S.; Chuvashov, B.I.; Davydov, V.I.; Devuyst, F.X.; Forke, H.C.; Grunt, T.A.; et al. (2006). "Global time scale and regional stratigraphic reference scales of Central and West Europe, East Europe, Tethys, South China, and North America as used in the

1282:) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. Only the boundaries of the Carboniferous System and three of the stage bases are defined by global stratotype sections and points because of the complexity of the geology. The ICS subdivisions from youngest to oldest are as follows: 2339:

The changing climate was reflected in regional-scale changes in sedimentation patterns. In the relatively warm waters of the Early to Middle Mississippian, carbonate production occurred to depth across the gently dipping continental slopes of Laurussia and North and South China

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Floudas, Dimitrios; Binder, Manfred; Riley, Robert; Barry, Kerrie; Blanchette, Robert A.; Henrissat, Bernard; Martínez, Angel T.; Otillar, Robert; Spatafora, Joseph W.; Yadav, Jagjit S.; Aerts, Andrea; Benoit, Isabelle; Boyd, Alex; Carlson, Alexis; Copeland, Alex (2012-06-01).

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During the Carboniferous, the Tarim craton lay along the northwestern edge of North China. Subduction along the Kazakhstanian margin of the Turkestan Ocean resulted in collision between northern Tarim and Kazakhstania during the mid Carboniferous as the ocean closed. The

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Both δC and δO records show significant global isotope changes (known as excursions) during the Carboniferous. The mid-Tournaisian positive δC and δO excursions lasted between 6 and 10 million years and were also accompanied by c. 6‰ positive excursion in organic matter

1734:. The growth of ice sheets led global sea levels to fall as water was lock away in glaciers. Falling sea levels exposed large tracts of the continental shelves across which river systems eroded channels and valleys and vegetation broke down the surface to form 4278: 1841:

There is ongoing debate as to why this peak in the formation of Earth's coal deposits occurred during the Carboniferous. The first theory, known as the delayed fungal evolution hypothesis, is that a delay between the development of trees with the wood fibre

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developed; their sediments deposited over the peat mires. As fully marine conditions were established, limestones succeeded these marginal marine deposits. The limestones were in turn overlain by deep water black shales as maximum sea levels were reached.

1516:. These changes are now thought to be ecologically driven rather than caused by evolutionary change, and so this has not been used as the location for the GSSP. Instead, the GSSP for the base of the Visean is located in Bed 83 of the sequence of dark grey 2152:. The northwest to eastern margins of Siberia were passive margins along the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean on the far side of which lay Amuria. From the mid Carboniferous, subduction zones with associated magmatic arcs developed along both margins of the ocean. 1251:

In 1975, the ICS formally ratified the Carboniferous System, with the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian subsystems from the North American timescale, the Tournaisian and Visean stages from the Western European and the Serpukhovian, Bashkirian, Moscovian,

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at its base. Whilst individual cyclothems are often only metres to a few tens of metres thick, cyclothem sequences can be many hundreds to thousands of metres thick and contain tens to hundreds of individual cyclothems. Cyclothems were deposited along

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Reptiles underwent a major evolutionary radiation in response to the drier climate that preceded the rainforest collapse. By the end of the Carboniferous amniotes had already diversified into a number of groups, including several families of synapsid

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The glacial grinding and erosion of siliciclastic rocks across Gondwana and the Central Pangaean Mountains produced vast amounts of silt-sized sediment. Redistributed by the wind, this formed widespread deposits of loess across equatorial Pangea.

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where early deformation in the Alleghanian orogeny was predominantly strike-slip. As the West African sector of Gondwana collided with Laurussia during the Late Pennsylvanian, deformation along the Alleghanian orogen became northwesterly-directed

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Warmer periods with reduced ice volume within the Bashkirian, the late Moscovian and the latest Kasimovian to mid-Gzhelian are inferred from the disappearance of glacial sediments, the appearance of deglaciation deposits and rises in sea levels.

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and Gzhelian from the Russian. With the formal ratification of the Carboniferous System, the Dinantian, Silesian, Namurian, Westphalian and Stephanian became redundant terms, although the latter three are still in common use in Western Europe.

1954:. As they drifted northwards the Rheic Ocean closed in front of them, and they began to collide with southeastern Laurussia in the Middle Devonian. The resulting Variscan orogeny involved a complex series of oblique collisions with associated 3689:

are known from the Carboniferous. Their diversity when they do appear, however, shows that these arthropods were both well-developed and numerous. Some arthropods grew to large sizes with the up to 2.6-meter-long (8.5 ft) millipede-like

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and carbonate sedimentation on the ocean floor, whilst the distribution of continents across the paleo-tropics meant vast areas of land were available for the spread of tropical rainforests. Together these two factors significantly increased

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The Serpukhovian Stage currently lacks a defined GSSP. The Visean-Serpukhovian boundary coincides with a major period of glaciation. The resulting sea level fall and climatic changes led to the loss of connections between marine basins and

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were diverse and common by the middle of the period, more so than they are today; some were as long as 6 meters, and those fully terrestrial as adults had scaly skin. They included basal tetrapod groups classified in early books under the

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officially recognised these two systems in 1953. In Russia, in the 1840s British and Russian geologists divided the Carboniferous into the Lower, Middle and Upper series based on Russian sequences. In the 1890s these became the Dinantian,

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Central Pangean Mountain drew in moist air from the Paleo-Tethys Ocean resulting in heavy precipitation and a tropical wetland environment. Extensive coal deposits developed within the cyclothem sequences that dominated the Pennsylvanian

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can be used to define the base of the Moscovian across the northern and eastern margins of Pangea, however, it is restricted in geographic area, which means it cannot be used for global correlations. The first appearance of the conodonts

4319: 3808: 4060:, a family eugeneodonts that were characterized by the presence of one circular tooth whorl in the lower jaw, appeared during the early Carboniferous. Perhaps the most bizarre radiation of holocephalans at this time was that of the 2147:

Shallow seas covered much of the Siberian craton in the early Carboniferous. These retreated as sea levels fell in the Pennsylvanian and as the continent drifted north into more temperate zones extensive coal deposits formed in the

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Floudas, D.; Binder, M.; Riley, R.; Barry, K.; Blanchette, R. A.; Henrissat, B.; Martinez, A. T.; et al. (28 June 2012). "The Paleozoic Origin of Enzymatic Lignin Decomposition Reconstructed from 31 Fungal Genomes".

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The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which are cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club-moss of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included

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in 1888, named after the widespread coal-rich strata found across the state of Pennsylvania. The closure of the Rheic Ocean and formation of Pangea during the Pennsylvanian, together with widespread glaciation across

4404:. These had a long body, a head covered with bony plates, and generally weak or undeveloped limbs. The largest were over 2 meters long. They were accompanied by an assemblage of smaller amphibians included under the 3623: 2110:

Much of Gondwana lay in the southern polar region during the Carboniferous. As the plate moved, the South Pole drifted from southern Africa in the early Carboniferous to eastern Antarctica by the end of the period.

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Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles, with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole. Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera

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filled in the niches left by large predatory placoderms. These fish were unique as they only possessed one row of teeth in their upper or lower jaws in the form of elaborate tooth whorls. The first members of the

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levels and increasingly arid conditions at low-latitudes led to a permanent shift to seasonally dry woodland vegetation. Tetrapods acquired new terrestrial adaptations and there was a radiation of dryland-adapted

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Heckel, P.H. (2008). "Pennsylvanian cyclothems in Midcontinent North America as far-field effects of waxing and waning of Gondwana ice sheets". In Christopher R. Fielding; Tracy D. Frank; John L. Isbell (eds.).

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with flat-tops and steep sides. By the Moscovian, the waxing and waning of the ice sheets led to cyclothem deposition with mixed carbonate-siliciclastic sequences deposited on continental platforms and shelves.

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levels below 400 ppm. Although referred to as the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, this was a complex replacement of one type of rainforest by another, not a complete disappearance of rainforest vegetation.

1738:. The non-marine sediments deposited on this erosional surface form the base of the cyclothem. As sea levels began to rise, the rivers flowed through increasingly water-logged landscapes of swamps and lakes. 4258: 7028:"A revised sedimentary pyrite proxy for atmospheric oxygen in the Paleozoic: Evaluation for the Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous period and the relationship of the results to the observed biosphere record" 4029:

to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches. As a result of the evolutionary radiation Carboniferous holocephalans assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes including

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Outlines of the geology of England and Wales : with an introductory compendium of the general principles of that science, and comparative views of the structure of foreign countries. Part I

3260: 3227:, which included the Pentreinitidae and Codasteridae and superficially resembled crinoids in the possession of long stalks attached to the seabed, attain their maximum development at this time. 4188: 3491: 3896: 1783:. The rapid sea levels fluctuations they represent correlate with the glacial cycles of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The advance and retreat of ice sheets across Gondwana followed a 100 kyr 2163:

Kazakhstania had already accreted to Laurussia, Siberia was effectively part of Pangea by 310 Ma, although major strike-slip movements continued between it and Laurussia into the Permian.

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and Paleo-Tethyan regions but not eastern Pangea or Panthalassa margins. Potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China for the GSSP are being considered.

7634: 7404: 4520: 2477:, had been uplifted and exposed to weathering. The decline towards the end of the Carboniferous is interpreted as a decrease in continental weathering due to the more arid conditions. 8005: 5378: 1176:

The similarity in successions between the British Isles and Western Europe led to the development of a common European timescale with the Carboniferous System divided into the lower

7868: 3710:-like insect and with a wingspan of ca. 75 cm (30 in)—the largest flying insect ever to roam the planet. Further groups are the Syntonopterodea (relatives of present-day 4999: 3299: 4112: 3638: 1795: 4625: 5747:

Nance, R. Damian; Gutiérrez-Alonso, Gabriel; Keppie, J. Duncan; Linnemann, Ulf; Murphy, J. Brendan; Quesada, Cecilio; Strachan, Rob A.; Woodcock, Nigel H. (March 2010).

4140: 4070: 6046:"The stratigraphic, sedimentological and structural evolution of the southern margin of the Kazakhstan continent in the Tien Shan Range during the Devonian to Permian" 4579: 1846:

and the subsequent evolution of lignin-degrading fungi gave a period of time where vast amounts of lignin-based organic material could accumulate. Genetic analysis of

3931:, with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other groups of elasmobranchs, like the 3353: 1969:

During the mid Carboniferous, the South American sector of Gondwana collided obliquely with Laurussia's southern margin resulting in the Ouachita orogeny. The major

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deposits immediately above the regional mid Carboniferous unconformity indicate warm tropical conditions and are overlain by cyclothems including extensive coals.

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with the loss of arborescent (tree-like) lycopisids and other wetland groups, and a general decline in biodiversity. These events are attributed to the drop in CO

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Seasonal melting of glaciers resulted in near freezing waters around the margins of Gondwana. This is evidenced by the occurrence of glendonite (a pseudomorph of

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The southwestern margin of Siberia was the site of a long lasting and complex accretionary orogen. The Devonian to early Carboniferous Siberian and South Chinese

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where the very gentle gradient of the shelves meant even small changes in sea level led to large advances or retreats of the sea. Cyclothem lithologies vary from

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Province, southwestern China for a suitable site for the GSSP with the proposed definition for the base of the Serpukhovian as the first appearance of conodont

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North American geologists recognised a similar stratigraphy but divided it into two systems rather than one. These are the lower carbonate-rich sequence of the

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and carbonate-dominated to coarse siliciclastic sediment-dominated sequences depending on the paleo-topography, climate and supply of sediments to the shelf.

1497:. This means the evolution of one species to the other, the definition of the boundary, is not seen at the La Serre site making precise correlation difficult. 8548: 4800:

favorable to the growth of rainforest and the animals within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated islands, surrounded by seasonally dry habitats. Towering

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During the Pennsylvanian, vast amounts of organic debris accumulated in the peat mires that formed across the low-lying, humid equatorial wetlands of the

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have been proposed as a boundary marking species and potential sites in the Urals and Nashui, Guizhou Province, southwestern China are being considered.

981:("bear, carry"), and refers to the many coal beds formed globally during that time. The first of the modern "system" names, it was coined by geologists 5033:

Irisarri, I., Baurain, D., Brinkmann, H. et al. Phylotranscriptomic consolidation of the jawed vertebrate timetree. Nat Ecol Evol 1, 1370–1378 (2017).

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allowed the laying of eggs in a dry environment, as well as keratinized scales and claws, allowing for the further exploitation of the land by certain

4095: 6779: 2563:, were very similar to those of the preceding Late Devonian, but new groups also appeared at this time. The main early Carboniferous plants were the 1240:

and Uralian stages. The Serpukivian was proposed as part of the Lower Carboniferous, and the Upper Carboniferous was divided into the Moscovian and

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that reached to sea-level. In response to the uplift and erosion of the more mafic basement rocks of the Central Pangea Mountains at this time, CO

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late Famennian through Devonian–Carboniferous boundary, before the Early Tournaisian Warm Interval. Following this, a reduction in atmospheric CO

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accreted to North China during the mid to late Carboniferous. No sediments are preserved from the early Carboniferous in North China. However,

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Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica".

7959: 1742:

developed in these wet and oxygen-poor conditions, leading to coal formation. With continuing sea level rise, coastlines migrated landward and

7900: 7396: 7111:"A Devonian Fish Tale: A New Method of Body Length Estimation Suggests Much Smaller Sizes for Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira)" 2753: 3825: 3762: 2747: 1271: 7387: 3877: 5674: 3927: 7858: 6627:"Strontium and carbon isotopic evidence for decoupling of pCO2 from continental weathering at the apex of the late Paleozoic glaciation" 3601:. Many of these were amphibious. Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions resulted in marine or brackish water genera such as 6855: 6381:"Charcoalified vegetation from the Pennsylvanian of Yorkshire, England: Implications for the interpretation of Carboniferous wildfires" 1879:

region. To its northwest was Laurussia. These two continents slowly collided to form the core of Pangea. To the north of Laurussia lay

8541: 8283:"Confirmation of Romer's Gap is a low oxygen interval constraining the timing of initial arthropod and vertebrate terrestrialization" 4330:

was a holocephalan that lived in North America. This fish belonged to a group called the Iniopterygiformes, that possibly lived like

3819:

was a giant millipede that fed on the Carboniferous plants. At 8 feet long, it was the largest terrestrial arthropod that ever lived.

