5348:
which shattered the foundations of the
Byzantine state, was due in large part to the absolute defencelessness of the Empire at sea. This process was initiated by Byzantium itself in the 9th century, when the Italians were increasingly employed by the Empire to compensate for its own naval weakness in the West. The Italian republics also profited from their role as intermediaries in the trade between the Empire and Western Europe, marginalizing the Byzantine merchant marine, which in turn had adverse effects on the availability of Byzantine naval forces. Inevitably however, as the Italian republics slowly moved away from the Byzantine orbit, they began pursuing their own policies, and from the late 11th century on, they turned from protection of the Empire to exploitation and sometimes outright plunder, heralding the eventual financial and political subjugation of Byzantium to their interests. The absence of a strong navy was certainly keenly felt by the Byzantines at the time, as the comments of Kekaumenos illustrate. Strong and energetic emperors like Manuel Komnenos, and later Michael VIII Palaiologos, could revive Byzantine naval power, but even after landing heavy strokes against the Venetians, they merely replaced them with the Genoese and the Pisans. Trade thus remained in Latin hands, its profits continued to be siphoned off from the Empire, and after their deaths, their achievements quickly evaporated. After 1204, and with the brief exception of Michael VIII's reign, the fortunes of the now small Byzantine navy were more or less tied to the shifting alliances with the Italian maritime republics.
4979:). The sailing season was therefore usually restricted from mid-spring to September. The maintainable cruising speed of a galley, even when using sails, was limited, as were the amount of supplies it could carry. Water in particular, being essentially a galley's "fuel" supply, was of critical importance. There is no evidence that the navy operated dedicated supply ships to support the warships. With consumption levels estimated at 8 litres a day for every oarsman, its availability was a decisive operational factor in the often water-scarce and sun-baked coasts of the Eastern Mediterranean. Smaller dromons are estimated to have been able to carry about four days' worth of water. Effectively, this meant that fleets composed of galleys were confined to coastal routes, and had to make frequent landfall to replenish their supplies and rest their crews. This is well attested in Byzantine overseas endeavours, from Belisarius' campaign against the Vandals to the Cretan expeditions of the 9th and 10th centuries. It is for these reasons that Nikephoros Ouranos emphasizes the need to have available "men with accurate knowledge and experience of the sea , which winds cause it to swell and which blow from the land. They should know both the hidden rocks in the sea, and the places which have no depth, and the land along which one sails and the islands adjacent to it, the harbours and the distance such harbours are the one from the other. They should know both the countries and the water supplies."
4986:" as it is understood today. Furthermore, following the abandonment of the ram, the only truly "ship-killing" weapon available prior to the advent of gunpowder and explosive shells, sea combat became, in the words of John Pryor, "more unpredictable. No longer could any power hope to have such an advantage in weaponry or the skill of crews that success could be expected." It is no surprise therefore that the Byzantine and Arab manuals emphasize cautious tactics, with the priority given to the preservation of one's own fleet, and the acquisition of accurate intelligence, often through the use of spies posing as merchants. Emphasis was placed on achieving tactical surprise and, conversely, on avoiding being caught unprepared by the enemy. Ideally, battle was to be given only when assured of superiority by virtue of numbers or tactical disposition. Importance is also laid on matching one's forces and tactics to the prospective enemy: Leo VI, for instance, contrasted (
506:
2409:(1282–1328) assumed that, by relying on the naval strength of his Genoese allies, he could do without the maintenance of a fleet, whose particularly heavy expenditure the increasingly cash-strapped treasury could no longer afford. At the same time, Andronikos was less concerned with the West and more with affairs in Asia Minor and his—eventually futile—attempt to stop the Turkish advance there, a policy where the fleet lacked a role. Consequently, the entire fleet was disbanded, its crews dismissed and the ships are broken up or left to rot. The results were quick to follow: during Andronikos' long reign, the Turks gradually took permanent possession of the Aegean coasts of Anatolia, with the Empire unable to reverse the situation, while the Venetian fleet was able to attack Constantinople and raid its suburbs at will during the
3676:
1885:, and 308 transports, carrying an overall force of 77,000 men, to subdue the island. Although the navy ultimately had a limited combat role in the campaign, it was essential for keeping the sea-lanes open after a disastrous attack into the interior of the island required supplies to be brought in by sea. The conquest of Crete removed the direct threat to the Aegean, Byzantium's naval heartland, while Phokas' subsequent operations led to the recovery of Cilicia (in 963), Cyprus (in 968), and the northern Syrian coast (in 969). These conquests removed the threat of the once mighty Muslim Syrian fleets, effectively re-establishing Byzantine dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean so that Nikephoros Phokas could boast to
2074:(1118–1143). Like his father, John II concentrated on the army and regular land-based campaigns, but he took care to maintain the navy's strength and provisioning system. In 1122, however, John refused to renew the trading privileges that Alexios had granted to the Venetians. In retaliation, the Venetians plundered several Byzantine islands, and, with the Byzantine fleet unable to confront them, John was forced to renew the treaty in 1125. Evidently, the Byzantine navy at this point was not sufficiently powerful for John to successfully confront Venice, especially since there were other pressing demands on the Empire's resources. Not long after this incident, John II, acting on the advice of his finance minister
5336:. Galley fleets were confined to coastal operations, and were not able to play a truly independent role. Furthermore, as the alternation of Byzantine victories and defeats against the Arabs illustrates, no side was able to permanently gain the upper hand. Although the Byzantines pulled off a number of spectacular successes, such as Nasar's remarkable night-time victory in 880 (one of a handful of similar engagements in the Middle Ages), these victories were balanced off by similarly disastrous losses. Reports of mutinies by oarsmen in Byzantine fleets also reveal that conditions were often far from the ideal prescribed in the manuals. Combined with the traditional predominance of the great
5329:. In addition, shipping was always the quickest and cheapest way of transport, and the Empire's major urban and commercial centres, as well as most of its fertile areas, lay close to the sea. Coupled with the threat posed by the Arabs in the 7th to 10th centuries, this necessitated the maintenance of a strong fleet. The navy was perhaps at its most significant in the successful defence of Constantinople from the two Arab sieges, which ultimately saved the Empire. Throughout the period however, naval operations were an essential part of the Byzantine effort against the Arabs in a game of raids and counter-raids that continued up to the late 10th century.
1525:
1820:
4918:, by the Byzantine cleric Sylvester Syropoulos and the Greek-Venetian captain Michael of Rhodes, mention that most of the ships were Venetian or Papal, but also record that Emperor John VIII travelled on an "imperial ship". It is unclear whether that ship was Byzantine or had been hired, and its type is not mentioned. It is, however, recorded as having been faster than the Venetian great merchant galleys accompanying it, possibly indicating that it was a light war galley. Michael of Rhodes also wrote a treatise on shipbuilding, which provided construction instructions and illustrations of the main vessels, both
2662:
professional and well-maintained force. Because of the absence of any naval threat, however, the navy of the late 6th century was relatively small, with several small flotillas in the Danube and two main fleets maintained at
Ravenna and Constantinople. Additional flotillas must have been stationed at the other great maritime and commercial centres of the Empire: at Alexandria, providing the escort to the annual grain fleet to Constantinople, and at Carthage, controlling the western Mediterranean. Justinian also stationed troops and ships at the more remote outposts of the Empire, at Septem (
5029:
2583:, forcing him to relinquish all his holdings in the Morea to the Byzantines. The last appearance of the Byzantine navy was in the final Ottoman siege of 1453, when a mixed fleet of Byzantine, Genoese and Venetian ships (varying numbers are provided by the sources, ranging from 10 to 39 vessels) defended Constantinople against the Ottoman fleet. During the siege, on 20 April 1453, the last naval engagement in Byzantine history took place when three Genoese galleys escorting a Byzantine transport fought their way through the huge Ottoman blockade fleet and into the Golden Horn.
42:
1159:
3966:) that supplied the fleet. Under John II, the Aegean islands also became responsible for the maintenance, crewing and provision of warships, and contemporary sources took pride in the fact that the great fleets of Manuel's reign were crewed by "native Romans", although use continued to be made of mercenaries and allied squadrons. However, the fact that the fleet was now exclusively built and based around Constantinople, and that provincial fleets were not reconstituted, did have its drawbacks, as outlying areas, in particular Greece, were left vulnerable to attack.
2220:
1695:
2318:
2696:
991:
785:, they were composed to a great extent of newly built or -commandeered ships from the port cities of the Eastern Mediterranean. The civil wars of the 4th and early 5th centuries, however, did spur a revival of naval activity, with fleets mostly employed to transport armies. Considerable naval forces continued to be employed in the Western Mediterranean throughout the first quarter of the fifth century, especially from North Africa, but Rome's mastery of the Mediterranean was challenged when Africa was overrun by the
4551:
893:). These were largely amphibious operations, made possible by the control of the Mediterranean waterways, and the fleet played a vital role in carrying supplies and reinforcements to the widely dispersed Byzantine expeditionary forces and garrisons. This fact was not lost on the Byzantines' enemies. Already in the 520s, Theodoric had planned to build a massive fleet directed against the Byzantines and the Vandals, but his death in 526 limited the extent to which these plans were realized. In 535, the
5077:
1352:
5195:
2037:(1081–1118), was forced to call upon the assistance of the Venetians, who in the 1070s had already asserted their control of the Adriatic and Dalmatia against the Normans. In 1082, in exchange for their help, he granted them major trading concessions. This treaty, and subsequent extensions of these privileges, practically rendered the Byzantines hostage to the Venetians (and later also the Genoese and the Pisans). Historian John Birkenmeier notes that:
14179:
1998:, writing in c. 1078, laments that "on the pretext of reasonable patrols, are doing nothing else but ferrying wheat, barley, pulse, cheese, wine, meat, olive oil, a great deal of money, and anything else" from the islands and coasts of the Aegean, while they "flee before they have even caught sight of them, and thus become an embarrassment to the Romans". By the time Kekaumenos wrote, new and powerful adversaries had risen. In the West, the
1767:, all while the Empire's fleet remained passive in the face of the Arabs' superior numbers. Furthermore, the Cretan corsairs' raids reached such intensity, that by the end of Leo's reign, most of the southern Aegean islands were either abandoned or forced to accept Muslim control and pay tribute to the pirates. It is no surprise that a defensive and cautious mindset was prevalent in Leo's contemporary instructions on naval warfare (
754:
2870:
themes or independent commands termed "droungariates", and a greater number of local squadrons charged with purely defensive and police tasks and subordinate to the local provincial governors. Unlike the earlier Roman navy, where the provincial fleets were decidedly inferior in numbers and included only lighter vessels than the central fleets, the
Byzantine regional fleets were probably formidable formations in their own right.
2548:, when Byzantium sided with various rival Ottoman princes in turn. Manuel used his ships to ferry the rival pretenders and their forces across the Straits. With Genoese assistance, Manuel's fleet was also able to muster a fleet of eight galleys and capture Gallipoli in May 1410, albeit for a brief time; and in August 1411, the Byzantine fleet was instrumental in the failure of a siege of Constantinople by the Ottoman prince
4450:) were divided by the deck, with the first oar bank was situated below, whilst the second oar bank was situated above deck; these rowers were expected to fight alongside the marines in boarding operations. Makrypoulias suggests 25 oarsmen beneath and 35 on the deck on either side for a dromon of 120 rowers. The overall length of these ships was probably about 32 meters. Although most contemporary vessels had a single mast (
1032:
about the specifics of the early Muslim warships, although it is usually assumed that their naval efforts drew upon the existing
Mediterranean maritime tradition. Given a largely shared nautical nomenclature, and the centuries-long interaction between the two cultures, Byzantine and Arab ships shared many similarities. This similarity also extended to tactics and general fleet organization; translations of
1863:, notably through the use of divers bearing incendiary devices. Both powers focusing their attention elsewhere, a truce was concluded between Byzantium and the Fatimids in 967, which curbed Byzantine naval activity in the West: the seas of Italy were left to the local Byzantine forces and the various Italian states until after 1025, when Byzantium again actively intervened in southern Italy and Sicily.