7553: 3750: 2119:

Towards the end of the Carboniferous, extension and rifting across the northern margin of Gondwana led to the breaking away of the

1213: 850:

Falling from 120 m to present-day level throughout the Mississippian, then rising steadily to about 80 m at end of period

621: 564: 8076: 4739:

diversified further. Marine fungi still occupied the oceans. All modern classes of fungi were present in the late Carboniferous.

3008:, some of which reached very large for brachiopods size and had very thick shells (for example, the 30 cm (12 in)-wide 8381: 7269:"Chondrichthyes from the upper part of the Minnelusa Formation (Middle Pennsylvanian: Desmoinesian), Meade County, South Dakota" 7502: 2525:

During the early Kasimovian there was a short (<1myr), intense glacial period, which came to a sudden end as atmospheric CO

1604:. Arrow Canyon lay in a shallow, tropical seaway which stretched from Southern California to Alaska. The boundary is within a 8348: 8125: 7808: 6822: 5726: 5252: 5198: 5151: 2038:

Deformation continued into the Permian and during the late Carboniferous and Permian the region was extensively intruded by

1940:

closed and Pangea formed. This mountain building process began in the Middle Devonian and continued into the early Permian.

1270:

Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the ICS ratify global stages based on a

8534: 6294:

Richey, Jon D.; Montañez, Isabel P.; Goddéris, Yves; Looy, Cindy V.; Griffis, Neil P.; DiMichele, William A. (2020-09-22).

3446: 2267:

high latitudes of Gondwana in eastern Australia, northwestern Argentina, southern Brazil, and central and Southern Africa.

17: 5991:"The Serpukhovian–Bashkirian Amalgamation of Laurussia and the Siberian Continent and Implications for Assembly of Pangea" 5426:"Current synthesis of the penultimate icehouse and its imprint on the Upper Devonian through Permian stratigraphic record" 5068: 3341: 1710: 7476:

Davydov, Vladimir; Glenister, Brian; Spinosa, Claude; Ritter, Scott; Chernykh, V.; Wardlaw, B.; Snyder, W. (March 1998).

1871:

Pangea assembled. The continents themselves formed a near circle around the opening Paleo-Tethys Ocean, with the massive

6426:

Brand, Uwe; Davis, Alyssa M.; Shaver, Kristen K.; Blamey, Nigel J. F.; Heizler, Matt; Lécuyer, Christophe (2021-05-01).

1106:

covered the land, which eventually became the coal beds characteristic of the Carboniferous stratigraphy evident today.

2772:

was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the lycopods.

2213: 7466: 7425: 7369: 6865: 6832: 6727:

Shi, Yukun; Wang, Xiangdong; Fan, Junxuan; Huang, Hao; Xu, Huiqing; Zhao, Yingying; Shen, Shuzhong (September 2021).

4790: 2711:

The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were

2282:

In the early Kasimovian there was short-lived (<1 million years) intense period of glaciation, with atmospheric CO

1676:, Kazakhstan and was ratified in 1996. The beginning of the stage is defined by the first appearance of the conodont 1137:

timescale began in the late 18th century. The term "Carboniferous" was first used as an adjective by Irish geologist

1122: 907: 493: 8405: 802: 6296:"Influence of temporally varying weatherability on CO2-climate coupling and ecosystem change in the late Paleozoic" 3748:, from the Derbyshire coalfield, had a large wing with 4.3 cm (2 in) preserved part, and some specimens ( 2856:

and its relatives were abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North America; other important genera include

2099: 1444:

resulting in the near worldwide distribution of marine faunas and so allowing widespread correlations using marine

719: 8146:

Robinson, JM (1990). "Lignin, land plants, and fungi: Biological evolution affecting Phanerozoic oxygen balance".

8030: 5377:

Davydov, V.I., Glenister, B.F., Spinosa, C., Ritter, S.M., Chernykh, V.V., Wardlaw, B.R. & Snyder, W.S. 1998.

3744:, and from the hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Some British coalfields have yielded good specimens: 2344:

architecture) and evaporites formed around the coastal regions of Laurussia, Kazakhstania, and northern Gondwana.

7819: 4821: 2347:

From the late Visean, the cooling climate restricted carbonate production to depths of less than c. 10 m forming

2294:

may have been due to a peak in pyroclastic volcanism and/or a reduction in burial of terrestrial organic matter.

1232: 8167: 4408:, often only about 15 cm (6 in) long. Some Carboniferous amphibians were aquatic and lived in rivers ( 1891:, North China and South China formed the northern margin of the Paleo-Tethys, with Annamia laying to the south. 2534:

levels, which were recorded by a negative δC excursion and an accompanying, but smaller decrease in δO values.

1169:

in 1822 and then into the Carboniferous System by Phillips in 1835. The Old Red Sandstone was later considered

7230:

Karpinsky, 1899 from Kazakhstanian Cisurals and a new reconstruction of its tooth whorl position and function"

4021:

during the Carboniferous. It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the

2599:. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during the late Carboniferous, several other groups, 1928:

in the east. The orogeny was caused by a series of continental collisions between Laurussia, Gondwana and the

8423: 7152:"The long-rostrumed elasmobranch Bandringa Zangerl, 1969, and taphonomy within a Carboniferous shark nursery" 5046: 2262:

The main phase of the LPIA (c. 335-290 Ma) began in the late Visean, as the climate cooled and atmospheric CO

1162: 982: 6044:

Alexeiev, Dmitriy V.; Cook, Harry E.; Djenchuraeva, Alexandra V.; Mikolaichuk, Alexander V. (January 2017).

3949:, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the other cartilaginous fish were marine, but others like the 1166: 986: 669: 7027: 6774: 5926: 2436:

During the early Carboniferous, the Mg/Ca ratio in seawater began to rise and by the Middle Mississippian

128:

Map of Earth as it appeared 320 million years ago during the Carboniferous period, Pennsylvanian subperiod

9207: 8557: 8366: 6729:"Carboniferous-earliest Permian marine biodiversification event (CPBE) during the Late Paleozoic Ice Age" 2780:, a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the 2401:

As the continents assembled to form Pangea, the growth of the Central Pangean Mountains led to increased

1999: 1578: 610: 6475:"Dust and loess as archives and agents of climate and climate change in the late Paleozoic Earth system" 6341: 2766:, with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm (24 in) and a height of up to 20 m (66 ft). 2485:

Unlike Mg/Ca and Sr/Sr isotope ratios, which are consistent across the world's oceans at any one time,

1555:

are environmental rather than evolutionary making wider correlation difficult. Work is underway in the

6728: 6427: 6380: 6239: 6111: 5483: 3696:

being the largest-known land invertebrate of all time. Among the insect groups are the huge predatory

8500: 7478:"Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System" 4302: 1821: 1347: 1237: 447: 8177:"The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration" 7951: 5131: 4269:, a genus of elasmobranch fish from Montana that possessed enlarged pectoral fins similar to modern 7908: 6889:"Demise of the middle Paleozoic crinoid fauna: a single extinction event or rapid faunal turnover?" 6110:

Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (2021-04-01).

5990: 5379:

Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System

2189:

beneath the southern margins of North China and Tarim continued during the Carboniferous, with the

2083: 665: 7151: 3632:

was a large freshwater eurypterid from South America that was originally misidentified as a spider

3140:

are rarer than in previous periods, on a steady trend towards extinction, represented only by the

2135:

magmatism continued into the late Carboniferous and extended round to connect with the developing

8830: 8825: 8464: 8459: 6473:

Soreghan, Gerilyn S.; Heavens, Nicholas G.; Pfeifer, Lily S.; Soreghan, Michael J. (2023-01-09).

5748: 5546:

Nelsen, Matthew C.; DiMichele, William A.; Peters, Shanan E.; Boyce, C. Kevin (19 January 2016).

4562: 3841: 3376:

was a bizarre invertebrate that lived in Montana. It is possibly a mollusk related to gastropods.

2796:, of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous, and preferred higher drier ground. 1723: 1370: 1316: 1228: 1224: 1150: 948: 944: 511: 335: 324: 7659:"High-fidelity X-ray micro-tomography reconstruction of siderite-hosted Carboniferous arachnids" 7461:. Geological Conservation Review. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. p. 3. 5332: 2319:

There are a variety of methods for reconstructing past atmospheric oxygen levels, including the

1478:. This was ratified by the ICS in 1990. However, in 2006 further study revealed the presence of 9202: 7523:"Atmospheric Oxygen, Giant Paleozoic Insects and the Evolution of Aerial Locomotor Performance" 7379: 6893: 6525:"An introduction to ice ages, climate dynamics and biotic events: the Late Pennsylvanian world" 6112:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 4373: 4018: 3551: 1099: 688: 7268: 5009: 3754:) still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colors. In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails ( 2286:

concentration levels dropping as low as 180 ppm. This ended suddenly as a rapid increase in CO

2172:

motion between Laurussia and Siberia led the formerly elongate microcontinent to bend into an

7032: 6524: 6523:

Lucas, Spencer G.; DiMichele, William A.; Opluštil, Stanislav; Wang, Xiangdong (2023-06-14).

5610:"The Paleozoic Origin of Enzymatic Lignin Decomposition Reconstructed from 31 Fungal Genomes" 5278: 3723: 3715: 3595:(originally misinterpreted as a giant spider, hence its name) and the specialised very large 3563: 3535: 3359:

Tabulate coral (a syringoporid); Boone Limestone (lower Carboniferous) near Hiwasse, Arkansas

3082: 2992: 2190: 2002:. The Uralian orogeny began in the Late Devonian and continued, with some hiatuses, into the 1979: 1974: 1963: 1810: 1787:, and so each cyclothem represents a cycle of sea level fall and rise over a 100 kyr period. 1617: 1609: 924: 655: 31: 7457:

Cossey, P.J.; Adams, A.E.; Purnell, M.A.; Whiteley, M.J.; Whyte, M.A.; Wright, V.P. (2004).

6625:

Chen, Jitao; Montañez, Isabel P.; Qi, Yuping; Shen, Shuzhong; Wang, Xiangdong (2018-05-01).

6177: 4904: 2359:; a form of calcite deposited in glacial waters) in fine-grained, shallow marine sediments. 8400: 8296: 8241: 8188: 8155: 8136:

Iniopterygia: a new order of Chondrichthyan fishes from the Pennsylvanian of North America.

8096: 7984: 7754: 7704:"X-ray micro-tomography of Carboniferous stem-Dictyoptera: New insights into early insects" 7574: 7163: 7041: 6975: 6788: 6740: 6638: 6586: 6536: 6486: 6439: 6392: 6251: 6189: 6123: 6057: 6002: 5938: 5880: 5826: 5760: 5621: 5561: 5495: 5437: 5290: 4884: 4852: 4175: 3038: 2588: 2515: 2120: 2087: 1995: 1275: 1145:

in 1811. Four units were originally ascribed to the Carboniferous, in ascending order, the

1060:(which include modern reptiles and birds) during the late Carboniferous. Due to the raised 390: 357: 8071: 7497: 6340:

Mills, Benjamin J.W.; Krause, Alexander J.; Jarvis, Ian; Cramer, Bradley D. (2023-05-31).

2217:

A reconstruction of life on a forest floor during the Pennsylvanian Period. The animal is

8: 9161: 7929: 7884: 4842: 4760: 3802:

from the early Carboniferous reached a length of up to 70 cm (2 ft 4 in).

2805: 2420:

and triggering the Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The growth of the supercontinent also changed

2034: 1913: 1835: 1784: 1205: 920: 379: 346: 8300: 8245: 8192: 8159: 8100: 7988: 7758: 7578: 7522: 7167: 7045: 6979: 6792: 6744: 6642: 6599: 6590: 6574: 6540: 6490: 6443: 6396: 6357: 6255: 6193: 6127: 6061: 6006: 5942: 5884: 5830: 5764: 5625: 5609: 5565: 5499: 5441: 5294: 2510:. These changes in seawater geochemistry are interpreted as a decrease in atmospheric CO 1590:

The GSSP for the base of the Pennsylvanian Subsystem and Bashkirian Stage is located at

1141:

in 1799 and later used in a heading entitled "Coal-measures or Carboniferous Strata" by

8319: 8282: 8264: 8229: 8211: 8176: 8051: 7778: 7728: 7703: 7685: 7658: 7616: 7187: 7057: 7001: 6910: 6213: 6081: 6026: 5964: 5904: 5584: 5547: 5519: 5314: 5157: 5143: 4832: 2518:

burial and widespread ocean anoxia triggering climate cooling and onset of glaciation.

2470: 2421: 2413: 2348: 2341: 2159: 2030: 1780: 1776: 1731: 1591: 1453: 1433: 1421: 1209: 1134: 1114: 1061: 1029: 993: 401: 368: 7026:

Cannell, Alan; Blamey, Nigel; Brand, Uwe; Escapa, Ignacio; Large, Ross (August 2022).

6045: 5868: 4804:

forests with a heterogeneous mixture of vegetation were replaced by much less diverse

2848:). The diversity of brachiopods and fusilinid foraminiferans, surged beginning in the 1500: 8959: 8923: 8385: 8344: 8324: 8269: 8216: 8121: 7869:"The Devonian/Carboniferous boundary stratotype section (La Serre, France) revisited" 7804: 7782: 7770: 7733: 7690: 7608: 7600: 7545: 7462: 7445: 7365: 7249: 7245: 7225: 7179: 7132: 7061: 6914: 6861: 6828: 6696: 6656: 6604: 6552: 6502: 6455: 6408: 6361: 6317: 6267: 6217: 6205: 6139: 6085: 6073: 6030: 6018: 5968: 5908: 5896: 5844: 5722: 5655: 5647: 5589: 5523: 5511: 5455: 5318: 5306: 5277:

Lucas, Spencer G.; Schneider, Joerg W.; Nikolaeva, Svetlana; Wang, Xiangdong (2022).

5248: 5194: 5161: 5147: 4566: 4537: 4499: 4378: 4310: 4204: 4124: 4061: 3964: 3932: 3837: 2997: 2636: 2556: 2445: 2128: 2095: 2091: 2064: 1933: 1929: 1700: 1598:, US and was ratified in 1996. It is defined by the first appearance of the conodont 1429: 1185: 1146: 943:, the Carboniferous is often treated as two separate geological periods, the earlier 645: 8281:

Ward, P.; Labandeira, Conrad; Laurin, Michel; Berner, Robert A. (November 7, 2006).