5253:. Contemporary sources make clear that it could not be extinguished by water, but rather floated and burned on top of it; sand could extinguish it by depriving it of oxygen, and several authors also mention strong vinegar and old urine as being able to extinguish it, presumably by some sort of chemical reaction. Consequently, felt or hides soaked in vinegar were used to provide protection against it.
2496:, which controlled the trade passing through Constantinople, and of securing the control of the Dardanelles against passage by the Turks. To that end, he enlisted the aid of the Venetians, but in March 1349, his newly built fleet of nine warships and about 100 smaller vessels were caught in a storm off the southern shore of Constantinople. The inexperienced crews panicked, and the ships were either
1991:(1042–1055), both the army and navy were reduced as military service was increasingly commuted in favour of cash payments, resulting in an increased dependency upon foreign mercenaries. The large thematic fleets declined and were replaced by small squadrons subject to the local military commanders, geared more towards the suppression of piracy than towards confronting a major maritime foe.
4779:
1136:, and 1,000 Coptic shipwrights were brought to construct a new fleet, which would challenge Byzantine control of the western Mediterranean. Thus, from the early 8th century on, Muslim raids unfolded unceasingly against Byzantine holdings in the Western Mediterranean, especially Sicily. In addition, the new fleet would allow the Muslims to complete their conquest of the
3479:) in return for pay or land estates. In the first half of the 10th century, the latter were calculated to be of the value of 2–3 pounds (0.91–1.36 kg) of gold for sailors and marines. Use was however made of prisoners of war and foreigners as well. Alongside the Mardaites, who formed a significant part of the fleet's crews, an enigmatic group known as the
2272:, was accused by Niketas Choniates of enriching himself by selling off the equipment of the imperial fleet, while by the early 13th century the authority of the central government had weakened to such an extent that various local potentates began seizing power in the provinces. The general atmosphere was one of lawlessness, which enabled men like
5219:). Although the use of incendiary chemicals by the Byzantines has been attested to since the early 6th century, the actual substance known as Greek fire is believed to have been created in 673 and is attributed to an engineer from Syria, named Kallinikos. The most common method of deployment was to emit the formula through a large bronze tube (
3392:, and were organized along similar lines. The Aegean thematic fleet numbered 2,610 oarsmen and 400 marines, the Cibyrrhaeot fleet stood at 5,710 oarsmen and 1,000 marines, the Samian fleet at 3,980 oarsmen and 600 marines, and finally, the Theme of Hellas furnished 2,300 oarsmen with a portion of its 2,000 thematic soldiers doubling as marines.
1786:. Appointed admiral in 904, he was unable to prevent the sack of Thessalonica, but he scored the first victory in 905 or 906, and in 910, he led a successful attack on Laodicea. The city was sacked and its hinterland plundered and ravaged without the loss of any ships. A year later, however, a huge expedition of 112 dromons and 75
5284:
against an unprepared enemy, its great destructive ability and psychological impact could prove decisive, as displayed repeatedly against the Rus'. Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, but the
Byzantines failed to use it against the Fourth Crusade, possibly because they had lost access to the areas (the
1267:
Umayyad state shortly thereafter and the increasing fragmentation of the Muslim world, the
Byzantine navy was left as the sole organized naval force in the Mediterranean. Thus, during the latter half of the 8th century, the Byzantines enjoyed a second period of complete naval superiority. It is no coincidence that in the many
4671:, and must therefore be used with care when trying to apply it to the warships of the middle Byzantine period. The existence of trireme vessels is, however, attested in the Fatimid navy in the 11th and 12th centuries, and references made by Leo VI to large Arab ships in the 10th century may also indicate trireme galleys.
2441:. As Gregoras commented, "if had remained masters of the seas, as they had been, then the Latins would not have grown so arrogant , nor would the Turks ever have gazed upon the sands of the sea, nor would we have to pay to everyone tribute every year." After 1305, bowing to popular pressure and the need to contain the
2501:
the Aegean, and scored some successes over
Turkish pirates, they were never able to stop their activities, let alone challenge the Italian navies for supremacy at sea. Lack of funds condemned the fleet to a mere handful of vessels maintained at Constantinople. It is characteristic that in his 1418 pamphlet to the
2398:), and defeated a Latin fleet of 20 galleys. This marked the first successful independent Byzantine naval operation and the beginning of an organized naval campaign in the Aegean that would continue throughout the 1270s and would result in the recapture, albeit briefly, of many islands from the Latins.
4617:
is said to have an even larger crew of 230 rowers and 70 marines; naval historian John H. Pryor considers them as supernumerary crews being carried aboard, while the Greek scholar
Christos Makrypoulias suggests that the extra men correspond to a second rower on each of the upper-bank oars. A smaller,
4426:
or early Roman period. Not only the triangular, but also the quadrilateral version were known, used for centuries (mostly on smaller craft) in parallel with square sails. Belisarius' invasion fleet of 533 was apparently at least partly fitted with lateen sails, making it probable that by the time the
3502:
gives the fleet lists for the expeditions against Crete of 911 and 949. These references have sparked a considerable debate as to their interpretation: thus the numbers given for the entire
Imperial Fleet in 949 can be interpreted as either 100, 150 or 250 ships, depending on the reading of the Greek
2424:
dwell long on the disastrous long-term effects of this short-sighted decision: piracy flourished, often augmented by the crews of the disbanded fleet who took service under
Turkish and Latin masters, Constantinople was rendered defenceless towards the Italian maritime powers, and more and more Aegean
4306:
are explicit in their references to the speed of these vessels. During the next few centuries, as the naval struggle with the Arabs intensified, heavier versions with two or possibly even three banks of oars evolved. Eventually, the term was used in the general sense of 'warship', and was often used
2381:
Following the recapture of Constantinople a few months later however, Michael VIII was able to focus his attention on building up his own fleet. In the early 1260s, the Byzantine navy was still weak and depended still greatly on Genoese aid. Even so, the allies were not able to stand up to Venice in
2170:
and settled for negotiations. Manuel sent a fleet of 150 ships under Kontostephanos to confront them there and employed delaying tactics, until, weakened by disease, the Venetians began to withdraw and were pursued by Kontostephanos' fleet. It was a remarkable reversal of fortunes, compared with the
2017:, barely a hundred miles south of Constantinople. Soon after, Turkish as well as Christian pirates appeared in the Aegean. The Byzantine thematic fleets, which once policed the seas, were by then so depleted by neglect and the successive civil wars that they were incapable of responding effectively.
1031:
of Egypt), which until a few years previously had provided ships and crews for the Byzantines. There is, however, evidence that in the new naval bases in Palestine shipwrights from Persia and Iraq were also employed. The lack of illustrations earlier than the 14th century means that nothing is known
5283:
Despite the somewhat exaggerated accounts of Byzantine writers, it was by no means a "wonder weapon", and did not avert some serious defeats. Given its limited range, and the need for a calm sea and favourable wind conditions, its usability was limited. Nevertheless, in favourable circumstances and
2798:'the Ships' Men') was created. The exact date is unknown, with suggestions ranging from the 650s/660s, in response to the Battle of the Masts, or following the first Arab siege of Constantinople in 672–678. Its origin is also unknown: it was recruited possibly from the remainders of the old
432:
fleets, while a central Imperial Fleet was maintained at Constantinople, guarding the city and forming the core of naval expeditions. By the late 8th century, the Byzantine navy, a well-organized and maintained force, was again the dominant maritime power in the Mediterranean. Conflicts with navies
5347:
It is clear nevertheless that the gradual decline of the indigenous Byzantine naval power in the 10th and 11th centuries, when it was eclipsed by the Italian city-states, chiefly Venice and later Genoa, was of great long-term significance for the fate of the Empire. The sack of the Fourth Crusade,
5262:
were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying. And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy
5092:
Unlike the warships of Antiquity, Byzantine and Arab ships did not feature rams, and the primary means of ship-to-ship combat were boarding actions and missile fire, as well as the use of inflammable materials such as Greek fire. Despite the fearsome reputation of the latter, it was only effective
4116:
At the same time, Michael and his successors continued the well-established practice of using foreigners in the fleet. Alongside the mistrusted Italian city-states, with whom alliances shifted regularly, mercenaries were increasingly employed in the last centuries of the Empire, often rewarded for
4014:
Despite their efforts, the Nicaean emperors failed to successfully challenge the Venetian domination of the seas, and were forced to turn to the Genoese for aid. After regaining Constantinople in 1261 however, Michael VIII initiated a great effort to lessen this dependence by building a "national"
3551:
warships, a number which was increased to 307 for the Cretan expedition of 960–961. According to Treadgold, the latter number probably represents the approximate standing strength of the entire Byzantine navy (including the smaller flotillas) in the 9th and 10th centuries. It is however noteworthy
3378:
Just as with its land counterpart, the exact size of the Byzantine navy and its units is a matter of considerable debate, owing to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. One exceptions are the numbers for the late 9th and early 10th century, for which we possess a more detailed
2500:
by the Genoese. Undeterred, Kantakouzenos launched another effort at building a fleet, which allowed him to re-establish Byzantine authority over Thessalonica and some coastal cities and islands. A core of this fleet was maintained at Constantinople, and although Byzantine ships remained active in
2231:
The period also saw the rise of piracy across the Eastern Mediterranean. The pirate activity was high in the Aegean, while pirate captains frequently offering themselves as mercenaries to one or the other of the region's powers, providing for the latter a quick and cheap way of raising a fleet for
404:
and later Africa, the Mediterranean was transformed from a "Roman lake" into a battleground between the Byzantines and a series of Muslim states. In this struggle, the Byzantine fleets were critical, not only for the defence of the Empire's far-flung possessions around the Mediterranean basin, but
4974:
When examining ancient and medieval naval operations, it is necessary to first understand the technological limitations of galley fleets. Galleys did not handle well in rough waters and could be swamped by waves, which would be catastrophic in the open sea; history is replete with instances where
4893:
The bireme Italian-style galleys remained the mainstay of Mediterranean fleets until the late 13th century, although again, contemporary descriptions provide little detail on their construction. From that point on, the galleys universally became trireme ships, i.e. with three men on a single bank
2106:
and into the Aegean almost unopposed. In the next year, with Venetian aid, an army accompanied by a very large fleet (allegedly 500 warships and 1,000 transports) was sent to recapture Corfu and the Ionian Islands from the Normans. In retaliation, a Norman fleet of 40 ships reached Constantinople
1363:
The Byzantine naval predominance lasted until the early 9th century when a succession of disasters at the hands of the resurgent Muslim fleets spelled its end and inaugurated an era that would represent the zenith of Muslim ascendancy. Already in 790, the Byzantines suffered a major defeat in the
1266:
The Byzantines followed this up with the destruction of the North African flotillas and coupled their successes at sea with severe trading limitations imposed on Muslim traders. Given the Empire's new ability to control the waterways, this strangled Muslim maritime trade. With the collapse of the
5037:
On the approach to and during an actual battle, a well-ordered formation was critical: if a fleet fell into disorder, its ships would be unable to lend support to each other and probably would be defeated. Fleets that failed to keep an ordered formation or that could not order themselves into an
3385:
of the Imperial Fleet. These four thousand marines were professional soldiers, first recruited as a corps by Basil I in the 870s. They were a great asset to the Imperial Fleet, for whereas previously it had depended on thematic and tagmatic soldiers for its marines, the new force provided a more
1612:
In the West, the Muslims continued to make steady advances, as the local Byzantine forces proved inadequate: the Empire was forced to rely on the aid of their nominal Italian subjects, and had to resort to the transfer of the eastern fleets to Italy to achieve any progress. Following the fall of
815:
Rome in 455. The Vandal raids continued unabated over the next two decades, despite repeated Roman attempts to defeat them. The Western Empire was impotent, its navy having dwindled to almost nothing, but the eastern emperors could still call upon the resources and naval expertise of the eastern
4339:
The appearance and evolution of medieval warships is a matter of debate and conjecture: until recently, no remains of an oared warship from either ancient or early medieval times had been found, and information had to be gathered by analyzing literary evidence, crude artistic depictions and the
2869:
however proved inadequate and were replaced in the early 8th century by a more complex system composed of three elements, which with minor alterations survived until the 11th century: a central imperial fleet based at Constantinople, a small number of large regional naval commands, either naval
2369:
in 1241, the Nicaeans were again routed. Nicaean efforts during the 1230s to support a local rebellion in Crete against Venice were also only partially successful, with the last Nicaean troops being forced to leave the island in 1236. Aware of the weakness of his navy, in March 1261 the Emperor
2203:
After the death of Manuel I and the subsequent demise of the Komnenian dynasty in 1185, the navy declined swiftly. The maintenance of galleys and the upkeep of proficient crews were very expensive, and neglect led to a rapid deterioration of the fleet. Already by 1182 the Byzantines had to pay
1254:
fleets, largely motivated by resentment against the Emperor's iconoclasm, was put down by the imperial fleet through the use of Greek fire. Despite the losses this entailed, some 390 warships were reportedly sent to attack Damietta in 739, and in 746 the Byzantines decisively defeated the
2596:
Very little is known about the organization of the Roman fleets of late Antiquity, from the gradual break-up of the large provincial fleets into smaller squadrons in the 3rd century to the formation of a new navy at the onset of the Muslim conquests. Despite the evidence of considerable naval
1970:
Throughout most of the 11th century, the Byzantine navy faced few challenges. The Muslim threat had receded, as their navies declined and relations between the Fatimids, especially, and the Empire were largely peaceful. The last Arab raid against imperial territory was recorded in 1035 in the
469:
even dissolved the navy completely, allowing Venice to defeat the Byzantines in two wars, the first of which resulted in a humiliating treaty that saw the Venetians keep multiple islands captured from Byzantine forces during the war and forced the latter to repay Venice for the destruction of
5171:
in Greek) became increasingly important in Mediterranean warfare, remaining the most deadly weapon available until the advent of fully rigged ships with gunpowder artillery. The Byzantines made infrequent use of the weapon, chiefly in sieges, although its use is recorded in some sea battles.