7620: 7477: 7191: 7053: 6752: 6451: 6135: 5507: 3941:

reaching around 6–9 meters (20–30 feet). Other fish had piercing teeth, such as the

2708:

were large trees, that were ancestors of ferns, first arising in the Carboniferous.

1672:

The GSSP for the base of the Permian is located in the Aidaralash River valley near

9053: 8928: 8897: 8694: 8314: 8304: 8259: 8249: 8206: 8196: 8163: 8104: 8066: 7992: 7880: 7796: 7762: 7723: 7715: 7680: 7672: 7643: 7590: 7582: 7537: 7492: 7241: 7171: 7122: 7049: 7005: 6991: 6983: 6902: 6796: 6775:"Pennsylvanian sea level cycles, nutrient availability and brachiopod paleoecology" 6748: 6646: 6594: 6544: 6494: 6447: 6404: 6400: 6353: 6307: 6295: 6259: 6197: 6131: 6065: 6010: 5954: 5946: 5888: 5834: 5768: 5637: 5629: 5579: 5569: 5503: 5445: 5298: 5139: 4796: 4356: 3048:. Some species and genera had a very wide distribution with only minor variations. 3010: 2908: 2693: 2604: 2026: 1917: 1909: 1691: 1678: 1654:

The Gzhelian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The first appearance of the fusulinid

1600: 1017: 863: 776: 767: 7826:. Washington, DC: National council for Science and the Environment. Archived from 6240:"Global events of the Late Paleozoic (Early Devonian to Middle Permian): A review" 1508:

The Viséan Stage was officially defined as the first black limestone in the Leffe

9153: 9149: 9145: 9022: 8918: 8856: 8751: 8720: 8689: 8254: 8139: 7996: 7795:. Geological Society of America Special Papers. Vol. 441. pp. 275–289. 7663: 7420:

Blackwell, Meredith; Vilgalys, Rytas; James, Timothy Y.; Taylor, John W. (2008).

7175: 6962:

Graham, Jeffrey B.; Aguilar, Nancy M.; Dudley, Robert; Gans, Carl (11 May 1995).

6800: 6263: 5950: 4872: 4764: 4644: 4586: 4057: 4036: 4026: 4014: 3798: 3603: 3247: 2945: 2697: 2576: 2568: 2425: 2156: 2132: 1991: 1970: 1864: 1695: 1445: 1078: 51: 9178: 7745:

Haq, B. U.; Schutter, SR (2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes".

4827: 2872:(the latter common in Britain and Belgium). Some Carboniferous genera are still 2290:

concentrations to c. 600 ppm resulted in a warmer climate. This rapid rise in CO

1646:

The Kasimovian covers a period of globally low sea level, which has resulted in

9172: 8991: 8861: 8756: 8725: 8410: 8359:"A History of Palaeozoic Forests - Part 2 The Carboniferous coal swamp forests" 7357: 6964:"Implications of the late Palaeozoic oxygen pulse for physiology and evolution" 6887:

Ausich, William I.; Kammer, Thomas W.; Baumiller, Tomasz K. (8 February 2016).

6857:

Convergent Evolution on Earth. Lessons for the Search for Extraterrestrial Life

5553:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

5484:"Late Palaeozoic cyclothems – A review of their stratigraphy and sedimentology" 4775: 4767: 4753: 4715: 4694: 4632: 4458: 4422: 4401: 4352: 4225: 4150: 4127: 4052: 4006: 3908: 3719: 3597: 3585: 3498: 3440:

trilobite, which were the only order that survived the end-Devonian extinction

3416: 3328: 3293:

from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio (internal mold)

3215: 3131: 3044: 3029: 2705: 2452:

and the dominant reef builders of the time were aragonitic sponges and corals.

2407: 2149: 2136: 2079: 2075: 2018: 1921: 1868: 1817: 1556: 1181: 1154: 1142: 1138: 1110: 1021: 1013: 792: 712: 549: 530: 8526: 7800: 7648: 7629: 6906: 5839: 5814: 5548:"Delayed fungal evolution did not cause the Paleozoic peak in coal production" 3737: 1966:

between these terranes and Laurussia, which continued into the Carboniferous.

1775:(present day western and central US, Europe, Russia and central Asia) and the 9196: 8892: 8882: 8851: 8746: 8715: 8336: 7901:"The Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era: 299 to 359 million years ago" 7853: 7843: 7253: 7183: 7136: 6660: 6608: 6556: 6506: 6459: 6412: 6365: 6321: 6271: 6209: 6143: 6077: 6022: 5900: 5848: 5772: 5651: 5515: 5459: 5310: 4975: 4718: 4663: 4607: 4570: 4511: 4503: 4486: 4347: 4249: 4041: 4031: 3968: 3711: 3251: 3123:, with straight-shelled and curved-shelled forms becoming increasingly rare. 3064: 3033: 2927: 2892: 2837: 2768: 2667: 2662: 2437: 2078:

in the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian. Further north along the margin,

1884: 1847: 1825:

mires. These wetlands were then buried by sediment as sea levels rose during

1805: 1449: 1189: 1158: 1073: 1040:, which became dominant land vertebrates, as well as the first appearance of 1001: 940: 817: 804: 734: 721: 8309: 8201: 7862:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–313. 7766: 7586: 6474: 6312: 5633: 5574: 5130:

Davydov, V.I.; Korn, D.; Schmitz, M.D.; Gradstein, F.M.; Hammer, O. (2012),

5064: 5034: 4735:

As plants and animals were growing in size and abundance in this time, land

2465:

ratios below indicate mantle-derived sources are the principal contributor.

2033:, a major structure that runs for more than 2,000 km along the orogen. 2029:

between the former island arc complex and the continental margin formed the

1726:

from the Late Mississippian to early Permian, when the waxing and waning of

1432:

valley. During the Mississippian, there was a marine connection between the

967: 9183: 9114: 8964: 8887: 8484: 8328: 8273: 8220: 7774: 7737: 7719: 7694: 7676: 7612: 7541: 7449: 6548: 6498: 6238:

Qie, Wenkun; Algeo, Thomas J.; Luo, Genming; Herrmann, Achim (2019-10-01).

5659: 5593: 5450: 5425: 5302: 4771: 4690: 4685: 4446: 4428: 4405: 4298: 4265: 4246: 4200: 4195: 4166: 4146: 4119: 3960: 3950: 3922: 3815: 3692: 3309: 2873: 2809: 2786: 2741: 2735: 2584: 2572: 2205:

were deposited across the passive margins that surrounded both continents.

2124: 2007: 1959: 1955: 1888: 1826: 1647: 1494: 1470: 1464: 1378: 1217: 1088: 1037: 696: 429: 7549: 6201: 5331:

Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)

4106:

was a Carboniferous holocephalan, with a high degree of sexual dimorphism.

3393:

was a cnidarian that lived in Northern Illinois. It was long considered a

2551:

Etching depicting some of the most significant plants of the Carboniferous

977: 9109: 8978: 8954: 8799: 8594: 8474: 8357: 6996: 6702: 6014: 4862: 4616: 4440: 4331: 4082: 4077: 4010: 4001: 3865: 3832: 3726: 3697: 3648: 3503: 3458: 3398: 3153: 3070: 3025: 2939:-building and solitary corals diversify and flourish; these include both 2931: 2729: 2723: 2600: 2596: 2564: 2503: 2441: 2071: 1973:

that occurred between Laurussia and Gondwana extended eastwards into the

1937: 1872: 1743: 1441: 1437: 1404: 1193: 1103: 997: 411: 57: 7422:"Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc" 7310: 5354: 4939: 4641: 2614: 9104: 9064: 9007: 8907: 8804: 8678: 8578: 8505: 8495: 8415: 8138:

Fieldiana Geology Memoirs, v. 6, Field Museum of Natural History, 1973

8034: 7595: 5959: 5642: 4710: 4495: 4471: 4434: 4326: 4306: 4270: 4171: 4131: 4086: 4022: 3991: 3946: 3942: 3911:

arachnid that lived in the United Kingdom around 310 million years ago.

3903: 3884: 3862: 3856: 3591: 3580: 3540: 3432: 3372: 3290: 3149: 3127: 3116: 3104: 3062:

continue to increase in numbers and importance. Typical genera include

3021: 3005: 3001: 2970: 2920: 2884: 2853: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2717: 2684: 2627: 2608: 2592: 2402: 2302:

levels dropped as low as 175 ppm and remained under 400 ppm for 10 Ma.

2185: 2014: 2010: 1951: 1876: 1830: 1768: 1666: 1605: 1533: 1525: 1360: 1334: 1279: 1253: 1245: 1161:. These four units were placed into a formalised Carboniferous unit by 1005: 796: 788: 772: 456: 438: 102: 67: 9167: 7827: 7604: 7322: 7127: 7110: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5078: 4987: 2790:. These plants were thought to live in swamps. True coniferous trees ( 2384:

Across the Carboniferous–Permian boundary interval, a rapid drop in CO

2275:

climate cooling by changing ocean circulation and heat flow patterns.

1894: 1714:

Cliff section through the Serpukhovian Red Wharf Limestone Formation,

9119: 9069: 9043: 9002: 8949: 8794: 8770: 8651: 8641: 8630: 8108: 8031:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" 6987: 6651: 6626: 5541: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5533: 4836: 4805: 4778: 4553: 4527: 4476: 4452: 4416: 4396: 4285: 3972: 3955: 3887: 3780: 3741: 3730: 3707: 3702: 3682: 3613: 3557: 3529: 3479: 3474: 3394: 3389: 3137: 3124: 3120: 3113: 3095: 2911:

and anchor ropes, and include various forms such as the Calcispongea

2877: 2821: 2776: 2762: 2689: 2652: 2632: 2580: 2560: 2461: 2449: 2202: 2181: 2139:

subduction zone along the western South American margin of Gondwana.

2051: 1727: 1613: 1517: 1425: 1177: 1094: 1065: 1057: 1033: 928: 281: 107: 6069: 5892: 5746: 4669: 2547: 1673: 1197: 420: 9079: 9074: 9038: 8938: 8871: 8840: 8735: 8704: 8665: 8615: 8589: 8565: 8510: 7975:

Devonian–Carboniferous–Permian Correlation Chart 2003 (DCP 2003)".

6043: 5075: 4866: 4846: 4801: 4722: 4648: 4612: 4532: 4481: 4467: 4382: 4290: 4241: 4102: 3981: 3937: 3686: 3483: 3437: 3224: 3145: 3141: 3016: 2958: 2904: 2900: 2813: 2712: 2648: 2622: 2372:

adaptive radiation with a rapid increase in the number of species.

2320: 2173: 2059: 2003: 1772: 1739: 1620: 1583: 1565: 1548: 1460: 1324: 1306: 1241: 1201: 1170: 1083: 1069: 1045: 1009: 932: 763: 708: 692: 465: 292: 97: 92: 77: 72: 62: 7842:

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the

7378: 5530: 4981: 2082:, beginning in the Early Mississippian, led to the rifting of the 1920:

orogeny. Today their remains stretch over 10,000 km from the

1424:

in 1870 named after the extensive exposure of lower Carboniferous

9093: 9033: 8783: 8620: 8604: 8230:"Can Oxygen Set Thermal Limits in an Insect and Drive Gigantism?" 7266: 6821:

Hall, Brian Keith; Müller, Gerd B.; Pearson, Roy Douglas (2004).

6342:"Evolution of Atmospheric O 2 Through the Phanerozoic, Revisited" 4856: 4591: 4558: 4410: 4220: 4179: 3869: 3545: 3520: 3517: 3324: 3243: 3197: 3059: 3051: 2979: 2845: 2817: 2792: 2474: 2390: 2194: 2055: 2039: 2022: 1944: 1880: 1760: 1751: 1704: 1624: 1560: 1551:

of marine fauna across the Russian margin. This means changes in

1529: 1301: 1227:

System and the upper siliciclastic and coal-rich sequence of the

1118: 1041: 936: 314: 123: 112: 87: 8384:. International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). Archived from 7956:

Biology of Sharks and Rays | ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research

3967:

found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers.

2643: 2507: 2499: 2490: 2486: 2448:. The Carboniferous aragonite seas favoured those that secreted 1767:

During the Pennsylvanian, cyclothems were deposited in shallow,

1216:(ICS) stage, but the Viséan is longer, extending into the lower 9129: 9012: 8646: 8479: 7973: 7657:

Garwood, Russell J.; Dunlop, Jason A.; Sutton, Mark D. (2009).

7421: 6943: 4876: 4781:

that so typify the Carboniferous terrestrial vertebrate fauna.

4507: 3678: 3453: 3312:

from the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) of Wooster, Ohio

3274:) in the Logan Formation (lower Carboniferous) in Wooster, Ohio 3076: 2940: 2849: 2781: 2480: 2431: 2356: 2328: 2324: 1925: 1851: 1843: 1747: 1595: 1532:, southern China. It is defined by the first appearance of the 1513: 1509: 1391: 1125:, occurred at the end of the period, caused by climate change. 1053: 6472: 3667:

was one of if not the heaviest eurypterid in the fossil record

2784:-like reproductive organs, which bore ovules/seeds, is called 893: 7475: 6773:

Pérez-Huerta, Alberto; Sheldon, Nathan D. (30 January 2006).

4945: 4736: 4637: 4035:

which possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of

3058:

are common fossils in some horizons. Among the mollusca, the

2896: 2888: 2701: 2455: 2417: 2259:

mountain ranges in southeastern Brazil and southwest Africa.

2050:

The Laurussian continent was formed by the collision between

1715: 1552: 1521: 1049: 1024:

during the Carboniferous. The period is sometimes called the

963: 8052:"Decision on the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary stratotype" 7419: 7316: 6933: 6931: 6109: 5015: 4927: 3506:

cephalopod, originating from Carboniferous rocks of Montana.

3419:

arthropod that lived from the Devonian to the Carboniferous.

1722:

The main period of cyclothem deposition occurred during the

1630:

The Moscovian currently lacks a defined GSSP. The fusulinid

935:

Period 358.9 Ma (million years ago) to the beginning of the

872: 27:

Fifth period of the Paleozoic Era, 359–299 million years ago

8365:. Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. Archived from 8168:

10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0607:LLPAFB>2.3.CO;2

8050:

Paproth, Eva; Feist, Raimund; Flajs, Gerd (December 1991).