4809:
continued in use until the late 12th century, although Byzantine writers were indiscriminate in their use of it. Contemporary Western writers used the term to denote large ships, usually transports, and there is evidence to support the idea that this usage had also spread to the Byzantines.
2661:
basis and then disbanded. The first permanent Byzantine fleet can be traced to the early 6th century and the revolt of Vitalian in 513–515, when Anastasius I created a fleet to counter the rebels' own. This fleet was retained and under Justinian I and his successors it was developed into a
1629:, in the early 880s they established bases along the western Italian coast, from where they would not be completely dislodged until 915. In 878, Syracuse, the main Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, was attacked again and fell, largely because the Imperial Fleet was occupied with transporting
5060:, XIX.52), a crescent formation seems to have been the norm, with the flagship in the centre and the heavier ships at the horns of the formation, in order to turn the enemy's flanks. A range of variants and other tactics and counter-tactics was available, depending on the circumstances.
2216:(1185–1195 and 1203–1204) with Venice the next year, in which the Republic would provide 40–100 galleys at six months' notice in exchange for favourable trading concessions, is a telling indication that the Byzantine government was aware of the inadequacy of its own naval establishment.
4814:'s description of the Byzantine fleet in 1169, where "dromons" are classed as very large transports, and the warships with two oar banks are set apart from them, may thus indeed indicate the adoption of the new bireme galley types by the Byzantines. From the 13th century on, the term
3470:
were not used as oarsmen, either by the Byzantines or the Arabs, or by their Roman and Greek predecessors. Throughout the existence of the Empire, Byzantine crews consisted of mostly lower-class freeborn men, who were professional soldiers, legally obliged to perform military service
2345:, each claiming the Byzantine imperial title. The former did not maintain a fleet, the Trapezuntine navy was minuscule and mostly used for patrols and transporting troops, while the Nicaeans initially followed a policy of consolidation and used their fleet for coastal defence. Under
1415:
exiles. Three successive Byzantine recovery attempts failed over the next few years, and the island became a base for Muslim piratical activity in the Aegean, radically upsetting the balance of power in the region. Despite some Byzantine successes over the Cretan corsairs, and the
3379:
breakdown, dated to the Cretan expedition of 911. These lists reveal that during the reign of Leo VI the Wise, the navy reached 34,200 oarsmen and perhaps as many as 8,000 marines. The central Imperial Fleet totalled some 19,600 oarsmen and 4,000 marines under the command of the
5032:
The Byzantine fleet repels the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941. Boarding actions and hand-to-hand fighting determined the outcome of most naval battles in the Middle Ages. Here the Byzantine dromons are shown rolling over the Rus' vessels and smashing their oars with their
2453:
in 1453. Several emperors after Andronikos II also tried to re-build a fleet, especially in order to secure the security and hence the independence of Constantinople itself from the interference of the Italian maritime powers, but their efforts produced only short-term results.
1511:
During the course of the later 9th and the 10th century, as the Caliphate fractured into smaller states and Arab power became weakened, the Byzantines launched a series of successful campaigns against them. This "Byzantine Reconquest" was overseen by the able sovereigns of the
5235:) are also mentioned as a method of pouring combustibles onto enemy ships. Usually the mixture would be stored in heated, pressurized barrels and projected through the tube by some sort of pump while the operators were sheltered behind large iron shields. A portable version (
5140:) for protection and fought with bows and crossbows. The importance and volume of missile fire during sea combat can be gauged from the fleet manifests for the Cretan expeditions of the 10th century, which mention 10,000 caltrops, 50 bows and 10,000 arrows, 20 hand-carried
4832:, meaning 'detailed to/owing a service'), a late-11th century term which originally applied to the crews, who were drawn from populations detailed to military service. During the latter period of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine ships were based on Western models: the term
4413:
construction method, against which rams had been designed, into the skeleton-first method, which produced a stronger and more flexible hull, less susceptible to ram attacks. Certainly by the early 7th century, the ram's original function had been forgotten, if we judge by
2632:, IV.31) and even the remaining western provincial fleets appear to have been seriously understrength and incapable of countering any significant barbarian attack. In the East, the Syrian and Alexandrian fleets are known from legal sources to have still existed in c. 400 (
1426:"During that time the Muslims gained control over the whole Mediterranean. Their power and domination over it was vast. The Christian nations could do nothing against the Muslim fleets, anywhere in the Mediterranean. All the time, the Muslims rode its wave for conquest."
943:, the Byzantines maintained control of the seas around the peninsula. As the Lombards rarely ventured to sea, the Byzantines were able to retain several coastal strips of Italian territory for centuries. The only major naval action of the next 80 years occurred during the
1889:
with the words "I alone command the sea". A few raids and naval clashes occurred as antagonism with the Fatimids mounted in the late 990s, but peaceful relations were restored soon after, and the Eastern Mediterranean remained relatively calm for several decades to come.
2597:
activity in this period, earlier scholars believed that the Roman navy had all but vanished by the 4th century, but more recent work has altered this picture towards a transformation into a mainly fluvial and coastal force, designed for close co-operation with the army.
1855:, but another expedition in 956 and the loss of an Ifriqiyan fleet in a storm in 958 temporarily stabilized the situation in the peninsula. In 962, the Fatimids launched an assault on the remaining Byzantine strongholds on Sicily; Taormina fell on Christmas Day 962 and
3974:
With the decline of the Byzantine fleet in the latter 12th century, the Empire increasingly relied on the fleets of Venice and Genoa. Following the sack of 1204 however, sources suggest the presence of a relatively strong fleet already under the first Nicaean emperor,
3552:
that a significant drop in the numbers of ships and men attached to the thematic fleets is evident between 911 and 949. This drop, which reduced the size of thematic fleets from a third to a quarter of the total navy, was partly due to the increased use of the lighter
3038:. Being located closest to the Muslim Levant, it remained the Empire's principal naval fleet for centuries, until it was reduced with the decline of the Arab naval threat. The fleet is last mentioned in 1043, and thereafter the theme became a purely civilian province.
3519:
however, it can also be read simply as "unit" or "ship". The number of 150 seems more compatible with the numbers recorded elsewhere, and is accepted by most scholars, although they differ as to the composition of the fleet. Makrypoulias interprets the number as 8
1719:. The Bulgarian war produced several costly defeats, while at the same time the Arab naval threat reached new heights, with successive raids devastating the shores of Byzantium's naval heartland, the Aegean Sea. In 891 or 893, the Arab fleet sacked the island of
3994:) as well as the transport and supply of armies fighting in the Balkans, and the Sea of Marmara, where the Nicaeans aimed to interdict Latin shipping and threaten Constantinople. Smyrna provided the main shipyard and base for the Aegean, with a secondary one at
2053:
Alexios inevitably realized the importance of having his own fleet, and despite his preoccupation with land operations, he took steps to re-establish the navy's strength. His efforts bore some success, especially in countering the attempts by Turkish emirs like
2682:. The long-established naval tradition and infrastructure of those areas made the maintenance of the fleet easier, and, in the event of a naval expedition, a large fleet could be quickly and inexpensively assembled by impressing the numerous merchant vessels.
5288:
and the eastern coast of the Black Sea) where the primary ingredients were to be found. The Arabs fielded their own 'liquid fire' after 835, but it is unknown if they used the Byzantine formula, possibly obtained through espionage or through the defection of
828:, and the financial cost of 130,000 pounds of gold and 700,000 pounds of silver nearly bankrupted the Empire. This forced the Romans to come to terms with Geiseric and to sign a peace treaty. After Geiseric's death in 477, however, the Vandal threat receded.
2179:
and many important nobles of the Kingdom of Jerusalem refused to participate in the campaign. However, by the end of Manuel's reign, the strains of constant warfare on all fronts and the Emperor's various grandiose projects had become evident: the historian
908:, created a fleet of 400 warships with which to deny the seas around Italy to the Empire. Two Byzantine fleets were destroyed near Naples in 542, and in 546, Belisarius personally commanded 200 ships against the Gothic fleet that blockaded the mouths of the
2094:(1143–1180), who used it extensively as a powerful tool of foreign policy in his relations with the Latin and Muslim states of the Eastern Mediterranean. During the early years of his reign, the Byzantine naval forces were still weak: in 1147, the fleet of
2461:(1328–1341), immediately after his accession, with the help of contributions from various magnates, assembled a large fleet of reportedly 105 vessels. This he personally led in the last major foray of a Byzantine navy in the Aegean, recovering Chios and
5068:, which decided the outcome. Once the enemy strength was judged to have been reduced sufficiently, the fleets closed in, the ships grappled each other, and the marines and upper bank oarsmen boarded the enemy vessel and engaged in hand-to-hand combat.
5344:, all this meant that, as in the Roman Empire, the navy, even at its height, was still regarded largely as an adjunct to the land forces. This fact is clearly illustrated by the relatively lowly positions its admirals held in the imperial hierarchy.
5134:, XIX.61–65). Marines and the upper-bank oarsmen were heavily armoured in preparation for battle (Leo referred to them as "cataphracts") and armed with close-combat arms such as lances and swords, while the other sailors wore padded felt jackets (
4418:'s comments that they were used to protect against collision with underwater rocks. As for the lateen sail, various authors have in the past suggested that it was introduced into the Mediterranean by the Arabs, possibly with an ultimate origin in
757:
By the late 5th century, the Western Mediterranean had fallen into the hands of barbarian kingdoms. The conquests of Justinian I restored Roman control over the entire sea, which would last until the Muslim conquests in the latter half of the 7th
2473:
on the Sea of Marmara, from where they raided the coasts of Thrace. To defend against this new threat, towards the end of Andronikos III's reign a fleet of some 70 ships was built at Constantinople to oppose the Turkish raids, and headed by the
2041:
Byzantium's lack of a navy meant that Venice could regularly extort economic privileges, determine whether invaders, such as the Normans or Crusaders entered the Empire, and parry any Byzantine attempts to restrict Venetian commercial or naval
2448:
In the 14th century, recurrent civil wars, attacks from Bulgaria and Serbia in the Balkans and the devastation caused by ever-increasing Turkish raids hastened the collapse of the Byzantine state, which would culminate in its final fall to the
4655:
in particular seems to have been strongly associated with the Mardaites, and Christos Makrypoulias even suggests that the ship was exclusively used by them. Three-banked ('trireme') dromons are described in a 9th-century work dedicated to the
3781:. Although some of these senior officers were professional seamen, having risen from the ranks, most fleet commanders were high court officials, who would have relied on their more experienced professional subordinates for nautical expertise.
774:(264 to 146 BC), no longer occurred, and the Roman fleets comprised relatively small vessels, best suited to their new tasks. By the early 4th century AD, the permanent Roman fleets had dwindled, so that when the fleets of the rival emperors
1241:
and an army driving the Arabs from Asia Minor. For the next three decades, naval warfare featured constant raids from both sides, with the Byzantines launching repeated attacks against the Muslim naval bases in Syria (Laodicea), and Egypt
4462:), the larger bireme dromons probably needed at least two masts in order to manoeuvre effectively, assuming that a single lateen sail for a ship this size would have reached unmanageable dimensions. The ship was steered by means of two
3934:
After the decline of the navy in the 11th century, Alexios I rebuilt it on different lines. Since the thematic fleets had all but vanished, their remnants were amalgamated into a unified imperial fleet, under the new office of the
1698:
The sack of Thessalonica by the Arabs under Leo of Tripoli in 904, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. It was the most serious of a renewed wave of piratical raids by the Muslim navies in the Aegean Sea during Leo VI's
470:
Constantinople's Venetian quarter at the hands of the city's Genoese residents. By the mid-14th century, the Byzantine fleet, which once could put hundreds of warships to sea, was limited to a few dozen at best, and control of the
3369:
and "Bulgaria" (whose area of control is identified by Ahrweiler with the mouths of the Danube). These vanished by the end of the 9th century, either succumbing to Arab attacks or being reformed or incorporated into themes.
5351:
When viewing the entire course of Byzantine history, the waxing and waning of the navy's strength closely mirrors the fluctuation of the Empire's fortunes. It is this apparent interrelation that led the French Byzantinist
2519:
Henceforth, the impoverished Byzantine state became a pawn of the great powers of the day, trying to survive by exploiting their rivalries. Thus, for instance, in 1351, Kantakouzenos was induced to side with Venice in its
2130:
Alexios Komnenos Bryennios, the expedition was ultimately defeated in 1156, and 4 Byzantine ships were captured. By 1169, the efforts of Manuel had evidently borne fruit, as a large and purely Byzantine fleet of about 150
4163:) was introduced. The term had already entered Byzantine usage through contact with the Kingdom of Naples and other Western nations, but was rarely used; it was adopted as part of the imperial hierarchy, coming after the
4133:(successor of de lo Cavo in Rhodes) and Benedetto Zaccaria (lord of Chios and Phocaea), were Genoese, the Byzantines' major ally in the period. Under Michael VIII, for the first time a foreigner, the Italian privateer
1010:
created a new threat to Byzantium. Not only did the Arabs conquer significant recruiting and revenue-producing areas, but, after the utility of a strong navy was demonstrated by the short-lived Byzantine recapture of
440:
During the 11th century, the navy, like the Empire itself, began to decline. Faced with new naval challenges from the West, the Byzantines were increasingly forced to rely on the navies of Italian city-states such as
3761:, the commander of the imperial bodyguard. His title is still found in the Komnenian era, albeit as commander of the imperial escort squadron, and survived until the Palaiologan era, being listed in the 14th-century
2754:, each theme maintained its own, locally levied forces. Following a series of revolts by thematic forces, under Constantine V the larger early themes were progressively broken up, while a central imperial army, the
2204:
Venetian mercenaries to crew some of their galleys, but in the 1180s, as the bulk of the Komnenian naval establishment persisted, expeditions of 70–100 ships are still recorded in contemporary sources. Thus Emperor
395:
galley in the same period also marks the point when the Byzantine navy began departing from its late Roman roots and developing its own characteristic identity. This process would be furthered with the onset of the
2445:, the Emperor belatedly tried to rebuild the navy of 20 vessels, but although a few ships were built and a small fleet appears to have been active over the next couple of years, it eventually was disbanded again.
2050:, a veteran naval commander of previous decades. Together with the Venetians, he initially prevailed over the Norman fleet, but the joint fleet was caught off guard and defeated by the Normans off Corfu in 1084.
5063:
Once the fleets were close enough, exchanges of missiles began, ranging from combustible projectiles to arrows and javelins. The aim was not to sink ships, but to deplete the ranks of the enemy crews before the
3892:
in the imperial barges, and later assumed still higher offices; Emperor Romanos Lekapenos being the most successful example. There were also a number of specialists on board, such as the two bow oarsmen and the
1420:
of Damietta by a Byzantine fleet of 85 ships in 853, Arab naval power in the Levant was steadily reviving under Abbasid rule. Further Byzantine attempts to recover Crete, in 843 and 866, were complete failures.
1473:
failed to dislodge the Muslims from Italy, while two large-scale Byzantine attempts to recover Sicily were heavily defeated in 840 and 859. By 850, the Muslim fleets, together with large numbers of independent
1540:. His patronage of the fleet resulted in several successes and was long remembered by the sailors, forming strong ties of loyalty to the Macedonian dynasty that was felt up until the reign of his grandson,
5019:) of sailing vessels and oared transports, which would be sent away in the event of battle. The battle fleet was divided into squadrons, and orders were transmitted from ship to ship through signal flags (
2291:. When Alexios III and Stryphnos were alerted to the fact that the Crusade was sailing for Constantinople, only 20 "wretched and decayed" vessels could be found, according to Niketas Choniates. During the
1081:
of 655. This catastrophic Byzantine defeat opened up the Mediterranean to the Arabs and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean waterways. From the reign of
1662:. At the same time, another Byzantine squadron scored a significant victory at Naples. These successes allowed a short-lived Byzantine counter-offensive to develop in the West in the 870s and 880s under
1407:, which attracted the support of a large part of the Byzantine armed forces, including the thematic fleets. Despite its suppression, the revolt had severely depleted the Empire's defences. As a result,
3564:
proper, and partly due to financial and manpower difficulties. It is also indicative of a general trend that would lead to the complete disappearance of the provincial fleets by the late 11th century.
770:
in 31 BC, in the absence of any external threat in the Mediterranean, the Roman navy performed mostly policing and escort duties. Massive sea battles, like those fought centuries before in the
4403:
manuscript may well illustrate that the ram had already been replaced by a spur in late antique galleys. One possibility is that the change occurred because of the gradual evolution of the ancient
1319:) to shift the fleet from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea during his campaigns against the Bulgars in the 760s. In 763, a fleet of 800 ships carrying 9,600 cavalries and some infantry sailed to
3386:
reliable, better trained and immediately available force at the Emperor's disposal. The high status of these marines is illustrated by the fact that they were considered to belong to the imperial
3572:
Although naval themes were organized much the same way as their land counterparts, there is some confusion in the Byzantine sources as to the exact rank structure. The usual term for admiral was
4357:
The accepted view is that the main developments which differentiated the early dromons from the liburnians, and that henceforth characterized Mediterranean galleys, were the adoption of a full
2646:), while a fleet is known to have been stationed at Constantinople itself, perhaps created out of the remnants of the praetorian fleets. In 400 it was sufficient to slaughter a large number of
1859:
was besieged. In response, a major Byzantine expedition was launched in 964 but ended in disaster. The Fatimids defeated the Byzantine army before Rametta and then annihilated the fleet at the
4565:
By the 10th century, there were three main classes of bireme (two oar-banks) warships of the general dromon type, as detailed in the inventories for the Cretan expeditions of 911 and 949: the
3515:) is also a subject of confusion: traditionally, it is held to have been a standard complement of 108 men, and that more than one could be present aboard a single ship. In the context of the
2390:, by 1270 Michael's efforts had produced a strong navy of 80 ships, with several Latin privateers sailing under imperial colours. In the same year, a fleet of 24 galleys besieged the town of
4527:
ships uncovered in the Yenikapi excavations, dating to the 10th–11th centuries, are of uniform design and construction, suggesting a centralized manufacturing process. They have a length of
2066:, Alexios was able to regain the coasts of Western Anatolia and expand his influence eastwards: in 1104, a Byzantine squadron of 10 ships captured Laodicea and other coastal towns as far as
3252:). Once the bastion of Byzantine naval strength in the West, by the late 9th century it had greatly diminished in strength and disappeared after the final loss of Taormina in 902. Distinct
12348:
4105:
of Gallipoli formed the bulk of the crews of the first Ottoman fleets after the Ottomans captured the area. Throughout the Palaiologan period, the fleet's main base was the harbour of
2552:, when it defeated Musa's attempt to blockade the city by sea as well. Likewise, in 1421, 10 Byzantine warships were engaged in support of the Ottoman pretender Mustafa against Sultan
1090:
of Constantinople, the Byzantine fleet proved instrumental to the survival of the Empire: the Arab fleets were defeated through the use of its newly developed secret weapon, known as "
12020:
Christides, Vassilios (1995), "Byzantine Dromon and Arab Shini: The Development of the Average Byzantine and Arab Warships and the Problem of the Number and Function of the Oarsmen",
5325:
It is not easy to assess the importance of the Byzantine navy to the Empire's history. On one hand, the Empire, throughout its life, had to defend a long coastline, often with little
3874:). In actual terms, there probably were several of each kind of officer upon each ship, working in shifts. Most of these officers rose from the ranks, and there are references in the
2942:
dated the fleet's creation to the early 9th century. From that point on, the Imperial Fleet formed the main naval reserve force and provided the core of various expeditionary fleets.
2025:
At this point, the sorry state of the Byzantine fleet had dire consequences. The Norman invasion could not be forestalled, and their army seized Corfu, landed unopposed in Epirus and
1182:. They did react with raids of their own in the East, such as the one in 709 against Egypt which captured the local admiral, but they also were aware of a coming onslaught: as Caliph
2251:, finally forced the Angeloi to action. The fleet tax was once again levied from the coastal regions and a navy of 30 ships was equipped, which was entrusted to the Calabrian pirate
2184:
attributes the rise of piracy in the latter years of Manuel's reign to the diversion of the funds intended for the maintenance of the fleet for other needs of the imperial treasury.
4938:. Despite their sometimes antiquarian terminology, these texts form the basis of our knowledge on Byzantine naval affairs. The main surviving texts are the chapters on sea combat (
2321:
Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. He restored the Byzantine Empire by recapturing Constantinople, and was responsible for the last flourishing of Byzantium as a major naval power.
2005:, which had expelled the Byzantines from Southern Italy and had conquered Sicily, was now casting its eye on the Byzantine Adriatic coasts and beyond. In the East, the disastrous
1994:
By the last quarter of the 11th century, the Byzantine navy was a shadow of its former self, having declined through neglect, the incompetence of its officers, and lack of funds.
1983:, no major naval expeditions were undertaken either. Inevitably, this long period of peace and prosperity led to complacency and neglect of the military. Already in the reign of
5044:) to match that of the enemy, often avoided, or broke off from battle. Tactical manoeuvres were therefore intended to disrupt the enemy formation, including the use of various
13058:
4422:. However, the discovery of new depictions and literary references in recent decades has led scholars to antedate the appearance of the lateen sail in the Levant to the late
3213:. Justinian settled 6,500 Mardaites there, who provided oarsmen and garrisons. While not exclusively a naval theme, it maintained its own fleet. It was split in 809 into the
4179:
and Andrea Morisco, both from 1303 to 1305, although the rank continued to be mentioned in various lists of offices long after that. Thus, according to the mid-14th century
2532:(1391–1425) was able to gather only five galleys and four smaller vessels (including some from the Hospitallers of Rhodes) to recapture Constantinople and rescue his father
1954:
of the fleet should investigate with rigor the slightest thing which is done to the fleet. For when the fleet is reduced to nothingness, you shall be overthrown and fall."