6955: 6824:

Environment, Development, and Evolution. Toward a Synthesis

5276: 5129: 4294: 2936: 2112: 1947: 1735: 972: 959: 896: 878: 8280: 7456: 7328: 7286: 6522: 6293: 5545: 4993: 3921:

Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas; predominantly

3327:

calyx from the lower Carboniferous of Ohio with a conical

2506:

and a positive excursion in carbonate-associated sulphate

1504:

Chart of regional subdivisions of the Carboniferous Period

1459:

The Tournaisian is defined by the first appearance of the

989:

in 1822, based on a study of the British rock succession.

8228:

Verberk, Wilco C.E.P.; Bilton, David T. (July 27, 2011).

7075: 6928: 3583:

were also diverse, and are represented by such genera as

2982:

are abundant in some regions; the fenestellids including

1932:(much of modern-day Central and Western Europe including 1863:

During the Carboniferous, there was an increased rate in

1804:

Coal forms when organic matter builds up in waterlogged,

887: 7925:"The Fantastically Strange Origin of Most Coal on Earth" 7150:

Sallan, Lauren Cole; Coates, Michael I. (January 2014).

7025: 6573:

Turchyn, Alexandra V.; DePaolo, Donald J. (2019-05-30).

4355:(potentially an elasmobranch) that possessed quill-like 3925:(sharks and their relatives). These included some, like 3784:

grew to wingspans over 60 cm (2 ft 0 in).

3511: 2424:

rates and led to a decrease in the length and volume of

1903: 8086: 7563: 6961: 6339: 6246:. Global events of the Late Devonian to Early Permian. 5989:

Xu, Yan; Han, Bao-Fu; Liao, Wen; Li, Ang (March 2022).

5606: 5090: 3736:

Many insects have been obtained from the coalfields of

3516:

Freshwater Carboniferous invertebrates include various

2074:

oceanic plate along its western margin resulted in the

1694:, deposited during a single sedimentary cycle, with an 1121:. A minor marine and terrestrial extinction event, the 700:(discovered to have biostratigraphic issues as of 2006) 7793:

Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space

7630:"Early terrestrial animals, evolution and uncertainty" 7362:

The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History

7092: 7090: 6686: 6684: 6682: 6680: 6678: 6676: 6674: 6672: 6670: 6425: 4951: 2334: 2013:, which lay between Kazakhstania and Laurussia in the 7207: 7205: 7203: 7201: 6886: 6853: 2366: 2006:. From the Late Devonian to early Carboniferous, the 1908:

The Central Pangean Mountains were formed during the

1800:

Formation, also having mixed siliciclastics and coal.

1690:

A cyclothem is a succession of non-marine and marine

908: 899: 890: 884: 869: 866: 4784: 3617:

being found in the thin beds known as marine bands.

2555:

Early Carboniferous land plants, some of which were

875: 7656: 7087: 6949: 6772: 6667: 6237: 6176:Chen, Jitao; Chen, Bo; Montañez, Isabel P. (2022). 5349: 5347: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5247:(4th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman and Company. 4763:. The gap saw the demise of the Devonian fish-like 3959:invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps. Among the 3778:The late Carboniferous giant dragonfly-like insect 2688:. The roots of several of these forms are known as 2416:from the atmosphere, lowering global temperatures, 2327:gas inclusions, burial rates of organic carbon and 881: 140: 7334: 7298: 7276:Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 7198: 6624: 5189:Woodcock, Nigel H.; Strachan, R. A., eds. (2012). 5010:p. 323: "Book III. Medial or Carboniferous Order." 4048:unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals. 3347:Conulariid from the lower Carboniferous of Indiana 1212:stages. The Tournaisian is the same length as the 563:Subdivision of the Carboniferous according to the 8049: 7977:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 7439: 6820: 6780:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6708: 6244:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5931:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5813:Domeier, Mathew; Torsvik, Trond H. (2014-05-01). 5419: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5407: 5005: 4933: 4915: 4228:fish that possessed two tooth whorls in its mouth 3036:are also very common. Inarticulate forms include 9194: 7628:Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory (2011). 7627: 6529:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 6479:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 6182:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 6175: 6050:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 5873:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 5808: 5806: 5804: 5802: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5469: 5430:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 5405: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5338: 5283:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 5238: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5188: 5184: 5182: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5119: 5021: 4963: 2700:, which also provided stability, instead of the 2123:during the early Permian and the opening of the 1541:Eoparastaffella ovalis – Eoparastaffella simplex 931:that spans 60 million years from the end of the 8556: 8288:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8181:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8175:Scott, A. C.; Glasspool, I. J. (18 July 2006). 7019: 6726: 6568: 6566: 6105: 6103: 6101: 6099: 6097: 6095: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5792: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5712: 5710: 5708: 5706: 5704: 5702: 5700: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5333:The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart 5228: 5226: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5117: 5115: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5099: 3523:that lived in brackish or fresh water, such as 2760:The Equisetales included the common giant form 1838:and the western Australian region of Gondwana. 1192:deposition. The Dinantian was divided into the 8174: 6703:Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster 2012 6572: 6289: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6281: 5812: 5279:"The Carboniferous timescale: an introduction" 992:Carboniferous is the period during which both 8542: 8431: 8227: 7702:Garwood, Russell J.; Sutton, Mark D. (2010). 7701: 7081: 6937: 6579:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 6575:"Seawater Chemistry Through Phanerozoic Time" 6518: 6516: 6346:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 6335: 6333: 6331: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5466: 5384: 5272: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5242: 5193:(2nd ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 5173: 4594:reptile, lived during the late Carboniferous. 4381:holocephalan from the upper Carboniferous of 4289:is a bizarre elasmobranch fish that lived in 4153:holocephalan that had an elongated lower jaw. 4089:roamed the oceans of the early Carboniferous. 3971:fish were also prominent, and one group, the 1020:during the preceding Devonian period, became 7440:Conybeare, W. D.; Phillips, William (1822). 7267:Cicimurri, D. J.; Fahrenbach, M. D. (2002). 7217: 7149: 6620: 6618: 6563: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6161: 6159: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6092: 5925:Kent, D.V.; Muttoni, G. (1 September 2020). 5855: 5779: 5716: 5691: 5207: 5096: 3714:), the abundant and often large sap-sucking 3672: 2996:, so named because it is in the shape of an 2481:Oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in seawater 2432:Magnesium/calcium isotope ratios in seawater 2314: 2094:of the Late Devonian to Early Mississippian 1272:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point 8003: 7744: 7143: 6278: 6233: 6231: 6229: 6227: 5988: 5924: 5920: 5918: 4957: 4911:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 4536:, the most primitive tetrapod found in the 3935:grew to large sizes, with some genera like 2502:values, a negative excursion in carbonate δ 2067:associated with the growing orogenic belt. 8549: 8535: 8438: 8424: 8006:"Ancient Animals Got a Rise out of Oxygen" 6513: 6328: 5735: 5355:"International Commission on Stratigraphy" 5325: 5261: 3651:eurypterid that survived past the Devonian 3152:, were abundant as representatives of the 2456:Strontium isotopic composition of seawater 2090:. Along the northern margin of Laurussia, 1200:stages. The Silesian was divided into the 570:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago 8318: 8308: 8263: 8253: 8210: 8200: 8070: 7727: 7684: 7647: 7594: 7496: 7126: 6995: 6650: 6615: 6598: 6311: 6150: 5958: 5927:"Pangea B and the Late Paleozoic Ice Age" 5838: 5721:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5641: 5583: 5573: 5449: 5191:Geological history of Britain and Ireland 5035:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0240-5 4668:was a carnivorous stem-tetrapod from the 2607:(another group of "seed ferns"), and the 1109:The later half of the period experienced 8445: 8411:Carboniferous (Chronostratography scale) 8406:60+ images of Carboniferous Foraminifera 8145: 7922: 7459:British Lower Carboniferous Stratigraphy 7356: 7108: 6814: 6224: 5915: 5481: 5423: 4795:Before the end of the Carboniferous, an 3098:are also numerous, including the genera 2903:, and in Russia, Germany and elsewhere. 2715:. Fossil ferns and "seed ferns" include 2642: 2613: 2546: 2270:Isotope records indicate this drop in CO 2221:, a synapsid. Plants are the seed ferns 2212: 2184:, which extends over 2,000 km from 2166: 1893: 1794: 1709: 1499: 1482:below the boundary, and the presence of 1214:International Commission on Stratigraphy 1128: 8115: 7397:"White Rot Fungi Slowed Coal Formation" 7292: 7223: 5866: 5815:"Plate tectonics in the late Paleozoic" 5717:Torsvik, Trond; Cocks, L.Robin (2017). 5675:"White Rot Fungi Slowed Coal Formation" 5482:Fielding, Christopher R. (2021-06-01). 5424:Montañez, Isabel Patricia (July 2022). 4982:University of California, Berkeley 2012 4025:at the end of the Devonian caused many 2799: 1448:. However, there are few Mississippian 14: 9195: 8134:Rainer Zangerl and Gerard Ramon Case: 8120:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 7949: 7898: 7866: 7789: 7520: 7394: 7340: 7304: 7211: 5243:Stanley, Steven; Luczaj, John (2015). 4921: 4426:); others may have been semi-aquatic ( 3890:found in Carboniferous rocks of France 3457:was a basal species of Mantis shrimp ( 2591:", an assemblage of a number of early 560: 8530: 8419: 8335: 7817: 7559:from the original on 24 January 2013. 6714: 6428:"Atmospheric oxygen of the Paleozoic" 6385:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 6378: 5869:"The evolution of the Uralian orogen" 5091:Sahney, Benton & Falcon-Lang 2010 4969: 3512:Freshwater and lagoonal invertebrates 2142: 1904:Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita orogeny 1468:within the evolutionary lineage from 8004:Monastersky, Richard (13 May 1995). 7847: 7096: 6690: 6178:"Carboniferous isotope stratigraphy" 4742: 4305:stage. It superficially resembled a 3663:Due to its large and compact shell, 2926:, and the genus of unusual colonial 2651:showing connection with bifurcating 2182:South Tian Shan fold and thrust belt 1771:seas across the tropical regions of 538: 519: 501: 483: 9148:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 8028: 7530:The Journal of Experimental Biology 6600:10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010305 6358:10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-095425 5867:Puchkov, Victor N. (January 2009). 2335:Effects of climate on sedimentation 1998:that forms the western edge of the 1950:away from Gondwana during the Late 1133:The development of a Carboniferous 1117:as the continents collided to form 24: 9152:= megaannum (millions years ago); 7156:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 5672: 5144:10.1016/b978-0-444-59425-9.00023-8 4770:and the rise of the more advanced 3119:are represented by tightly coiled 2692:. Unlike present-day trees, their 2367:Effects of climate on biodiversity 2245:, climbing ferns, pond algae, and 1985: 1858: 1577:The Pennsylvanian was proposed by 1420:The Mississippian was proposed by 25: 9219: 9156:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 8401:Examples of Carboniferous Fossils 8374: 8363:Forschungsstelle für Paläobotanik 8343:(3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. 7635:Evolution: Education and Outreach 7407:from the original on 30 June 2012 6950:Garwood, Dunlop & Sutton 2009 5719:Earth History and Palaeogeography 4791:Carboniferous rainforest collapse 4785:Carboniferous rainforest collapse 1790: 1123:Carboniferous rainforest collapse 1104:Vast swaths of forests and swamps 494:Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse 9177: 9166: 8341:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 8082:from the original on 2022-10-09. 7885:10.1127/0078-0421/2009/0043-0195 7835: 7521:Dudley, Robert (24 March 1998). 7390:from the original on 2012-02-10. 7246:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2008.00353.x 5071:from the original on 2003-12-17. 4702: 4677: 4656: 4624: 4599: 4578: 4545: 4519: 4364: 4339: 4318: 4277: 4257: 4233: 4212: 4187: 4158: 4139: 4111: 4094: 4069: 3895: 3876: 3849: 3824: 3807: 3789: 3771: 3700:(griffinflies), among which was 3677:Fossil remains of air-breathing 3656: 3637: 3622: 3490: 3466: 3445: 3424: 3405: 3381: 3364: 3352: 3340: 3317: 3298: 3279: 3259: 3232: 3020:were more conservative in form. 3004:are also abundant; they include 1572: 1415: 862: 122: 55: 8072:10.18814/epiiugs/1991/v14i4/004 7962:from the original on 2008-05-22 7867:Kaiser, Sandra (1 April 2009). 7508:from the original on 2022-10-09 7498:10.18814/epiiugs/1998/v21i1/003 7428:from the original on 2008-09-24 7260: 7102: 7054:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104062 6880: 6847: 6766: 6753:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103699 6720: 6466: 6452:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103560 6419: 6379:Scott, Andrew C. (2022-01-01). 6372: 6136:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503 6037: 5982: 5666: 5600: 5508:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103612 5371: 5057: 5039: 5027: 4934:Paproth, Feist & Flajs 1991 4822:List of Carboniferous tetrapods 4721:from the late Carboniferous of 4647:from the late Carboniferous of 4203:belonging to the extinct order 4130:from the late Carboniferous of 2396: 2305: 1265: 1233:United States Geological Survey 1102:during the late Carboniferous. 7395:Biello, David (28 June 2012). 6854:George R. McGhee, Jr. (2019). 6405:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2021.104540 5749:"Evolution of the Rheic Ocean" 5138:, Elsevier, pp. 603–651, 5065:"Animal Life in the Paleozoic" 4897: 4812:their amphibian counterparts. 4747: 4470:. These included the earliest 4252:from Europe and North America. 2098:led to the development of the 1512:at the Bastion Section in the 482: 13: 1: 8595:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 8140:Biodiversity Heritage Library 7109:Engelman, Russell K. (2023). 5006:Conybeare & Phillips 1822 4890: 4615:, and is found in rocks from 4569:in Nova Scotia, and possibly 2880:appeared during this period. 2587:(informally included in the " 1875:beyond. Gondwana covered the 1685: 842:Atmospheric and climatic data 777:Streptognathodus wabaunsensis 8255:10.1371/journal.pone.0022610 7997:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.058 7444:. London: William Phillips. 7176:10.1080/02724634.2013.782875 6801:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.020 6264:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109259 5951:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109753 5022:Garwood & Edgecombe 2011 4390: 3415:was a long lasting genus of 3397:, but is now regarded as a 3240:Aviculopecten subcardiformis 2045: 1930:Armorican Terrane Assemblage 1637:Declinognathodus donetzianus 1601:Declinognathodus noduliferus 1539:in the evolutionary lineage 7: 8558:Geological history of Earth 7873:Newsletters on Stratigraphy 7364:. Oxford University Press. 4815: 3975:, reached very large size. 2105: 2021:of northeastern Laurussia ( 2000:Central Asian Orogenic Belt 1641:Idiognathoides postsulcatus 1000:life was well established. 847:Sea level above present day 561: 275: 50:358.9 ± 0.4 – 298.9 ± 0.15 10: 9224: 8831:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 8826:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 8590:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 8382:"Geologic Time Scale 2004" 7848:Howe, John Allen (1911). " 7818:Hogan, C. Michael (2010). 7380:"The Carboniferous Period" 7350: 5132:"The Carboniferous Period" 4788: 4751: 4540:, and known from Scotland. 4480:), and the earliest known 4309:, with an elongated upper 3953:, and several genera like 3718:, the diverse herbivorous 2883:The microscopic shells of 2208: 1994:is a north–south trending 1962:activity, and large-scale 1887:. To the east of Siberia, 1679:Streptognathodus postfusus 1543:and was ratified in 2009. 1260: 29: 9143: 9128: 9115:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 9092: 9052: 9021: 8990: 8977: 8965:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 8937: 8906: 8870: 8839: 8813: 8782: 8769: 8734: 8703: 8677: 8664: 8629: 8603: 8577: 8564: 8453: 7649:10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y 7082:Verberk & Bilton 2011 6938:Garwood & Sutton 2010 6907:10.1017/S0094837300012811 6860:. MIT Press. p. 47. 6827:. MIT Press. p. 87. 5840:10.1016/j.gsf.2014.01.002 4693:amphibian known from the 4557:, the earliest sauropsid 3673:Terrestrial invertebrates 3482:cephalopod from northern 3333:Palaeocapulus acutirostre 3250:(lower Carboniferous) of 2973:were well represented by 2542: 2530:increasing atmospheric CO 2315:Atmospheric oxygen levels 1834:conditions formed on the 1822:Central Pangean Mountains 1764:sediments to accumulate. 1369: 1320: 1315: 1300: 1184:deposition and the upper 1098:) also underwent a major 846: 841: 833: 784: 768:Streptognathodus isolatus 759:Upper boundary definition 758: 750: 704: 685:Lower boundary definition 684: 676: 661: 651: 641: 636: 628: 616: 606: 601: 593: 585: 580: 138: 133: 121: 47: 42: 9110:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 8955:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 8800:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 8652:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 8642:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 7952:"A Golden Age of Sharks" 7899:Kazlev, M. Alan (1998). 5773:10.1016/j.gr.2009.08.001 4826:Important Carboniferous 4730: 4565:, and is known from the 1730:led to rapid changes in 1471:Siphonodella praesulcata 666:William Daniel Conybeare 143: 9105:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 9070:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 9065:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 9008:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 8898:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 8805:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 8616:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 8310:10.1073/pnas.0607824103 8202:10.1073/pnas.0604090103 7859:Encyclopædia Britannica 7767:10.1126/science.1161648 7587:10.1126/science.1221748 6313:10.5194/cp-16-1759-2020 5634:10.1126/science.1221748 5575:10.1073/pnas.1517943113 5335:. Episodes 36: 199-204. 