3485:(possibly Dalmatians) appears in the Cretan expeditions, as well as many Rus', who were given the right to serve in the Byzantine armed forces in a series of 10th-century
1237:
In the aftermath of the siege, the retreating remains of the Arab fleet were decimated in a storm, and Byzantine forces launched a counter-offensive, with a fleet sacking
5332:
On the other hand, the nature and limitations of the maritime technology of the age meant that the neither the Byzantines nor any of their opponents could develop a true
4077:), apart as a separate corps. All these groups received small grants of land to cultivate in exchange for their service, and were settled together in small colonies. The
4982:
Medieval Mediterranean naval warfare was therefore essentially coastal and amphibious in nature, carried out to seize coastal territory or islands, and not to exercise "
3739:, and ahead of various senior military and civil officials. He was also notable in not being classed with the other military commanders, whether of the themes or of the
816:
Mediterranean. A first Eastern expedition in 448, however, went no further than Sicily, and in 460, the Vandals attacked and destroyed a Western Roman invasion fleet at
2524:, but, abandoned by the Venetian admirals, his fleet was easily defeated by the Genoese and he was forced to sign an unfavourable peace. During the brief usurpation of
4589:( πάμφυλον), crewed with up to 120–160 men, its name either implying an origin in the region of Pamphylia as a transport ship or its crewing with "picked crews" (from
4430:
The dromons that Procopius describes were single-banked ships of probably 50 oars, arranged with 25 oars on each side. Again unlike Hellenistic vessels, which used an
2212:. However, the subsequent peace treaty included a clause that required the Normans to furnish a fleet for the Empire. This, together with a similar agreement made by
684:
2878:
The capital's navy had played a central role in the repulsion of the Arab sieges of Constantinople, but the exact date of the establishment of the Imperial Fleet (
1941:
5205:"Greek fire" was the name given by Western Europeans to the flammable concoction used by the Byzantines, so called because the Europeans viewed the Byzantines as
4884:, although for a time both continued to be used. No construction differences are mentioned between the two, with both terms referring to horse-carrying vessels (
2850:
in Cilicia, the Aegean islands and the imperial holdings in southern Greece. Its headquarters was initially perhaps at Samos, with a subordinate command under a
12021:
5176:
were introduced in the latter half of the 14th century, but they were rarely used by the Byzantines, who only had a few artillery pieces for the defence of the
1735:
as prisoners. These losses denuded Byzantine defences, opening the Aegean up to raids by the Syrian fleets. The first heavy blow came in 901, when the renegade
2984:
fleet, and assigned to the administration and defence of the southern coasts of Asia Minor. The exact date of its creation is unclear, with one view proposing
1831:
manuscript. Nikephoros Phokas led a huge amphibious operation which recovered Crete for the Empire, thus securing the Aegean Sea from the Muslim pirate threat.
13291:
6779:
4506:), on which marines could hang their shields, ran around the sides of the ship, providing protection to the deck crew. Larger ships also had wooden castles (
3166:). They played an intermediate role between the large thematic fleets and the central Imperial Fleet: they were permanent squadrons with professional crews (
2386:
of a combined Byzantine–Genoese fleet of 48 ships by a much smaller Venetian fleet in 1263. Taking advantage of the Italians' preoccupation with the ongoing
2171:
humiliation of 1125. In 1177, another fleet of 70 galleys and 80 auxiliary ships under Kontostephanos, destined for Egypt, returned home after appearing off
4500:), below which the siphon for the discharge of Greek fire projected, although secondary siphons could also be carried amidships on either side. A pavesade (
4268:
of the imperial Roman fleets, the term first appears in the late 5th century, and was commonly used for a specific kind of war-galley by the 6th. The term
2604:(284–305), the navy's strength reportedly increased from 46,000 men to 64,000 men, a figure that represents the numerical peak of the late Roman navy. The
1796:, not only failed to recover the island, but on its return voyage, it was ambushed and comprehensively defeated by Leo of Tripoli off Chios (October 912).
5263:
through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire."
11685:
Pryor, John H. (2003), "Byzantium and the Sea: Byzantine Fleets and the History of the Empire in the Age of the Macedonian Emperors, c. 900–1025 CE", in
4512:) on either side between the masts, similar to those attested for the Roman liburnians, providing archers with elevated firing platforms. The bow spur (
2416:
Andronikos' decision aroused considerable opposition and criticism from contemporary scholars and officials almost from the outset, and historians like
3862:
were helmsmen, in charge of the steering oars in the stern, as well as of the rowers on either side of the ship. The senior of the two was the "first
2860:. As its name suggests, it comprised most of the Empire's standing navy, and faced the principal maritime threat, the Arab fleets of Egypt and Syria.
2650:
who had built rafts and tried to cross the strip of sea that separates Asia from Europe. Its size, however, is unknown, and it does not appear in the
12271:
11374:
McMahon, Lucas (2021). "Logistical modelling of a sea-borne expedition in the Mediterranean: the case of the Byzantine invasion of Crete in AD 960".
4109:
on the Marmara shore of Constantinople, dredged and refortified by Michael VIII. Among the provincial naval centres, probably the most important was
10961:]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). Vol. I. Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert. pp. 535–562.
12155:
Kollias, Taxiarchis G. (1999), "Die byzantinische Kriegsmarine. Ihre Bedeutung im Verteidigungssystem von Byzanz", in Chrysos, Evangelos K. (ed.),
2075:
901:. Byzantine control of the sea was of great strategic importance, allowing the smaller Byzantine army to successfully occupy the peninsula by 540.
2046:
In the clashes with the Normans through the 1080s, the only effective Byzantine naval force was a squadron commanded, and possibly maintained, by
1485:
The same period, when a battered Byzantium defended itself against enemies on all fronts, also saw the emergence of a new, unexpected threat: the
897:
began with a double-pronged Byzantine offensive, with a fleet again carrying Belisarius' army to Sicily and then Italy, and another army invading
2516:
advises against the maintenance of a navy, on the grounds that resources were insufficient to adequately maintain both it and an effective army.
2284:(1195–1203) is said to have licensed one of his commanders, Constantine Phrangopoulos, to launch pirate raids against commerce in the Black Sea.
4762:
had a single mast, four oars and a rudder. In the earlier years of the empire, shipbuilding wood for transport and supply ships was mainly from
2492:(1347–1354) tried to restore the navy and merchant fleet, as a means of both reducing the Empire's economic dependency on the Genoese colony of
1617:
in 855, the Byzantines were confined to the eastern shore of Sicily, and under increasing pressure. A relief expedition in 868 achieved little.
1204:) prepared the capital, and mounted an unsuccessful pre-emptive strike against the Muslim naval preparations. Anastasios was soon overthrown by
14211:
14167:
12521:
12422:
12170:
5245:. The means of its production was kept a state secret, and its components are only roughly guessed or described through secondary sources like
4901:
2465:
from the Genoese and forcing various smaller Latin and Turkish principalities to come to terms with him. His campaigns against the Ottomans in
2312:
462:
2775:
A similar process was followed in the fleet, which was organized along similar lines. In the second half of the 7th century, the fleet of the
1811:, coupled with the death of Damian during a siege of a Byzantine fortress in the next year, marked the beginning of the Byzantine resurgence.
13855:
12432:
12365:
3486:
2643:
2232:
particular expeditions, without the costs of a standing navy. Thus a Byzantine fleet of 66 vessels sent by Isaac II to recapture Cyprus from
1506:
1049:
which ignited the Arab ships and burned them with all hands. Thus it was that the Romans returned with victory and discovered the sea fire."
505:
4914:
Little is known on particular Byzantine ships during the period. The accounts of the 1437 journey by sea of the Byzantine delegation to the
4667:. However, this treatise, which survives only in fragments, draws heavily upon references on the appearance and construction of a Classical
3960:
was also appointed as overall governor of southern Greece, the old themes of Hellas and the Peloponnese, which were divided into districts (
3544:
squadron. As for the total size of the Byzantine navy in this period, Warren Treadgold extrapolates a total, including the naval themes, of
2639:
2227:
to the Fourth Crusade marked the triumph of the Latin West, and especially the Venetian maritime power, over the enfeebled Byzantine Empire.
12380:
12375:
2710:
In response to the Arab conquests during the 7th century, the whole administrative and military system of the Empire was reformed, and the
2252:
985:
725:
1465:. Venetian operations against them were unsuccessful, and throughout the 840s, the Arabs were freely raiding Italy and the Adriatic, even
1073:
in 649 and raiding Rhodes, Crete and Sicily, the young Arab navy decisively defeated the Byzantines under the personal command of Emperor
13456:
12442:
12417:
5356:
to remark: "The epochs of dominion are those in which it held control of the sea, and it was when it lost it, that its reverses began."
4934:
The Byzantines took care to codify, preserve and pass on the lessons of warfare at land and sea from past experience, through the use of
3731:, 'grand'). Originally very lowly ranked, the office rose quickly in the hierarchy: by 899 he was placed immediately before or after the
3172:), maintained by resources from the imperial treasury and not the province they were stationed in, but subordinate to the local thematic
2576:
1918:
1153:
454:
3608:, corresponding to 'rear admiral'). Until the mid-9th century, the governors of the themes of the Aegean and Samos are also recorded as
3395:
The following table contains estimates, by Warren T. Treadgold, of the number of oarsmen over the entire history of the Byzantine navy:
2762:, was created, stationed at or near Constantinople, serving as a central reserve that henceforth formed the core of campaigning armies.
2540:; twenty years later, he personally commanded 4 galleys and 2 other vessels carrying some infantry and cavalry, and saved the island of
2259:. A second fleet, augmented by Pisan vessels and again commanded by Steiriones, was finally able to defeat Kaphoures and end his raids.
859:
revolted against Anastasius. The rebels assembled a fleet of 200 ships which, despite some initial successes, were destroyed by admiral
13807:
13790:
12447:
12427:
12042:
10632:
4427:
lateen had become the standard rig for the dromon, with the traditional square sail gradually falling from use in medieval navigation.
2410:
2198:
1716:
1170:. Together, they spearheaded a revival of Byzantine fortunes against the Arabs, but also caused great internal strife because of their
313:
3347:
Isolated regions of particular importance for the control of the major sea-lanes were covered by separate officials with the title of
1686:
in 888, however, signalled the virtual disappearance of major Byzantine naval activity in the seas around Italy for the next century.
437:
continued with alternating success, but in the 10th century, the Byzantines were able to gain supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean.
13506:
13352:
13324:
12968:
12960:
12437:
12370:
4518:) was intended to ride over an enemy ship's oars, breaking them and rendering it helpless against missile fire and boarding actions.
4348:(modern Yenikapi) uncover the remains of over 36 Byzantine ships from the 6th to 10th centuries, including four light galleys of the
1875:
inflicted a crushing defeat on the Tarsiot fleet, opening the way for another grand expedition to recover Crete. It was entrusted to
1482:
raiders, had emerged as the major power of the Mediterranean, putting the Byzantines and the Christians in general on the defensive.
1178:
The Byzantines were unable to respond effectively to the Muslim advance in Africa because the two decades between 695 and 715 were a
1230:. The use of Greek fire, which devastated the Arab fleet, was again instrumental in the Byzantine victory, while a harsh winter and
13702:
13063:
694:
656:
4053:), were used as marines, forming the bulk of Byzantine naval manpower in the 1260s and 1270s. Michael also set the rowers, called
13551:
3777:
is also mentioned for the Imperial Fleet, but his role is unclear from the sources. He may have held a post similar to that of a
2497:
1898:
1403:
The Byzantines, on the other hand, were weakened by a series of catastrophic defeats against the Bulgars, followed in 820 by the
2706:. The scattered and isolated imperial possessions around the Mediterranean were defended and reinforced by the Byzantine fleets.
14031:
13556:
2938:; and as there is little evidence for major fleets operating from Constantinople during the 8th century, the Greek Byzantinist
1897:
in 941 was destroyed by 15 hastily assembled old ships equipped with Greek fire, and the navy played an important role in the
1445:
The situation was even worse in the West. A critical blow was inflicted on the Empire in 827, as the Aghlabids began the slow
13955:
12715:
12708:
12264:
12120:
Seekrieg und Seepolitik zwischen Islam und Abendland: das Mittelmeer unter byzantinischer und arabischer Hegemonie (650-1040)
11970:
11922:
11782:
11716:
11608:
11562:
11541:
11520:
11499:
11462:
11332:
11312:
11294:
11231:
11147:
11109:
11055:
11028:
10799:
10678:
10580:
10472:
5341:
3713:
The Imperial Fleet was a different case, as it was not tied to the thematic administration, but was considered as one of the
1552:(867–886) heralded this revival, as he embarked on an aggressive foreign policy. Continuing the policies of his predecessor,
1227:
1124:
in the 680s and 690s. The last Byzantine stronghold, Carthage, fell in 698, although a Byzantine naval expedition managed to
1094:". The Muslim advance in Asia Minor and the Aegean was halted, and an agreement to a thirty-year truce concluded soon after.
1087:
364:, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state than its earlier iteration. While the fleets of the
11989:
11262:
10896:
5249:, so that its exact composition remains to this day unknown. In its effect, the Greek fire must have been rather similar to
5093:
under certain circumstances, and not the decisive anti-ship weapon that the ram had been in the hands of experienced crews.
3990:), the navy had two main strategic areas of operations: the Aegean, entailing operations against the Greek islands (chiefly
2162:
Following the Empire-wide seizure and imprisonment of all Venetians in March 1171, the Byzantine fleet was strong enough to
13707:
13566:
12854:
10512:
5180:
of Constantinople. Unlike the Venetians and Genoese, there is no indication that the Byzantines ever mounted any on ships.
2485:
2349:(1222–1254), a more energetic foreign policy was pursued, and in 1225, the Nicaean fleet was able to occupy the islands of
1930:"Strive at all time to have the fleet in top condition and to have it not want for anything. For the fleet is the glory of
2628:, IV.46). In the West, several fluvial fleets are mentioned, but the old standing praetorian fleets had all but vanished (
12698:
4687:
2136:
1556:(842–867), he showed great care to the fleet, and as a result, successive victories followed. In 868, a fleet under the
420:
Initially, the defence of the Byzantine coasts and the approaches to Constantinople was borne by the great fleet of the
14036:
13449:
10510:
Bashear, Suliman (1991), "Apocalyptic and Other Materials on Early Muslim-Byzantine Wars: A Review of Arabic Sources",
4696:), which were either sailing ships or galleys, the latter certainly modified to accommodate the horses. Given that the
3218:
2807:
2163:
1490:
2521:
2111:
and raiding its suburbs. On its return voyage however it was attacked and destroyed by a Byzantine or Venetian fleet.
14137:
12703:
12209:
12187:
12055:
12030:
11940:
11895:
11873:
11846:
11827:
11740:
11698:
11675:
11650:
11626:
11481:
11438:
11415:
11355:
11249:
11213:
11192:
11170:
11127:
11081:
10988:
10886:
10859:
10699:
10559:
10492:
5048:, such as dividing one's force and carrying out flanking manoeuvres, feigning retreat or hiding a reserve in ambush (
3784:
In the lower levels of organization, there was more uniformity: squadrons of three or five ships were commanded by a
376:
became vital to the very existence of the Byzantine state, which several historians have called a "maritime empire".
5295:
Euphemios in 827, or whether they independently created a version of their own. A 12th-century treatise prepared by
4099:. These corps remained extant, albeit in a diminished form, throughout the last centuries of the Empire; indeed the
1275:
are preceded by a seaborne Byzantine invasion. Many traditions from the period stress that manning the guard posts (
14216:
13200:
12257:
3719:, the professional central reserve forces. Consequently, the commander of the Imperial Fleet remained known as the
1976:
1117:
718:
664:
558:
414:
10416:
Byzance et la mer. La marine de guerre, la politique et les institutions maritimes de Byzance aux VIIe–XVe siècles
1086:(661–680), raids intensified, as preparations were made for a great assault on Constantinople itself. In the long
14172:
13994:
12526:
12294:
10501:
Basch, Lucien (2001), "La voile latine, son origine, son évolution et ses parentés arabes", in Tzalas, H. (ed.),
3081:
exercised both civil and military authority over them. Eventually, they were raised to full maritime themes, the
2366:
2287:
The Byzantine state and its fleet were thus in no state to resist the naval might of Venice, which supported the
1894:
1494:
17:
12041:
Christides, Vassilios (1997), "Military Intelligence in Arabo-Byzantine Naval Warfare", in Tsiknakis, K. (ed.),
10615:
The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos
5013:) along the coast, the fleet consisted of the main body, composed of the oared warships, and the baggage train (
4702:
appear originally to have been oared horse-transports, this would imply differences in construction between the
3281:, was established in the mid- to late 8th century, to protect imperial communications with Italy and defend the
2122:, launching the last Byzantine bid to regain Southern Italy. Despite initial successes and reinforcements under
14142:
14132:
14004:
13925:
13743:
13611:
13183:
13127:
13048:
12915:
11161:
11009:
4787:
4686:). These appear to have been mostly sailing vessels, rather than oared. The Byzantines and Arabs also employed
2560:
2430:
2362:
2326:
2292:
2255:. Despite scoring a few early successes, Steiriones' fleet was destroyed in a surprise attack by Kaphoures off
2224:
2108:
1731:(military governor) prisoner, and in 898, the eunuch admiral Raghib carried off 3,000 Byzantine sailors of the
1597:
became a major base for land and seaborne attacks against Byzantine territory, especially under the famed emir
1335:
emperors undermined Byzantium's naval strength: with the Arab threat gone for the moment, and with the largely
545:
457:
was followed by another period of decline, which culminated in the disastrous dissolution of the Empire by the
3069:('Gulf'), which was based at Samos and comprised the southern Aegean including the Cyclades. Unlike the other
13999:
13989:
13904:
13659:
13444:
2724:
1799:
The tide began to turn again after 920. Coincidentally, the same year witnessed the ascension of an admiral,
1582:
1570:
944:
12879:
1707:(886–912), the Empire again faced serious threats. In the north, a war broke out against the Bulgarian Tsar
824:, reputedly numbering 1,113 ships and 100,000 men, but it failed disastrously. About 600 ships were lost to
14073:
14041:
13945:
13654:
13626:
13434:
12973:
3499:
2026:
1979:
in 1043 was beaten back with ease, and with the exception of a short-lived attempt to recover Sicily under
1141:
929:
860:
309:
10708:
Christides, Vassilios (1981), "The Raids of the Moslems of Crete in the Aegean Sea: Piracy and Conquest",
5213:. The Byzantines themselves used various descriptive names for it, but the most common was 'liquid fire' (
368:
faced few great naval threats, operating as a policing force vastly inferior in power and prestige to the
13797:
13439:
13286:
13043:
12794:
10723:
The Conquest of Crete by the Arabs (ca. 824): A Turning Point in the Struggle between Byzantium and Islam
5056:, XIX.36) against direct confrontation and advocates the use of stratagems instead. According to Leo VI (
2176:
2149:
1663:
711:
627:
575:
10426:"Woods of byzantine trade ships of Yenikapi (Istanbul) and changes in wood use from 6th to 11th century"
2295:
of the city in 1203, the attempts of the Byzantine ships to oppose the Crusader fleet from entering the
2033:, starting a decade of war which consumed the scant resources of the embattled Empire. The new emperor,
14117:
14063:
13802:
13674:
13664:
13364:
13244:
13122:
13053:
12941:
12910:
12753:
12693:
10951:(1967). "Le Drongaire de la flotte, le Grand drongaire de la flotte, le Duc de la flotte, le Mégaduc".
10726:
4959:
4935:
3632:(chief secretary) who headed the civilian administration of the theme. Further staff officers were the
2657:
For operations in the Mediterranean during the 5th century, fleets appear to have been assembled on an
2458:
2375:
1893:
During the same period, the Byzantine fleet was active in the Black Sea as well: a Rus' fleet that was
1760:
1251:
1033:
994:
Map of the main Byzantine-Muslim naval operations and battles in the Mediterranean, 7th–11th centuries.
689:
528:
429:
391:
in the 6th century. The re-establishment of a permanently maintained fleet and the introduction of the
325:
93:
10790:
Delgado, James P (2011), "Ships on Land", in Catsambis, Alexis; Ford, Ben; Hamilton, Donny L. (eds.),
4726:
would have had to have a special compartment amidships to accommodate a row of horses, increasing its
1524:
13977:
13501:
13357:
13142:
13033:
12920:
12220:
11865:
10743:
6793:
3917:). Since the marine infantry were organized as regular army units, their ranks followed those of the
3778:
3075:, who headed subordinate commands, these two circumscriptions were completely independent, and their
3041:
The Cibyrrhaeots were complemented by two independent naval commands in the Aegean, each headed by a
2406:
2208:(1183–1185) could still gather 100 warships in 1185 to resist and later defeat a Norman fleet in the
2145:
2078:, is reported to have cut funding to the fleet and transferred it to the army, equipping ships on an
2009:
in 1071 had resulted in the loss of Asia Minor, the Empire's military and economic heartland, to the
1961:
1847:(945–959) against the Emirate of Crete, ended in disaster, due to the incompetence of its commander,
1819:
1446:
1404:
1324:
817:
660:
466:
317:
11039:
Armies of the Middle Ages, Volume 2: The Ottoman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Near East, 1300–1500
4926:, used by Venice and the other maritime states of the region in the first half of the 15th century.
4923:
4919:
2910:, considered it "not improbable" that the Imperial Fleet existed as a subordinate command under the
1835:
The Empire's growing might be displayed in 942, when Emperor Romanos I dispatched a squadron to the
1807:) and last time in the Empire's history. Finally, in 923, the decisive defeat of Leo of Tripoli off
855:) is reported to have sent a fleet of 100 warships to raid the coasts of Italy. In 513, the general
762:
The Byzantine navy, like the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire itself, continued the systems of the
13276:
13028:
12515:
12394:
11660:
Pryor, John H. (1995). "The Geographical Conditions of Galley Navigation in the Mediterranean". In
6784:
6782:
5296:
3954:, once the overall naval commander, was subordinated to him, acting now as his principal aide. The
3876:
3675:
3214:
2917:
2371:
2233:
2159:. The invasion failed, however, and the Byzantines lost half the fleet in a storm on the way back.
2059:
1392:, which was further entrenched by the repulsion of a Byzantine attack in 809. At the same time, in
1179:
1125:
1055:
894:
782:
679:
631:
12023:
Tropis III, 3rd International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Athens 1989 proceedings
10505:(in French), Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 55–85
4674:
For cargo transport, the Byzantines usually commandeered ordinary merchantmen as transport ships (
2240:, who was in the employ of the Normans of Sicily. The depredations of the pirates, especially the
1400:
dynasty was established, which immediately engaged in raids throughout the central Mediterranean.
916:. In 550, Totila invaded Sicily, and over the next year, his 300-ship fleet captured Sardinia and
14206:
14182:
13606:
13332:
13152:
13038:
12029:, Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 111–122, archived from
11258:
4946:
4869:
2509:
2378:
with the Genoese, securing their aid against Venice at sea, in return for commercial privileges.
2115:
1748:
1679:
1625:
fell to the Aghlabids. Muslim corsairs raided the Adriatic, and although they were driven out of
1194:
698:
585:
305:
87:
60:
10780:
10503:
Tropis VI, 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 proceedings
1019:. In this effort the new Muslim elite, which came from the inland-oriented northern part of the
14107:
13697:
13539:
12983:
12789:
12763:
12758:
12531:
12507:
12503:
12470:
11800:
11726:
11661:
11636:
11067:
10845:
5225:) onto enemy ships. Alternatively, it could be launched in jars fired from catapults; pivoting
4976:
4345:
2784:
2715:
2245:
2237:
1537:
1466:
1417:
1231:
1108:) paid attention to the needs of the navy, strengthening it by the resettlement of over 18,500
999:
845:
652:
479:
397:
11619:
Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571
10870:
3626:. As the thematic admirals also doubled as governors of their themes, they were assisted by a
13825:
13679:
12869:
12779:
12743:
12628:
12358:
12353:
5028:
4714:
proper, terms which otherwise are often used indiscriminately in literary sources. While the
4219:. Pseudo-Kodinos also records that, while the other warships flew "the usual imperial flag" (
3734:
2939:
2568:
2529:
2489:
2205:
1860:
1781:
775:
450:
301:
12061:
11635:
Pryor, John H. (1995). "From Dromōn to Galea: Mediterranean Bireme Galleys AD 500–1300". In
10647:
3148:
Some of the other, 'land' themes also maintained sizeable squadrons, usually placed under a
932:
marked the beginning of the final Imperial ascendancy. With the final conquest of Italy and
14068:
14051:
13872:
13631:
13596:
13479:
13416:
13411:
12946:
12889:
12127:
Friedman, Zaraza; Zoroglu, Levent (2006), "Kelenderis Ship – Square or Lateen Sail?",
12050:, National Hellenic Research Foundation – Centre for Byzantine Research, pp. 269–281,
11762:
11139:
The Sons of Bayezid: Empire Building and Representation in the Ottoman Civil War of 1402-13
11004:. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Vol. 26. Translated by Michael Bonner. Leiden: Brill.