5136:The Geologic Time Scale 5051:Encyclopædia Britannica 4958:Haq & Schutter 2008 4245:was a large freshwater 3916: 3502:was the earliest known 3223:were also present. The 2537: 2237:, other plants include 2086:and the opening of the 1537:Eoparastaffella simplex 1493:together above a local 1151:Carboniferous Limestone 266:−300 — 256:−305 — 246:−310 — 236:−315 — 226:−320 — 216:−325 — 206:−330 — 196:−335 — 186:−340 — 176:−345 — 166:−350 — 156:−355 — 146:−360 — 9075:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 9044:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 9003:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 8950:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 8795:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 8621:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 8116:Stanley, S.M. (1999). 8029:Ogg, Jim (June 2004). 7720:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0199 7677:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0464 7542:10.1242/jeb.201.8.1043 7224:Lebedev, O.A. (2009). 6549:10.1144/SP535-2022-334 6499:10.1144/sp535-2022-208 5451:10.1144/SP512-2021-124 5381:. Episodes, 21, 11–17. 5303:10.1144/SP512-2021-160 5047:"Carboniferous Period" 4051:Other groups like the 4019:evolutionary radiation 3647:was the only genus of 3478:was an early genus of 2666:(with its cone called 2656: 2640: 2552: 2250: 2160:accretionary complexes 1900: 1801: 1724:Late Paleozoic Ice Age 1719: 1632:Aljutovella aljutovica 1505: 1100:evolutionary radiation 1012:), whose forerunners ( 976: 966: 9080:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 9039:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 8960:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 8647:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 7923:Krulwich, R. (2016). 7824:Encyclopedia of Earth 7801:10.1130/2008.2441(19) 7384:www.ucmp.berkeley.edu 7317:Blackwell et al. 2008 7033:Earth-Science Reviews 6733:Earth-Science Reviews 6432:Earth-Science Reviews 6202:10.1144/SP512-2020-72 6116:Earth-Science Reviews 5488:Earth-Science Reviews 4590:, the earliest known 3716:Palaeodictyopteroidea 3014:), while others like 2957:), heterocorals, and 2646: 2617: 2571:(scrambling plants), 2550: 2216: 2167:Central and East Asia 1975:Appalachian Mountains 1897: 1811:Industrial Revolution 1798: 1713: 1503: 1274:(GSSP) from a single 1129:Etymology and history 1113:, low sea level, and 939:Period, 298.9 Ma. In 9120:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 9013:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 8893:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 8883:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 8447:Carboniferous Period 8118:Earth System History 7850:Carboniferous System 7830:on November 9, 2011. 6015:10.1029/2022TC007218 5819:Geoscience Frontiers 5245:Earth System History 4909:www.stratigraphy.org 4885:List of fossil sites 4853:Bear Gulch Limestone 4611:is the oldest known 4176:Bear Gulch Limestone 4174:fish known from the 4027:environmental niches 4017:) underwent a major 3858:Helenodora inopinata 3213:. Echinoids such as 2800:Marine invertebrates 2088:Slide Mountain Ocean 2084:Yukon-Tanana terrane 2017:, collided with the 1996:fold and thrust belt 1971:strike-slip faulting 1829:. Continued crustal 1612:limestones and fine 1491:Siphonodella sulcata 1480:Siphonodella sulcata 1476:Siphonodella sulcata 1465:Siphonodella sulcata 1092:) and insects (e.g. 962:-bearing", from the 697:Siphonodella sulcata 18:Carboniferous period 9175: • 9164: • 9162:Geologic time scale 8924:Middle (458–470 Ma) 8888:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 8857:Middle (383–393 Ma) 8752:Middle (237–247 Ma) 8721:Middle (164–174 Ma) 8301:2006PNAS..10316818W 8295:(45): 16818–16822. 8246:2011PLoSO...622610V 8193:2006PNAS..10310861S 8187:(29): 10861–10865. 8160:1990Geo....18..607R 8101:2010Geo....38.1079S 7989:2006PPP...240..318M 7930:National Geographic 7759:2008Sci...322...64H 7579:2012Sci...336.1715F 7573:(6089): 1715–1719. 7536:(Pt 8): 1043–1050. 7401:Scientific American 7295:, pp. 411–412. 7226:"A new specimen of 7168:2014JVPal..34...22S 7046:2022ESRv..23104062C 6980:1995Natur.375..117G 6793:2006PPP...230..264P 6745:2021ESRv..22003699S 6643:2018Geo....46..395C 6591:2019AREPS..47..197T 6541:2023GSLSP.535..334L 6491:2023GSLSP.535..208S 6444:2021ESRv..21603560B 6397:2022RPaPa.29604540S 6300:Climate of the Past 6256:2019PPP...53109259Q 6194:2022GSLSP.512..197C 6128:2021ESRv..21503503S 6062:2017GSLSP.427..231A 6007:2022Tecto..4107218X 5943:2020PPP...55309753K 5885:2009GSLSP.327..161P 5831:2014GeoFr...5..303D 5765:2010GondR..17..194N 5679:Scientific American 5626:2012Sci...336.1715F 5566:2016PNAS..113.2442N 5500:2021ESRv..21703612F 5442:2022GSLSP.512..213M 5295:2022GSLSP.512....1L 4946:Davydov et al. 1998 4845:; c. 350 mya; 4843:East Kirkton Quarry 4761:ecological collapse 4670:early Carboniferous 3766:) have been found. 3270:) and brachiopods ( 2891:of this age in the 2806:marine invertebrate 2418:increasing ocean pH 2191:South Qinling block 1781:South China cratons 1701:continental shelves 1665:can be used in the 1656:Rauserites rossicus 1452:, and so obtaining 1248:was added in 1934. 1135:chronostratigraphic 1016:) had evolved from 834:Upper GSSP ratified 818:50.2458°N 57.8914°E 814: / 785:Upper boundary GSSP 751:Lower GSSP ratified 731: / 705:Lower boundary GSSP 677:Time span formality 512:Mazon Creek Fossils 30:For the album, see 9208:Geological periods 9173:Geology portal 9034:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 8929:Early (470–485 Ma) 8862:Early (393–419 Ma) 8757:Early (247–252 Ma) 8726:Early (174–201 Ma) 8695:Early (100–145 Ma) 8690:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 8388:on January 6, 2013 7950:Martin, R. Aidan. 7937:on August 11, 2018 4994:Cossey et al. 2004 4905:"Chart/Time Scale" 4833:Granton Shrimp Bed 4561:, appeared in the 4444:) or terrestrial ( 4149:was a small-sized 3838:palaeodictyopteran 3289:sp.; a spiriferid 3156:; genera included 2804:In the oceans the 2696:took place in the 2657: 2641: 2553: 2422:seafloor spreading 2251: 2229:, the club mosses 2143:Siberia and Amuria 2070:Subduction of the 2065:sedimentary basins 2031:Main Uralian Fault 1901: 1873:Panthalassic Ocean 1850:fungi, which have 1802: 1785:Milankovitch cycle 1732:eustatic sea level 1720: 1651:being considered. 1506: 1422:Alexander Winchell 1062:atmospheric oxygen 994:terrestrial animal 735:43.5555°N 3.3573°E 652:Stratigraphic unit 642:Chronological unit 629:Time scale(s) used 9190: 9189: 9088: 9087: 9054:Paleoproterozoic 8973: 8972: 8919:Late (444–458 Ma) 8852:Late (359–383 Ma) 8765: 8764: 8747:Late (201–237 Ma) 8716:Late (145–164 Ma) 8660: 8659: 8581:(present–2.58 Ma) 8569:(present–66.0 Ma) 8524: 8523: 8519: 8518: 8350:978-1-4058-8118-0 8142:(Volltext, engl.) 8127:978-0-7167-2882-5 8095:(12): 1079–1082. 8037:on April 23, 2006 8016:on 3 January 2013 7810:978-0-8137-2441-6 7128:10.3390/d15030318 6974:(6527): 117–120. 5753:Gondwana Research 5728:978-1-107-10532-4 5254:978-1-319-15402-8 5200:978-1-4051-9381-8 5153:978-0-444-59425-9 4808:dominated flora. 4743:Extinction events 4567:Joggins Formation 4351:was an enigmatic 4205:Palaeonisciformes 4062:iniopterygiformes 3965:Palaeonisciformes 3933:ctenacanthiformes 2998:Archimedean screw 2876:. The first true 2757:were tree ferns. 2637:Joggins Formation 2514:due to increased 2349:carbonate shelves 2129:Kanimblan Orogeny 2121:Cimmerian Terrane 2096:Innuitian orogeny 2092:orogenic collapse 1867:movements as the 1696:erosional surface 1692:sedimentary rocks 1566:Lochriea ziegleri 1454:radiometric dates 1430:Mississippi River 1413: 1412: 1163:William Conybeare 1147:Old Red Sandstone 1115:mountain building 1026:Age of Amphibians 983:William Conybeare 854: 853: 662:First proposed by 602:Usage information 597:Age of Amphibians 575: 574: 556: 555: 537: 536: 518: 517: 500: 499: 16:(Redirected from 9215: 9184:World portal 9182: 9181: 9171: 9170: 9133: 9097: 9057: 9026: 9023:Mesoproterozoic 8995: 8988: 8987: 8983: 8942: 8911: 8875: 8844: 8818: 8787: 8780: 8779: 8775: 8739: 8708: 8682: 8675: 8674: 8670: 8634: 8608: 8582: 8575: 8574: 8570: 8551: 8544: 8537: 8528: 8527: 8456: 8455: 8440: 8433: 8426: 8417: 8416: 8397: 8395: 8393: 8370: 8354: 8339:(3 April 2008). 8332: 8322: 8312: 8277: 8267: 8257: 8224: 8214: 8204: 8171: 8131: 8112: 8109:10.1130/G31182.1 8083: 8081: 8074: 8056: 8046: 8044: 8042: 8033:. Archived from 8025: 8023: 8021: 8012:. Archived from 8000: 7983:(1–2): 318–372. 7970: 7968: 7967: 7946: 7944: 7942: 7933:. Archived from 7919: 7917: 7916: 7907:. Archived from 7895: 7893: 7891: 7863: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7831: 7814: 7786: 7741: 7731: 7698: 7688: 7653: 7651: 7624: 7598: 7560: 7558: 7527: 7517: 7515: 7513: 7507: 7500: 7482: 7472: 7453: 7436: 7434: 7433: 7416: 7414: 7412: 7391: 7375: 7344: 7338: 7332: 7329:Ward et al. 2006 7326: 7320: 7314: 7308: 7302: 7296: 7290: 7284: 7283: 7273: 7264: 7258: 7257: 7221: 7215: 7209: 7196: 7195: 7147: 7141: 7140: 7130: 7106: 7100: 7094: 7085: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7068: 7023: 7017: 7016: 7014: 7012: 6999: 6988:10.1038/375117a0 6959: 6953: 6947: 6941: 6935: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6921: 6884: 6878: 6877: 6875: 6874: 6851: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6818: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6807: 6787:(3–4): 264–279. 6770: 6764: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6724: 6718: 6712: 6706: 6700: 6694: 6688: 6665: 6664: 6654: 6652:10.1130/G40093.1 6622: 6613: 6612: 6602: 6570: 6561: 6560: 6520: 6511: 6510: 6470: 6464: 6463: 6423: 6417: 6416: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6337: 6326: 6325: 6315: 6306:(5): 1759–1775. 6291: 6276: 6275: 6235: 6222: 6221: 6173: 6148: 6147: 6107: 6090: 6089: 6041: 6035: 6034: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5962: 5922: 5913: 5912: 5864: 5853: 5852: 5842: 5810: 5777: 5776: 5759:(2–3): 194–222. 5744: 5733: 5732: 5714: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5685: 5670: 5664: 5663: 5645: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5587: 5577: 5560:(9): 2442–2447. 5543: 5528: 5527: 5479: 5464: 5463: 5453: 5421: 5382: 5375: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5365: 5359:stratigraphy.org 5351: 5336: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5274: 5259: 5258: 5240: 5205: 5204: 5186: 5171: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5127: 5094: 5088: 5073: 5072: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5003: 4997: 4991: 4985: 4979: 4973: 4967: 4961: 4955: 4949: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4925: 4919: 4913: 4912: 4901: 4797:extinction event 4765:ichthyostegalian 4706: 4681: 4660: 4628: 4603: 4582: 4549: 4523: 4500:protorothyridids 4402:Labyrinthodontia 4368: 4357:dermal denticles 4343: 4322: 4281: 4261: 4237: 4216: 4191: 4162: 4143: 4115: 4098: 4073: 4047: 3899: 3880: 3853: 3828: 3811: 3793: 3775: 3660: 3641: 3626: 3494: 3470: 3449: 3428: 3409: 3385: 3368: 3356: 3344: 3321: 3302: 3283: 3263: 3236: 3011:Gigantoproductus 2694:secondary growth 2633:stigmarian roots 2631:, with attached 2605:Callistophytales 2595:groups) and the 2125:Neo-Tethys Ocean 2113:Glacial deposits 1285: 1284: 1167:William Phillips 1052:to which modern 1018:lobe-finned fish 987:William Phillips 915: 911: 906: 905: 902: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 886: 883: 880: 877: 874: 871: 868: 829: 828: 826: 825: 824: 823:50.2458; 57.8914 819: 815: 812: 811: 810: 807: 746: 745: 743: 742: 741: 736: 732: 729: 728: 727: 724: 670:William Phillips 544: 539: 525: 520: 507: 502: 489: 484: 468: 459: 450: 441: 432: 423: 414: 405: 404: 394: 393: 383: 382: 372: 371: 361: 360: 350: 349: 339: 338: 328: 327: 308: 306: 286: 284: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 141: 126: 117: 54: 40: 39: 21: 9223: 9222: 9218: 9217: 9216: 9214: 9213: 9212: 9193: 9192: 9191: 9186: 9176: 9165: 9157: 9139: 9131: 9124: 9095: 9084: 9055: 9048: 9024: 9017: 8993: 8992:Neoproterozoic 8982:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 8981: 8980: 8979:Proterozoic Eon 8969: 8940: 8933: 8909: 8902: 8873: 8866: 8842: 8835: 8816: 8809: 8785: 8773: 8772: 8761: 8737: 8730: 8706: 8699: 8680: 8668: 8667: 8656: 8632: 8625: 8606: 8599: 8580: 8568: 8567: 8560: 8555: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8489: 8449: 8444: 8391: 8389: 8380: 8377: 8351: 8128: 8079: 8054: 8040: 8038: 8019: 8017: 7965: 7963: 7940: 7938: 7914: 7912: 7889: 7887: 7836: 7834: 7811: 7753:(5898): 64–68. 7708:Biology Letters 7664:Biology Letters 7556: 7525: 7511: 7509: 7505: 7480: 7469: 7431: 7429: 7410: 7408: 7372: 7358:Beerling, David 7353: 7348: 7347: 7339: 7335: 7327: 7323: 7315: 7311: 7303: 7299: 7291: 7287: 7271: 7265: 7261: 7222: 7218: 7210: 7199: 7148: 7144: 7107: 7103: 7095: 7088: 7080: 7076: 7066: 7064: 7024: 7020: 7010: 7008: 6960: 6956: 6948: 6944: 6936: 6929: 6919: 6917: 6885: 6881: 6872: 6870: 6868: 6852: 6848: 6839: 6837: 6835: 6819: 6815: 6805: 6803: 6771: 6767: 6757: 6755: 6725: 6721: 6713: 6709: 6701: 6697: 6689: 6668: 6623: 6616: 6571: 6564: 6521: 6514: 6471: 6467: 6424: 6420: 6377: 6373: 6338: 6329: 6292: 6279: 6236: 6225: 6174: 6151: 6108: 6093: 6070:10.1144/SP427.3 6042: 6038: 5987: 5983: 5973: 5971: 5923: 5916: 5893:10.1144/SP327.9 5865: 5856: 5811: 5780: 5745: 5736: 5729: 5715: 5692: 5683: 5681: 5673:Biello, David. 5671: 5667: 5605: 5601: 5544: 5531: 5480: 5467: 5422: 5385: 5376: 5372: 5363: 5361: 5353: 5352: 5339: 5330: 5326: 5275: 5262: 5255: 5241: 5208: 5201: 5187: 5174: 5166: 5164: 5154: 5128: 5097: 5089: 5076: 5063: 5062: 5058: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5004: 5000: 4992: 4988: 4980: 4976: 4968: 4964: 4956: 4952: 4944: 4940: 4932: 4928: 4920: 4916: 4903: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4873:Hamilton Quarry 4818: 4793: 4787: 4776:reptiliomorphan 4772:temnospondylian 4768:labyrinthodonts 4756: 4750: 4745: 4733: 4726: 4707: 4698: 4682: 4673: 4661: 4652: 4629: 4620: 4604: 4595: 4587:Petrolacosaurus 4583: 4574: 4550: 4541: 4524: 4393: 4386: 4371:Restoration of 4369: 4360: 4344: 4335: 4323: 4314: 4282: 4273: 4262: 4253: 4238: 4229: 4217: 4208: 4192: 4183: 4163: 4154: 4144: 4135: 4125:Ctenacanthiform 4116: 4107: 4099: 4090: 4074: 4058:helicoprionidae 4045: 3919: 3912: 3900: 3891: 3881: 3872: 3854: 3845: 3829: 3820: 3812: 3803: 3799:Pulmonoscorpius 3794: 3785: 3776: 3722:, and numerous 3675: 3668: 3661: 3652: 3642: 3633: 3627: 3514: 3507: 3495: 3486: 3471: 3462: 3450: 3441: 3436:was a genus of 3429: 3420: 3417:thylacocephalan 3410: 3401: 3386: 3377: 3369: 3360: 3357: 3348: 3345: 3336: 3322: 3313: 3303: 3294: 3284: 3275: 3264: 3255: 3254:(external mold) 3248:Logan Formation 3237: 3201:genera include 2907:are known from 2808:groups are the 2802: 2579:(scale trees), 2577:Lepidodendrales 2575:(club mosses), 2569:Sphenophyllales 2567:(horse-tails), 2545: 2540: 2533: 2528: 2513: 2483: 2473:rocks, such as 2458: 2434: 2426:mid-ocean ridge 2411: 2399: 2387: 2379: 2369: 2337: 2317: 2308: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2273: 2265: 2257: 2211: 2169: 2145: 2133:Continental arc 2108: 2048: 1992:Uralian orogeny 1988: 1986:Uralian orogeny 1924:in the west to 1906: 1861: 1859:Palaeogeography 1836:Siberian craton 1818:foreland basins 1793: 1688: 1648:disconformities 1587:Mississippian. 1575: 1446:biostratigraphy 1418: 1311:298.9 ±0.15 Ma 1296:Lower boundary 1268: 1263: 1180:, dominated by 1131: 1079:Pulmonoscorpius 1030:diversification 1028:because of the 1014:tetrapodomorphs 1008:including true 921:geologic period 913: 909: 865: 861: 822: 820: 816: 813: 808: 805: 803: 801: 800: 799: 740:43.5555; 3.3573 739: 737: 733: 730: 725: 722: 720: 718: 717: 716: 576: 571: 569: 552: 542: 533: 523: 514: 505: 496: 487: 480: 479: 475: 474: 470: 469: 464: 461: 460: 455: 452: 451: 446: 443: 442: 437: 434: 433: 428: 425: 424: 419: 416: 415: 410: 407: 406: 400: 399: 396: 395: 389: 388: 385: 384: 378: 377: 374: 373: 367: 366: 363: 362: 356: 355: 352: 351: 345: 344: 341: 340: 334: 333: 330: 329: 323: 322: 319: 318: 310: 309: 302: 300: 297: 296: 288: 287: 280: 278: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 129: 116: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 49: 48: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9221: 9211: 9210: 9205: 9188: 9187: 9144: 9141: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9126: 9125: 9123: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9101: 9099: 9090: 9089: 9086: 9085: 9083: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9061: 9059: 9050: 9049: 9047: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9030: 9028: 9019: 9018: 9016: 9015: 9010: 9005: 8999: 8997: 8985: 8975: 8974: 8971: 8970: 8968: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8946: 8944: 8935: 8934: 8932: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8915: 8913: 8904: 8903: 8901: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8879: 8877: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8848: 8846: 8837: 8836: 8834: 8833: 8828: 8822: 8820: 8815:Carboniferous 8811: 8810: 8808: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8791: 8789: 8777: 8767: 8766: 8763: 8762: 8760: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8743: 8741: 8732: 8731: 8729: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8712: 8710: 8701: 8700: 8698: 8697: 8692: 8686: 8684: 8672: 8662: 8661: 8658: 8657: 8655: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8638: 8636: 8633:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 8627: 8626: 8624: 8623: 8618: 8612: 8610: 8607:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 8601: 8600: 8598: 8597: 8592: 8586: 8584: 8572: 8562: 8561: 8554: 8553: 8546: 8539: 8531: 8522: 8521: 8517: 8516: 8514: 8513: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8492: 8490: 8488: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8471: 8468: 8467: 8462: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8443: 8442: 8435: 8428: 8420: 8414: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8376: 8375:External links 8373: 8372: 8371: 8369:on 2012-09-20. 