3980:
3262:
2537:
2525:
2504:
2383:
2156:
1886:
1848:
1708:
1647:
1340:
1216:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1016:
413:", the Byzantine navy's best-known and feared secret weapon, Constantinople was saved from
11365:
Makrypoulias, Christos G. (1995), "The Navy in the Works of Constantine Porphyrogenitus",
5116:) that launched stones, arrows, javelins, pots of Greek fire or other incendiary liquids,
4649:
men as crew, was used for scouting missions but also in the wings of the battle line. The
4176:
4175:, with the arrival of the mercenaries of the Catalan Company. Only two holders are known,
866:
In 533, taking advantage of the absence of the Vandal fleet, sent to suppress a revolt in
831:
8:
12978:
12894:
12884:
12748:
12511:
12499:
12386:
11550:
11529:
11508:
11066:
Hocker, Frederick M. (1995). "Late Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic Galleys and Fleets". In
10932:
Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258–1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations
10613:
4915:
4535:
4122:
4003:
3976:
3297:
2801:
2793:
2667:
2580:
2545:
2434:
2421:
2338:
2334:
2281:
2006:
1675:
1268:
1121:
1078:
952:
841:
837:
231:
11766:
5241:) also existed, reputedly invented by Leo VI, making it the direct analogue to a modern
2699:
The Byzantine Empire between the 6th and late 9th centuries, including the themes as of
2469:
were failures, however, and soon the Ottomans had established their first naval base at
2280:, to use their ships for their own purposes, launching raids of their own. Even Emperor
2219:
1327:, but in 766, a second fleet, allegedly of 2,600 ships, again bound for Anchialus, sank
1215:), who in turn was replaced, just as the Muslim army was advancing through Anatolia, by
836:
The 6th century marked the rebirth of Roman naval power. In 508, as antagonism with the
282:
41:
14056:
14046:
13920:
13591:
13474:
13391:
13254:
12606:
12586:
12566:
12556:
12322:
12237:
12144:
12009:
11958:
11788:
11730:
11665:
11640:
11588:
11391:
11071:
10849:
10833:
10825:
10768:
10537:
10529:
4951:
4415:
4232:
3340:
3082:
2614:
2533:
2426:
2387:
2095:
2034:
1775:
1513:
1450:
1389:
1373:
1372:(786–809). Around the Mediterranean, new powers were rising, foremost amongst them the
1256:
913:
856:
812:
442:
373:
51:
10670:
The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times
3343:
and provided with their own naval squadrons, possibly as a defence against Rus' raids.
14178:
14112:
14017:
13950:
13930:
13898:
13830:
13817:
13738:
13733:
13484:
13249:
13099:
12618:
12571:
12561:
12551:
12241:
12205:
12183:
12164:
12148:
12140:
12093:
12051:
12013:
11966:
11936:
11918:
11891:
11869:
11842:
11823:
11778:
11736:
11712:
11694:
11671:
11646:
11622:
11604:
11592:
11584:
11558:
11537:
11516:
11495:
11477:
11458:
11434:
11411:
11395:
11351:
11328:
11308:
11290:
11245:
11227:
11209:
11188:
11166:
11156:
11143:
11123:
11105:
11098:
11077:
11051:
11024:
11005:
10984:
10962:
10948:
10936:
10882:
10855:
10837:
10795:
10772:
10760:
10730:
10695:
10674:
10619:
10576:
10555:
10541:
10488:
10468:
10425:
5065:
4767:
4410:
4407:
4340:
remains of a few merchant vessels. Only in 2005–2006 did archaeological digs for the
4029:), who were men of mixed Greek-Latin descent living around the capital; and men from
3941:. The first known occupant of the office was Alexios' brother-in-law John Doukas, in
2963:
2927:
2907:
2634:
2481:
2346:
2269:
2248:
2241:
2181:
2099:
2091:
2002:
1872:
1694:
1598:
1453:
and the island's thematic fleet. In 838, the Muslims crossed over into Italy, taking
1260:
1113:
1020:
465:
attempted to revive the navy, but their efforts only had a temporary effect. Emperor
446:
380:
286:
266:
205:
147:
80:
4838:
is used indiscriminately for both Byzantine and Latin ships, and the horse-carrying
2695:
13982:
13775:
13723:
13669:
13636:
13586:
13379:
13369:
13147:
12835:
12727:
12650:
12633:
12611:
12596:
12581:
12495:
12280:
12229:
12136:
12001:
11904:
11883:
11855:
11792:
11770:
11580:
11383:
11274:
10926:
10908:
10817:
10752:
10602:
10598:
10589:
Bryer, Anthony Applemore Mornington (1966), "Shipping in the empire of Trebizond",
10521:
10410:
5177:
5096:
Like their Roman predecessors, Byzantine and Muslim ships were equipped with small
4265:
3289:
were added to it in the 870s, before they were made into a separate theme (that of
2757:
2513:
2488:, in which its commander played a prominent role. Following the civil war, Emperor
2402:
2342:
2213:
2071:
2067:
2062:
was subsequently used to suppress revolts in Crete and Cyprus. With the aid of the
1902:
1793:
1736:
1655:
1618:
1602:
1578:
1574:
1566:
1562:
1486:
1332:
793:
767:
580:
533:
357:
274:
258:
246:
209:
191:
12157:
Griechenland und das Meer. Beiträge eines Symposions in Frankfurt im Dezember 1996
12084:. A Short History and a Proposed Reconstruction of their Uniforms and Equipment".
11387:
10871:"Venice, Genoa and Control of the Seas in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries"
10568:
5353:
2746:), which were regional civil and military administrations. Under the command of a
2317:
14127:
13960:
13940:
13935:
13890:
13880:
13840:
13835:
13785:
13780:
13561:
13167:
13084:
13079:
12819:
12809:
12645:
12639:
12623:
12601:
12591:
12576:
11908:
11859:
11817:
11750:
11686:
11452:
11428:
11345:
11322:
11137:
10999:
10978:
10952:
10930:
10874:
10668:
10549:
10482:
10462:
10414:
5226:
5127:
5005:
On campaign, following the assembly of the various squadrons at fortified bases (
4906:
4811:
4758:), which was a boat carried along by the bigger ships. The kind described in the
4727:
4664:
4328:
3183:
3053:('Aegean Sea'), covering the northern half of the Aegean and the Dardanelles and
2442:
2405:
in 1285 and the end of the threat of an invasion from Italy, Michael's successor
2153:
2055:
1980:
1844:
1704:
1541:
1462:
1369:
1365:
1129:
948:
595:
570:
520:
278:
213:
180:
12180:
The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century
12105:
Dolley, R. H. (1953), "Naval tactics in the heyday of Byzantine thalassocracy",
4550:
3905:(trumpeter) is also recorded in the sources, who conveyed orders to the rowers (
1577:
in the area. A few years later, he twice heavily defeated the Cretan pirates at
990:
748:
13965:
13845:
13578:
13337:
13217:
13016:
12720:
12475:
12233:
11813:
11341:
11201:
9574:
5199:
4966:
of Constantine Porphyrogennetos and other works by Byzantine and Arab writers.
4659:
4539:
4398:
4376:
4130:
3918:
3766:
3756:
3578:, the same term used for the generals that governed the land themes. Under the
3538:
proper, the latter including the two imperial vessels and the ten ships of the
3355:, who in some cases may have commanded detachments of the Imperial Fleet. Such
3329:
3278:
3229:
2624:
2365:
in 1235, the Nicaean navy was defeated by a far smaller Venetian force, and in
2288:
2209:
2103:
2047:
1988:
1906:
1836:
1752:
1651:
1531:
1477:
1356:
1205:
1003:
590:
497:
483:
458:
406:
137:
55:
10940:
10623:
10525:
5076:
5045:
4404:
2549:
1987:(976–1025), the defence of the Adriatic was entrusted to the Venetians. Under
1351:
14200:
13885:
13762:
13728:
13466:
13401:
13374:
13259:
12874:
12814:
12097:
11206:
Constantinople and the Latins: The Foreign Policy of Andronicus II, 1282–1328
10966:
10764:
10687:
10664:
5394:
5333:
5194:
4371:
on the bow in favour of an above-water spur, and the gradual introduction of
3641:
3494:
3117:
2679:
2572:
2450:
2063:
1949:
1876:
1585:, temporarily securing the Aegean. Cyprus also was temporarily recovered and
1379:
1309:
1167:
964:
270:
201:
12005:
11732:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
11667:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
11642:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
11278:
11073:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
10912:
10851:
The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels Since Pre-Classical Times
10734:
10449:. The Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity of the University of Birmingham
2714:
established. According to this, the Empire was divided into several themes (
1271:
composed and transmitted during the first and second Islamic centuries, the
474:
definitively passed to Italian navies and, in the 15th century, the nascent
13646:
13621:
13601:
13406:
13384:
13239:
12487:
12482:
12316:
11725:
Rankov, Boris (1995). "Fleets of the Early Roman Empire, 31 BC–AD 324". In
11448:
11424:
9198:
9196:
5275:
5246:
5242:
4106:
3804:('centurion'), although literary sources also used more archaic terms like
3467:
2778:
2711:
2333:
between the Crusaders, while three Greek successor states were set up, the
2330:
2010:
1933:
1839:. Using Greek fire, the squadron destroyed a fleet of Muslim corsairs from
1804:
1764:
1732:
1634:
1292:
1193:) readied his forces for a renewed assault against Constantinople, Emperor
1098:
879:
811:), immediately launched raids against the coasts of Italy and Greece, even
763:
600:
475:
434:
423:
365:
290:
250:
12249:
11324:
George Akropolites: The History – Introduction, Translation and Commentary
11287:
Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, A.D. 300–900
10756:
9562:
7067:
5395:"Other Byzantine flags shown in the "Book of All Kingdoms" (14th century)"
4911:", which was an enlarged galley capable of carrying more cargo for trade.
2329:
of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Byzantine Empire was
1500:
14147:
14122:
13616:
13426:
13193:
12799:
12784:
11403:
11093:
10974:
5130:
to choke the enemy or, as Emperor Leo VI suggests, scorpions and snakes (
5025:) and lanterns. The navy played key role in supplying land-based forces.
4983:
4975:
galley fleets were sunk by bad weather (e.g. the Roman losses during the
4731:
4423:
4358:
4260:
The primary warship of the Byzantine navy until the 12th century was the
3998:, while the main base for operations in the Marmara Sea was Holkos, near
3772:
3748:
3690:
3362:
3290:
3151:
3054:
3019:
2296:
2273:
2172:
2030:
1756:
1671:
1659:
1553:
1431:
1272:
1074:
1060:
883:
388:
10844:
Dotson, John E. (1995). "Economics and Logistics of Galley Warfare". In
10533:
9193:
7804:
3820:. Each ship's crew, depending on its size, was composed of one to three
1343:, the emperors reduced the navy's size and downgraded the naval themes.