8355: 8349: 8333: 8278: 8225: 8172: 8154:(7): 607–610. 8143: 8132: 8126: 8113: 8084: 8065:(4): 331–336. 8047: 8026: 8001: 7971: 7947: 7920: 7896: 7879:(2): 195–205. 7864: 7854:Chisholm, Hugh 7832: 7815: 7809: 7787: 7742: 7714:(5): 699–702. 7699: 7671:(6): 841–844. 7654: 7642:(3): 489–501. 7625: 7561: 7518: 7473: 7467: 7454: 7437: 7417: 7392: 7376: 7370: 7352: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7333: 7321: 7309: 7297: 7285: 7259: 7234:Acta Zoologica 7216: 7197: 7142: 7101: 7099:, p. 312. 7086: 7074: 7018: 6954: 6942: 6927: 6901:(3): 345–361. 6879: 6866: 6846: 6833: 6813: 6765: 6719: 6707: 6695: 6693:, p. 311. 6666: 6637:(5): 395–398. 6614: 6585:(1): 197–224. 6562: 6512: 6485:(1): 195–223. 6465: 6418: 6371: 6352:(1): 253–276. 6327: 6277: 6223: 6188:(1): 197–211. 6149: 6091: 6056:(1): 231–269. 6036: 5981: 5914: 5879:(1): 161–195. 5854: 5825:(3): 303–350. 5778: 5734: 5727: 5690: 5665: 5620:(6089): 1715. 5599: 5529: 5465: 5436:(1): 213–245. 5383: 5370: 5337: 5324: 5260: 5253: 5206: 5199: 5172: 5152: 5095: 5074: 5056: 5038: 5026: 5014: 4998: 4986: 4974: 4962: 4950: 4938: 4926: 4914: 4895: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4888: 4887: 4882: 4881: 4880: 4870: 4860: 4850: 4840: 4824: 4817: 4814: 4789:Main article: 4786: 4783: 4752:Main article: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4727: 4708: 4701: 4699: 4695:Czech Republic 4683: 4676: 4674: 4662: 4655: 4653: 4645:tetrapodomorph 4633:Coloraderpeton 4630: 4623: 4621: 4605: 4598: 4596: 4584: 4577: 4575: 4551: 4544: 4542: 4525: 4518: 4459:Anthracosaurus 4423:Proterogyrinus 4395:Carboniferous 4392: 4389: 4388: 4387: 4370: 4363: 4361: 4353:chondrichthyan 4345: 4338: 4336: 4324: 4317: 4315: 4283: 4276: 4274: 4263: 4256: 4254: 4250:sarcopterygian 4239: 4232: 4230: 4218: 4211: 4209: 4193: 4186: 4184: 4164: 4157: 4155: 4145: 4138: 4136: 4117: 4110: 4108: 4100: 4093: 4091: 4075: 4068: 4015:Stethacanthids 4007:Chondrichthyes 3969:Sarcopterygian 3918: 3915: 3914: 3913: 3901: 3894: 3892: 3882: 3875: 3873: 3855: 3848: 3846: 3830: 3823: 3821: 3813: 3806: 3804: 3795: 3788: 3786: 3777: 3770: 3757:Archaeozonites 3729:(ancestors of 3720:Protorthoptera 3674: 3671: 3670: 3669: 3665:Hibbertopterus 3662: 3655: 3653: 3645:Adelophthalmus 3643: 3636: 3634: 3628: 3621: 3598:Hibbertopterus 3586:Adelophthalmus 3577:Anthrapalaemon 3513: 3510: 3509: 3508: 3499:Syllipsimopodi 3496: 3489: 3487: 3472: 3465: 3463: 3451: 3444: 3442: 3430: 3423: 3421: 3411: 3404: 3402: 3387: 3380: 3378: 3370: 3363: 3361: 3358: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3339: 3337: 3323: 3316: 3314: 3304: 3297: 3295: 3285: 3278: 3276: 3265: 3258: 3256: 3238: 3231: 3216:Archaeocidaris 3132:Aenigmatoceras 3030:rhynchonellids 2961:(for example, 2943:(for example, 2801: 2798: 2706:Cladoxylopsids 2603:(cycads), the 2544: 2541: 2539: 2536: 2531: 2526: 2516:organic matter 2511: 2482: 2479: 2457: 2454: 2438:aragonite seas 2433: 2430: 2409: 2398: 2395: 2385: 2377: 2368: 2365: 2342:carbonate ramp 2336: 2333: 2316: 2313: 2307: 2304: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2271: 2263: 2255: 2210: 2207: 2168: 2165: 2150:Kuznetsk Basin 2144: 2141: 2107: 2104: 2100:Sverdrup Basin 2080:slab roll-back 2076:Antler orogeny 2047: 2044: 2023:Baltica craton 2019:passive margin 1987: 1984: 1943:The Armorican 1922:Gulf of Mexico 1905: 1902: 1869:supercontinent 1865:tectonic plate 1860: 1857: 1792: 1791:Coal formation 1789: 1769:epicontinental 1687: 1684: 1574: 1571: 1456:is difficult. 1450:volcanic rocks 1417: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1409:358.9 ±0.4 Ma 1407: 1402: 1398: 1397: 1396:346.7 ±0.4 Ma 1394: 1389: 1385: 1384: 1383:330.9 ±0.2 Ma 1381: 1376: 1373: 1367: 1366: 1365:323.2 ±0.4 Ma 1363: 1358: 1354: 1353: 1352:315.2 ±0.2 Ma 1350: 1345: 1341: 1340: 1339:307.0 ±0.1 Ma 1337: 1331: 1330: 1329:303.7 ±0.1 Ma 1327: 1322: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1304: 1298: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1155:Millstone Grit 1143:John Farey Sr. 1139:Richard Kirwan 1130: 1127: 1074:trigonotarbids 1022:pentadactylous 947:and the later 852: 851: 848: 844: 843: 839: 838: 835: 831: 830: 793:Ural Mountains 786: 782: 781: 760: 756: 755: 752: 748: 747: 713:Montagne Noire 706: 702: 701: 686: 682: 681: 678: 674: 673: 663: 659: 658: 653: 649: 648: 643: 639: 638: 634: 633: 632:ICS Time Scale 630: 626: 625: 618: 617:Regional usage 614: 613: 608: 607:Celestial body 604: 603: 599: 598: 595: 591: 590: 587: 586:Name formality 583: 582: 578: 577: 573: 572: 558: 557: 554: 553: 547: 545: 535: 534: 528: 526: 516: 515: 510: 508: 498: 497: 492: 490: 481: 477: 476: 472: 471: 463: 462: 454: 453: 445: 444: 436: 435: 427: 426: 418: 417: 409: 408: 398: 397: 387: 386: 376: 375: 365: 364: 354: 353: 343: 342: 332: 331: 321: 320: 312: 311: 299: 298: 290: 289: 277: 276: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 136: 135: 131: 130: 127: 119: 118: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 45: 44: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9220: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9203:Carboniferous 9201: 9200: 9198: 9185: 9180: 9174: 9169: 9163: 9160: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9142: 9136: 9134: 9127: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9102: 9100: 9098: 9091: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9062: 9060: 9058: 9051: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9031: 9029: 9027: 9020: 9014: 9011: 9009: 9006: 9004: 9001: 9000: 8998: 8996: 8994:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 8989: 8986: 8984: 8976: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8945: 8943: 8936: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8916: 8914: 8912: 8905: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8880: 8878: 8876: 8869: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8845: 8838: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8823: 8821: 8819: 8812: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8788: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8771:Paleozoic Era 8768: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8744: 8742: 8740: 8733: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8713: 8711: 8709: 8702: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8683: 8681:(66.0–145 Ma) 8676: 8673: 8671: 8669:(66.0–252 Ma) 8663: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8639: 8637: 8635: 8628: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8613: 8611: 8609: 8602: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8587: 8585: 8583: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8563: 8559: 8552: 8547: 8545: 8540: 8538: 8533: 8532: 8529: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8493: 8491: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8472: 8470: 8469: 8466: 8465:Pennsylvanian 8463: 8461: 8460:Mississippian 8458: 8457: 8452: 8448: 8441: 8436: 8434: 8429: 8427: 8422: 8421: 8418: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8378: 8368: 8364: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8294: 8290: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8240:(7): e22610. 8239: 8235: 8231: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8173: 8169: 8165: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8144: 8141: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8123: 8119: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8090: 8085: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8053: 8048: 8036: 8032: 8027: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7972: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7948: 7936: 7932: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7911:on 2008-06-21 7910: 7906: 7902: 7897: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7874: 7870: 7865: 7861: 7860: 7855: 7851: 7845: 7844:public domain 7833: 7829: 7825: 7821: 7816: 7812: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7721: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7665: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7562: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7531: 7524: 7519: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7479: 7474: 7470: 7468:1-86107-499-9 7464: 7460: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7438: 7427: 7423: 7418: 7406: 7402: 7398: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7371:9780192806024 7367: 7363: 7359: 7355: 7354: 7342: 7337: 7330: 7325: 7318: 7313: 7306: 7301: 7294: 7289: 7281: 7277: 7270: 7263: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7231: 7229: 7220: 7213: 7208: 7206: 7204: 7202: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7146: 7138: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7120: 7116: 7112: 7105: 7098: 7093: 7091: 7083: 7078: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7022: 7007: 7003: 6998: 6997:2027.42/62968 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6958: 6951: 6946: 6939: 6934: 6932: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6890: 6883: 6869: 6867:9780262354189 6863: 6859: 6858: 6850: 6836: 6834:9780262083195 6830: 6826: 6825: 6817: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6781: 6776: 6769: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6716: 6711: 6704: 6699: 6692: 6687: 6685: 6683: 6681: 6679: 6677: 6675: 6673: 6671: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6621: 6619: 6610: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6569: 6567: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6519: 6517: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6469: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6422: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6336: 6334: 6332: 6323: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6290: 6288: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6172: 6170: 6168: 6166: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6100: 6098: 6096: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6040: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5985: 5970: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5921: 5919: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5863: 5861: 5859: 5850: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5809: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5795: 5793: 5791: 5789: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5730: 5724: 5720: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5705: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5680: 5676: 5669: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5603: 5595: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5549: 5542: 5540: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5461: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5380: 5374: 5360: 5356: 5350: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5342: 5334: 5328: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5273: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5265: 5256: 5250: 5246: 5239: 5237: 5235: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5211: 5202: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5183: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5104: 5102: 5100: 5092: 5087: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5070: 5066: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5036: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5011: 5007: 5002: 4995: 4990: 4983: 4978: 4971: 4966: 4959: 4954: 4947: 4942: 4935: 4930: 4923: 4918: 4910: 4906: 4900: 4896: 4886: 4883: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4868: 4864: 4861: 4858: 4854: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4813: 4809: 4807: 4803: 4798: 4792: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4740: 4738: 4724: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4705: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4687: 4680: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4666: 4665:Crassygyrinus 4659: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4634: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4609: 4608:Archaeothyris 4602: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4588: 4581: 4576: 4572: 4571:New Brunswick 4568: 4564: 4563:Pennsylvanian 4560: 4556: 4555: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4538:Mississippian 4535: 4534: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4489: 4488: 4487:Archaeothyris 4483: 4479: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4461: 4460: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4442: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4418: 4413: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4375: 4367: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4349: 4348:Listracanthus 4342: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4321: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4287: 4280: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4267: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4248: 4244: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4226:eugeneodontid 4223: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4197: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4168: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4104: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4072: 4067: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4043: 4042:Stethacanthus 4038: 4034: 4033: 4032:Stethacanthus 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4011:holocephalans 4008: 4004: 4003: 3998: 3994: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3983: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3939: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3924: 3923:Elasmobranchs 3910: 3909:trigonotarbid 3906: 3905: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3871: 3867: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3834: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3810: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3796:The gigantic 3792: 3787: 3783: 3782: 3774: 3769: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3764: 3759: 3758: 3753: 3752: 3747: 3746:Archaeoptilus 3743: 3739: 3734: 3732: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3694: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3666: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3640: 3635: 3631: 3625: 3620: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3593: 3588: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3560: 3559: 3554: 3553: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3537: 3532: 3531: 3526: 3522: 3519: 3505: 3501: 3500: 3493: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3476: 3469: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3455: 3448: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3434: 3427: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3408: 3403: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3391: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3374: 3367: 3362: 3355: 3350: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3287:Syringothyris 3282: 3277: 3273: 3272:Syringothyris 3269: 3268:Aviculopecten 3262: 3257: 3253: 3252:Wooster, Ohio 3249: 3245: 3241: 3235: 3230: 3229: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3166:Beyrichiopsis 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3148:, a class of 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3084: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3072: 3067: 3066: 3065:Aviculopecten 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3047: 3046: 3041: 3040: 3035: 3034:terebratulids 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2994: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2955:Neozaphrentis 2952: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2928:glass sponges 2925: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2887:are found in 2886: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2838:microconchids 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2797: 2795: 2794: 2789: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2778: 2773: 2771: 2770: 2769:Sphenophyllum 2765: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2755: 2750: 2749: 2744: 2743: 2738: 2737: 2732: 2731: 2726: 2725: 2720: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2680: 2679:Lepidophloios 2675: 2674: 2669: 2668:Lepidostrobus 2665: 2664: 2663:Lepidodendron 2654: 2650: 2645: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2629: 2624: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2549: 2535: 2523: 2519: 2517: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2478: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2463: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2446:biomineralize 2443: 2440:had replaced 2439: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2412: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2382: 2373: 2364: 2360: 2358: 2353: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2332: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2312: 2303: 2295: 2280: 2276: 2268: 2260: 2248: 2247:Sphenophyllum 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2231:Lepidodendron 2228: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2206: 2204: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2183: 2177: 2175: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2153: 2151: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2114: 2103: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2043: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1896: 1892: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1856: 1853: 1849: 1848:basidiomycete 1845: 1839: 1837: 1832: 1828: 1827:interglacials 1823: 1819: 1814: 1812: 1807: 1797: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1762: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1693: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1610:transgressive 1607: 1603: 1602: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1585: 1580: 1579:J.J.Stevenson 1573:Pennsylvanian 1570: 1569: 1567: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1502: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1466: 1462: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1428:in the upper 1427: 1423: 1416:Mississippian 1408: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1371:Mississippian 1368: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1342: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1318: 1317:Pennsylvanian 1314: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1288:Series/epoch 1287: 1286: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1258: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1229:Pennsylvanian 1226: 1225:Mississippian 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1190:siliciclastic 1187: 1183: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1159:Coal Measures 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1081: 1080: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1038:temnospondyls 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1004:(four-limbed 1003: 1002:Stegocephalia 999: 995: 990: 988: 984: 980: 979: 974: 970: 969: 965: 961: 957: 956:Carboniferous 952: 950: 949:Pennsylvanian 946: 945:Mississippian 942: 941:North America 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 917: 904: 859: 858:Carboniferous 849: 845: 840: 836: 832: 827: 798: 794: 790: 787: 783: 779: 778: 774: 770: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 744: 714: 710: 707: 703: 699: 698: 694: 690: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 664: 660: 657: 654: 650: 647: 644: 640: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 612: 609: 605: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 579: 568: 567:, as of 2021. 566: 559: 551: 546: 541: 540: 532: 527: 522: 521: 513: 509: 504: 503: 495: 491: 486: 485: 467: 458: 449: 440: 431: 422: 413: 403: 392: 381: 370: 359: 348: 337: 336:Pennsylvanian 326: 325:Mississippian 317: 316: 307: 305: 304:Carboniferous 295: 294: 285: 283: 142: 137: 132: 125: 120: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 53: 46: 43:Carboniferous 41: 36: 34: 33:Carboniferous 19: 9158: 9094:Archean Eon 9056:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 8941:(485–539 Ma) 8910:(444–485 Ma) 8874:(419–444 Ma) 8843:(359–419 Ma) 8817:(299–359 Ma) 8814: 8786:(252–299 Ma) 8774:(252–539 Ma) 8738:(201–252 Ma) 8707:(145–201 Ma) 8666:Mesozoic Era 8566:Cenozoic Era 8485:Serpukhovian 8446: 8390:. Retrieved 8386:the original 8367:the original 8362: 8340: 8292: 8286: 8237: 8233: 8184: 8180: 8151: 8147: 8135: 8117: 8092: 8088: 8062: 8058: 8039:. Retrieved 8035:the original 8018:. Retrieved 8014:the original 8010:Science News 8009: 7980: 7976: 7964:. Retrieved 7955: 7939:. Retrieved 7935:the original 7928: 7913:. Retrieved 7909:the original 7904: 7888:. Retrieved 7876: 7872: 7857: 7828:the original 7823: 7792: 7750: 7746: 7711: 7707: 7668: 7662: 7639: 7633: 7570: 7566: 7533: 7529: 7510:. Retrieved 7488: 7484: 7458: 7441: 7430:. Retrieved 7409:. Retrieved 7400: 7383: 7361: 7336: 7324: 7312: 7300: 7293:Stanley 1999 7288: 7279: 7275: 7262: 7237: 7233: 7227: 7219: 7162:(1): 22–33. 7159: 7155: 7145: 7118: 7114: 7104: 7077: 7065:. Retrieved 7037: 7031: 7021: 7009:. Retrieved 6971: 6967: 6957: 6945: 6918:. Retrieved 6898: 6894:Paleobiology 6892: 6882: 6871:. Retrieved 6856: 6849: 6838:. Retrieved 6823: 6816: 6804:. Retrieved 6784: 6778: 6768: 6756:. Retrieved 6736: 6732: 6722: 6710: 6698: 6634: 6630: 6582: 6578: 6532: 6528: 6482: 6478: 6468: 6435: 6431: 6421: 6388: 6384: 6374: 6349: 6345: 6303: 6299: 6247: 6243: 6185: 6181: 6119: 6115: 6053: 6049: 6039: 5998: 5994: 5984: 5974:17 September 5972:. Retrieved 5934: 5930: 5876: 5872: 5822: 5818: 5756: 5752: 5718: 5682:. Retrieved 5678: 5668: 5617: 5613: 5602: 5557: 5551: 5491: 5487: 5433: 5429: 5373: 5362:. Retrieved 5358: 5327: 5286: 5282: 5244: 5190: 5165:, retrieved 5135: 5059: 5050: 5041: 5029: 5017: 5001: 4996:, p. 3. 4989: 4977: 4965: 4953: 4941: 4929: 4917: 4908: 4899: 4828:Lagerstätten 4810: 4794: 4757: 4734: 4719:temnospondyl 4716:dissorophoid 4709: 4686:Microbrachis 4684: 4672:of Scotland. 4664: 4631: 4606: 4585: 4552: 4531: 4512:araeoscelids 4504:captorhinids 4492: 4485: 4475: 4464: 4457: 4451: 4447:Dendrerpeton 4445: 4439: 4433: 4429:Ophiderpeton 4427: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4406:Lepospondyli 4394: 4372: 4346: 4325: 4299:Pennsylvania 4284: 4271:angel sharks 4266:Squatinactis 4264: 4240: 4224:was a large 4219: 4196:Phanerosteon 4194: 4167:Allenypterus 4165: 4147:Ornithoprion 4128:elasmobranch 4120:Dracopristis 4118: 4101: 4076: 4053:eugeneodonts 4050: 4040: 4039:on its top. 4030: 4009:(especially 4000: 3996: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3977: 3954: 3951:Xenacanthida 3945:; some, the 3936: 3926: 3920: 3902: 3866:onychophoran 3857: 3840:insect from 3836:was a large 3831: 3816:Arthropleura 3814: 3797: 3779: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3701: 3693:Arthropleura 3691: 3676: 3664: 3644: 3629: 3612: 3609:Orbiculoidea 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3576: 3573:Dithyrocaris 3572: 3569:Acanthocaris 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3534: 3528: 3525:Anthraconaia 3524: 3515: 3497: 3473: 3452: 3431: 3413:Concavicaris 3412: 3388: 3371: 3332: 3329:platyceratid 3310:trace fossil 3308:ichnosp.; a 3306:Palaeophycus 3305: 3286: 3271: 3267: 3239: 3221:Palaeechinus 3220: 3214: 3211:Actinocrinus 3210: 3206: 3203:Cyathocrinus 3202: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3178:Cribroconcha 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3136: 3134:are common. 3109: 3103: 3099: 3091: 3087: 3081: 3075: 3069: 3063: 3055: 3050: 3043: 3037: 3015: 3009: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2966: 2963:Chladochonus 2962: 2954: 2950: 2944: 2930: 2923: 2916: 2912: 2885:radiolarians 2882: 2869: 2866:Archaediscus 2865: 2861: 2857: 2844:(especially 2834:hederelloids 2810:Foraminifera 2803: 2791: 2787:Cardiocarpus 2785: 2775: 2774: 2767: 2761: 2759: 2752: 2746: 2742:Sphenopteris 2740: 2736:Alethopteris 2734: 2728: 2722: 2716: 2710: 2683: 2677: 2671: 2661: 2658: 2626: 2619: 2611:, appeared. 2585:Medullosales 2573:Lycopodiales 2554: 2524: 2520: 2496: 2484: 2467: 2459: 2442:calcite seas 2435: 2400: 2397:Geochemistry 2383: 2374: 2370: 2361: 2354: 2346: 2338: 2318: 2309: 2306:Temperatures 2296: 2281: 2277: 2269: 2261: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2219:Edaphosaurus 2218: 2199: 2178: 2170: 2154: 2146: 2137:proto-Andean 2118: 2109: 2072:Panthalassic 2069: 2049: 2008:Magnitogorsk 1989: 1968: 1956:metamorphism 1942: 1907: 1889:Kazakhstania 1862: 1840: 1815: 1803: 1766: 1757: 1721: 1689: 1677: 1671: 1663:stuckenbergi 1662: 1659: 1655: 1653: 1645: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1627:limestones. 1608:sequence of 1599: 1592:Arrow Canyon 1589: 1576: 1564: 1559:and Nashui, 1545: 1540: 1536: 1514:Dinant Basin 1507: 1495:unconformity 1490: 1486: 1484:Siphonodella 1483: 1479: 1475: 1469: 1463: 1458: 1440:through the 1434:Paleo-Tethys 1419: 1379:Serpukhovian 1269: 1266:Stratigraphy 1250: 1222: 1218:Serpukhovian 1188:with mainly 1175: 1132: 1108: 1093: 1089:Arthropleura 1087: 1077: 1064:level, land 1056:belong) and 1036:such as the 1025: 991: 955: 953: 857: 855: 775: 766: 695: 562: 430:Serpukhovian 313: 303: 301: 291: 279: 82: 32: 9130:Hadean Eon 8908:Ordovician 8679:Cretaceous 8579:Quaternary 8475:Tournaisian 8392:January 15, 8337:Wells, John 7905:Palaeos.org 7596:10261/60626 7341:Heckel 2008 7305:Kazlev 1998 7240:: 171–182. 7228:Helicoprion 7212:Martin 2008 6535:(1): 1–15. 5960:2434/742688 5643:10261/60626 5289:(1): 1–17. 4922:Kaiser 2009 4875:; 300 mya; 4865:; 309 mya; 4863:Mazon Creek 4855:; 324 mya; 4835:; 359 mya; 4754:Romer's gap 4748:Romer's gap 4691:lepospondyl 4617:Nova Scotia 4496:pelycosaurs 4441:Hyloplesion 4374:Strigilodus 4359:on its back 4332:flying fish 4301:during the 4151:Eugeneodont 4083:Holocephali 4078:Akmonistion 4002:Gyracanthus 3947:petalodonts 3868:known from 3842:Mazon Creek 3833:Mazothairos 3738:Saarbrücken 3731:cockroaches 3727:Dictyoptera 3698:Protodonata 3649:eurypterine 3581:eurypterids 3541:crustaceans 3536:Carbonicola 3459:stomatopoda 3399:Sea anemone 3331:gastropod ( 3207:Woodocrinus 3158:Amphissites 3154:meiobenthos 3150:crustaceans 3117:cephalopods 3100:Murchisonia 3083:Carbonicola 3071:Posidonomya 3026:spiriferids 3002:Brachiopods 2932:Titusvillia 2917:Girtycoelia 2842:echinoderms 2826:brachiopods 2754:Caulopteris 2730:Neuropteris 2724:Cyclopteris 2625:, probably 2601:Cycadophyta 2597:Cordaitales 2565:Equisetales 2227:Pectopteris 2223:Neuropteris 2027:suture zone 1980:compression 1964:deformation 1938:Rheic Ocean 1914:Alleghanian 1877:south polar 1487:praesulcata 1442:Rheic Ocean 1438:Panthalassa 1405:Tournaisian 1206:Westphalian 1194:Tournaisian 1111:glaciations 1006:vertebrates 821: / 780:chronocline 771:within the 762:FAD of the 738: / 594:Nickname(s) 550:Romer's Gap 531:Romer's Gap 412:Tournaisian 9197:Categories 9132:(4–4.6 Ga) 9096:(2.5–4 Ga) 9025:(1–1.6 Ga) 8631:Paleogene 8506:Kasimovian 8496:Bashkirian 7966:2008-06-23 7915:2008-06-23 7890:7 December 7512:7 December 7432:2008-06-25 7121:(3): 318. 7067:6 November 7040:: 104062. 7011:6 November 6873:2022-08-23 6840:2022-08-23 6739:: 103699. 6715:Hogan 2010 6438:: 103560. 6391:: 104540. 6250:: 109259. 6122:: 103503. 5937:: 109753. 5684:2024-01-06 5494:: 103612. 5364:2023-11-12 5167:2021-06-17 4970:Wells 2008 4891:References 4849:, Scotland 4839:, Scotland 4779:amphibians 4711:Amphibamus 4474:reptiles ( 4435:Amphibamus 4397:amphibians 4379:petalodont 4327:Iniopteryx 4307:paddlefish 4172:Coelacanth 4132:New Mexico 4087:Symmoriida 4023:placoderms 3992:Acanthodes 3973:Rhizodonts 3943:Symmoriida 3904:Maiocercus 3863:stem-group 3763:Dendropupa 3706:, a giant 3630:Megarachne 3592:Megarachne 3539:; diverse 3504:vampyropod 3433:Triproetus 3395:scyphozoan 3373:Typhloesus 3335:) attached 3291:brachiopod 3266:Bivalves ( 3182:Hollinella 3174:Coryellina 3138:Trilobites 3110:Naticopsis 3105:Euomphalus 3096:Gastropods 3056:Serpulites 3022:Athyridids 3006:productids 2993:Archimedes 2984:Fenestella 2971:Conularids 2967:Michelinia 2921:demosponge 2913:Cotyliscus 2878:priapulids 2870:Saccammina 2748:Megaphyton 2718:Pecopteris 2685:Sigillaria 2653:stigmarian 2647:Base of a 2628:Sigillaria 2609:Voltziales 2593:gymnosperm 2589:seed ferns 2561:coal balls 2403:weathering 2235:Sigillaria 2203:evaporites 2186:Uzbekistan 2015:Ural Ocean 2011:island arc 1952:Ordovician 1831:subsidence 1752:esturaries 1740:Peat mires 1728:ice sheets 1686:Cyclothems 1667:Boreal Sea 1660:Rauserites 1625:brecciated 1618:regressive 1614:sandstones 1518:limestones 1361:Bashkirian 1335:Kasimovian 1293:Stage/age 1280:stratotype 1254:Kasimovian 1246:Bashkirian 1210:Stephanian 1066:arthropods 1058:sauropsids 1044:including 1034:amphibians 998:land plant 809:57°53′29″E 806:50°14′45″N 797:Kazakhstan 789:Aidaralash 773:morphotype 723:43°33′20″N 637:Definition 457:Kasimovian 439:Bashkirian 134:Chronology 9159:See also: 8939:Cambrian 8872:Silurian 8841:Devonian 8736:Triassic 8705:Jurassic 8501:Moscovian 8041:April 30, 7783:206514545 7491:: 11–18. 7254:0001-7272 7184:0272-4634 7137:1424-2818 7115:Diversity 7097:Howe 1911 7062:249298393 6915:140542784 6758:24 August 6691:Howe 1911 6661:0091-7613 6609:0084-6597 6557:0305-8719 6507:0305-8719 6460:0012-8252 6413:0034-6667 6366:0084-6597 6322:1814-9324 6272:0031-0182 6218:229459593 6210:0305-8719 6144:0012-8252 6086:127707145 6078:0305-8719 6031:247459291 6023:0278-7407 5995:Tectonics 5969:218953074 5909:129439058 5901:0305-8719 5849:1674-9871 5652:0036-8075 5524:233618931 5516:0012-8252 5460:0305-8719 5319:245208581 5311:0305-8719 5162:132978981 4837:Edinburgh 4806:tree fern 4554:Hylonomus 4528:amphibian 4477:Hylonomus 4472:sauropsid 4468:tetrapods 4453:Tuditanus 4417:Eogyrinus 4391:Tetrapods 4303:Moscovian 4286:Bandringa 4247:Rhizodont 4201:Bony fish 4037:denticles 4013:like the 3997:Cheirodus 3961:bony fish 3956:Bandringa 3928:Psammodus 3888:cockroach 3781:Meganeura 3742:Commentry 3708:dragonfly 3703:Meganeura 3687:arachnids 3683:myriapods 3614:Productus 3558:Darwinula 3552:Carbonita 3530:Naiadites 3475:Jeletzkya 3390:Essexella 3246:from the 3225:blastoids 3194:Libumella 3190:Knoxiella 3170:Cavellina 3146:Ostracoda 3128:ammonoids 3125:Goniatite 3121:nautilids 3114:Nautiloid 2975:Conularia 2969:) forms. 2924:Chaetetes 2862:Endothyra 2858:Valvulina 2830:ammonoids 2822:Ostracoda 2777:Cordaites 2763:Calamites 2713:epiphytic 2690:Stigmaria 2673:Anabathra 2583:(ferns), 2581:Filicales 2557:preserved 2462:strontium 2450:aragonite 2428:systems. 2243:Calamites 2239:Cordaites 2052:Laurentia 2046:Laurussia 2035:Accretion 1936:) as the 1773:Laurussia 1621:mudstones 1606:cyclothem 1534:fusulinid 1528:section, 1526:Pengchong 1426:limestone 1348:Moscovian 1276:formation 1238:Moscovian 1182:carbonate 1178:Dinantian 1095:Meganeura 1084:myriapods 1070:arachnids 1046:synapsids 1032:of early 1010:tetrapods 954:The name 929:Paleozoic 726:3°21′26″E 581:Etymology 548:Start of 448:Moscovian 282:Paleozoic 8784:Permian 8605:Neogene 8511:Gzhelian 8329:17065318 8274:21818347 8234:PLOS ONE 8221:16832054 8077:Archived 8059:Episodes 7960:Archived 7775:18832639 7738:20392720 7695:19656861 7621:37121590 7613:22745431 7554:Archived 7503:Archived 7485:Episodes 7426:Archived 7405:Archived 7388:Archived 7360:(2007). 7282:: 81–92. 7192:86174861 6920:21 April 6806:31 March 5660:22745431 5594:26787881 5069:Archived 4867:Illinois 4847:Bathgate 4816:See also 4802:lycopsid 4723:Illinois 4649:Colorado 4642:aïstopod 4613:synapsid 4533:Pederpes 4508:saurians 4482:synapsid 4383:Kentucky 4291:Illinois 4242:Rhizodus 4103:Falcatus 3987:Uronemus 3982:Ctenodus 3938:Saivodus 3885:blattoid 3712:mayflies 3564:Estheria 3543:such as 3521:molluscs 3484:Illinois 3198:Crinoids 3130:such as 3088:Edmondia 3060:bivalves 3054:such as 3052:Annelids 3017:Chonetes 2988:Polypora 2959:tabulate 2951:Corwenia 2909:spicules 2901:Cornwall 2854:Fusulina 2846:crinoids 2649:lycopsid 2639:, Canada 2623:lycopsid 2618:Ancient 2471:basement 2414:drawdown 2391:amniotes 2323:record, 2321:charcoal 2174:orocline 2106:Gondwana 2060:Avalonia 2040:granites 2025:). 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