461:
in 1204. After the Empire was restored in 1261, several emperors of the
13421:
13281:
13271:
13104:
13094:
12804:
11819:
The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century
11303:
MacGeorge, Penny (2002), "Appendix: Naval Power in the Fifth Century",
11180:
10609:
9295:
8746:
5326:
5189:
4310:
4110:
4042:
3799:
3282:
2903:
2612:) with its attendant legionary flotillas is still well attested in the
2601:
2417:
2244:
captain Kaphoures, described by Niketas Choniates and his brother, the
2125:
1995:
1840:
1711:, and a part of the Imperial Fleet was used in 895 to ferry an army of
1436:
1412:
1183:
1091:
1083:
1046:
1012:
871:
832:
Sixth century – Justinian restores Roman control over the Mediterranean
821:
771:
636:
617:
471:
410:
369:
361:
338:
107:
10829:
9793:
9439:
9169:
4395:) are unclear. Depictions of upward-pointing beaks in the 4th-century
3646:(chief messenger), who acted as chief of staff, and a number of staff
2070:. By 1118, Alexios was able to pass on a small navy to his successor,
1843:. In 949, however, another expedition of about 100 ships, launched by
1751:. The greatest disaster, however, came in 904, when another renegade,
13970:
13850:
13342:
13210:
13157:
13089:
11802:
Byzantine Naval Power and Trade: The Collapse of the Western Frontier
11774:
5314:
5290:
5236:
5230:
5220:
5166:
5147:
5141:
5135:
5121:
5111:
5101:
5039:
5020:
5014:
5006:
4997:
4991:
4939:
4857:
4845:
4839:
4833:
4821:
4815:
4804:
4798:
4741:
4735:
4721:
4715:
4709:
4703:
4697:
4691:
4681:
4675:
4657:
4650:
4631:
4619:
4612:
4602:
4596:
4584:
4578:
4566:
4522:
4513:
4507:
4501:
4495:
4489:
4483:
4477:
4471:
4457:
4451:
4445:
4435:
4431:
4396:
4390:
4362:
4349:
4322:
4308:
4303:
4269:
4241:
flew an image of the emperor on horseback as his distinctive ensign.
4236:
4226:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4190:
4184:
4170:
4164:
4144:
4138:
4100:
4090:
4084:
4078:
4066:
4054:
4040:
4034:
4018:
4016:
3999:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3936:
3912:
3906:
3900:
3894:
3887:
3881:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3821:
3815:
3813:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3785:
3770:
3754:
3746:
3740:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3704:
3696:
3688:
3682:
3680:
3667:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3573:
3559:
3553:
3539:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3504:
3480:
3472:
3387:
3380:
3366:
3356:
3348:
3323:
3307:
3272:
3253:
3239:
3205:
by Justinian II, it encompassed the imperial possessions of southern
3193:
3178:
and charged mainly with local defence and police duties. These were:
3173:
3167:
3157:
3149:
3127:
3111:
3105:
3092:
3076:
3070:
3064:
3058:
3048:
3042:
3029:
3017:
3009:
2999:
2979:
2973:
2957:
2918:
2911:
2897:
2885:
2864:
2857:
2851:
2843:
2817:
2811:
2776:
2767:
2755:
2749:
2747:
2741:
2564:
2502:
2475:
2438:
2300:
2277:
2263:
2140:
2123:
2114:
In 1155, a Byzantine squadron of 10 ships in support of Norman rebel
1947:
1939:
1931:
1880:
1867:
1824:
1800:
1787:
1779:
1740:
1726:
1724:
1703:
Despite the successes under Basil, during the reign of his successor
1638:
1557:
1470:
1368:, and raids against Cyprus and Crete recommenced during the reign of
1336:
1112:
along the southern coasts of the Empire, where they were employed as
1109:
956:
936:
under Justinian, the Mediterranean once again became a "Roman lake".
825:
820:
in Spain. Finally, in 468, a huge Eastern expedition assembled under
538:
449:, with disastrous effects on the Empire's economy and sovereignty. A
421:
242:
155:
105:
98:
96:
85:
54:, carried by Byzantine warships in the 14th century, as described by
10442:
10382:
Bréhier, Louis (1949), "La marine de Byzance du VIII au XI siècle",
9249:
9247:
7411:
4143:
and was given Euboea as a fief. In 1303, another high rank, that of
4083:
were settled near the sea throughout the northern Aegean, while the
1654:. He then proceeded to raid Sicily, carrying off much booty, before
1116:
and rowers. Nevertheless, the Arab naval threat intensified as they
863:, who employed a sulphur-based incendiary substance to defeat them.
405:
also for repelling seaborne attacks against the imperial capital of
13496:
13396:
13347:
13205:
13137:
12925:
10821:
10741:
Cosentino, Salvatore (2008), "Constans II and the Byzantine navy",
6812:
6185:
5337:
5285:
5210:
5156:
5107:
5097:
5008:
4962:
and other earlier works), complemented by relevant passages in the
4341:
4264:
and other similar ship types. Apparently an evolution of the light
3698:
3474:
3249:
3222:
3025:
3011:
2619:
2553:
2470:
2466:
2020:
1984:
1972:
1852:
1744:
1667:
1458:
1397:
1393:
1243:
968:
958:
940:
898:
867:
801:
797:
779:
753:
563:
321:
217:
11430:
Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations
9319:
8710:
7130:
3995:
2536:. Six years later, Manuel promised to arm ten ships to assist the
2014:
963:
was intercepted by the Byzantine fleet and destroyed, denying the
360:. Like the state it served, it was a direct continuation from its
13862:
13748:
13689:
13188:
13162:
12840:
12218:
Morgan, Gareth (1976). "The Venetian Claims Commission of 1278".
11953:(in French). Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
11474:
Medieval Warfare Source Book: Christian Europe and its Neighbours
10291:
10267:
10231:
10219:
10135:
10123:
10099:
9979:
9967:
9916:
9904:
9892:
9880:
9832:
9646:
9634:
9622:
9610:
9526:
9463:
9415:
9271:
9244:
9181:
9157:
9121:
9097:
9085:
8821:
8575:
5310:
5300:
5270:
5117:
5085:
5081:
4868:, in Greek). A similar process is seen in surviving sources from
4763:
4668:
4368:
4307:
interchangeably with another Byzantine term for a large warship,
4146:
4134:
4030:
3807:
3313:
3210:
3005:
2847:
2839:
2462:
1999:
1856:
1712:
1683:
1606:
1590:
1549:
1454:
1320:
1238:
1137:
1042:
917:
786:
550:
478:. The diminished Byzantine navy continued to be active until the
384:
262:
239:
235:
227:
10897:"L'inscription de l'amiral dans la liste des dignités palatines"
10808:
Dolley, R. H. (1948), "The Warships of the Later Roman Empire",
10464:
IImperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium, 1204–1330
10339:
9810:
9808:
9730:
9499:
9307:
8850:
8848:
8664:
8662:
8635:
8623:
8611:
7531:
7212:
7210:
7208:
7096:
7094:
7033:
7031:
7029:
3899:, who worked the siphons used for discharging the Greek fire. A
2559:
The last recorded Byzantine naval victory occurred in 1427 in a
1023:, largely relied on the resources and manpower of the conquered
417:
and numerous naval engagements resulted in Byzantine victories.
13491:
13266:
13132:
9049:
6860:
6800:
6755:
6673:
6524:
6413:
5677:
5250:
5206:
5173:
4894:
located above deck, each rowing a different oar; the so-called
4791:
4783:
4555:
4463:
4441:
4372:
4261:
4255:
4096:
3991:
3844:, 'first ship-man'), sometimes also referred to archaically as
3350:
3286:
3245:
3206:
3137:
2671:
2605:
2541:
2493:
2425:
islands fell under foreign rule—including Chios to the Genoese
2395:
2358:
2350:
2256:
2132:
2119:
1808:
1630:
1626:
1594:
1247:
1070:
1024:
933:
925:
905:
875:
622:
401:
392:
151:
10111:
8599:
8408:
8314:
8312:
8044:
7816:
7741:
6627:
6625:
6623:
6449:
6401:
6379:
6377:
6212:
6202:
6200:
6140:
6138:
6123:
6099:
6089:
6087:
6072:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5922:
5912:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5841:
5819:
5817:
5815:
5665:
5629:
3596:, effectively 'vice admiral'), in turn overseeing a number of
2090:
The navy enjoyed a major comeback under the ambitious emperor
1851:. A renewed offensive in Italy in 951–952 was defeated by the
387:
in the 5th century, but their threat was ended by the wars of
12195:
12178:
Makris, George (2002), "Ships", in Laiou, Angeliki E. (ed.),
11571:
Pomey, Patrice (2006), "The Kelenderis Ship: A Lateen Sail",
10327:
10279:
10255:
10207:
10159:
10063:
10051:
10015:
10003:
9991:
9940:
9928:
9856:
9844:
9805:
9658:
9550:
9487:
9391:
9367:
9355:
9331:
9145:
8913:
8911:
8884:
8845:
8833:
8809:
8770:
8758:
8659:
8647:
8456:
7960:
7888:
7717:
7630:
7579:
7555:
7519:
7447:
7347:
7345:
7306:
7294:
7282:
7270:
7258:
7246:
7205:
7157:
7091:
7026:
7002:
6947:
6913:
6911:
6490:
6488:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5214:
5160:
4863:
4827:
4753:
4747:
4637:
4625:
4590:
4572:
4467:
4419:
4384:
4316:
4281:
4275:
4220:
4158:
4152:
4126:
4072:
4060:
4048:
4024:
3510:
3317:
3301:
3266:
3233:
3187:
3133:
3121:
3086:
2967:
2951:
2891:
2879:
2735:
2675:
2663:
2647:
2544:
from an invasion. Byzantine ships were active throughout the
2391:
2361:. It was, however, no match for the Venetians: attempting to
2354:
2167:
1720:
1643:
1622:
1408:
1302:
1286:
1278:
1133:
1028:
1007:
921:
909:
749:
Civil wars and barbarian invasions: the 4th and 5th centuries
254:
9868:
9586:
9475:
8952:
8950:
8923:
8722:
8517:
8515:
8513:
8488:
8486:
8473:
8471:
8244:
7683:
7681:
7596:
7594:
7507:
7459:
7318:
6896:
6872:
6836:
6724:
6702:
6700:
6572:
6473:
6111:
5534:
3979:, although specific details are lacking. Under John III and
2303:
failed due to the Venetians' skill at handling their ships.
1814:
1792:
with 43,000 men, that had sailed under Himerios against the
1589:
occupied. At the same time, however, the Muslim presence in
1516:(867–1056), and marked the noontide of the Byzantine state.
13770:
12107:
Atti dell' VIII Congresso internazionale di Studi bizantini
10980:
Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204
9598:
9427:
9133:
9061:
8587:
8444:
8432:
8396:
8360:
8324:
8309:
8297:
8285:
8275:
8273:
8271:
8232:
8205:
8193:
8181:
8121:
8109:
8068:
7972:
7924:
7912:
7792:
7079:
6649:
6620:
6608:
6584:
6548:
6500:
6461:
6374:
6350:
6340:
6338:
6260:
6248:
6197:
6135:
6084:
6060:
5990:
5988:
5934:
5901:
5889:
5812:
5641:
5617:
5570:
5558:
5259:
4118:
2729:
2685:
1774:
The most distinguished Byzantine admiral of the period was
1614:
1586:
1283:) on the coasts of Syria is tantamount to partaking in the
353:
12072:
D’Amato, Raffaele (2010). "The Last Marines of Byzantium:
11457:(Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10816:(1–2), Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 47–53,
9820:
9718:
9682:
9451:
9283:
9013:
8962:
8908:
7996:
7828:
7705:
7386:
7384:
7342:
7222:
7193:
6908:
6512:
6485:
6313:
6311:
5961:
5689:
5517:
5505:
4444:
dromons of the 9th and 10th centuries, the two oar banks (
2058:
of Smyrna to launch fleets in the Aegean. The fleet under
1827:, the main Muslim stronghold in Crete, as depicted in the
10303:
10195:
10027:
9232:
9220:
8947:
8896:
8674:
8527:
8510:
8498:
8483:
8468:
8420:
8384:
8372:
8056:
7984:
7936:
7876:
7693:
7678:
7642:
7606:
7591:
7567:
7369:
7147:
7145:
7106:
7055:
7043:
6767:
6697:
6685:
6637:
6437:
6323:
6236:
6000:
5865:
5829:
5493:
5432:
5430:
5428:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5377:
5375:
5373:
4778:
4375:
sails. The exact reasons for the abandonment of the ram (
4015:
navy, forming a number of new corps to this purpose: the
3035:
2591:
2192:
1803:(920–944), to the imperial throne, for the second (after
955:
and Slavs in 626. During that siege, the Slavs' fleet of
10315:
9957:
9955:
9073:
9025:
9001:
8860:
8797:
8787:
8785:
8686:
8348:
8336:
8268:
8256:
8222:
8220:
8154:
8144:
8142:
8140:
8138:
8136:
8097:
8087:
8085:
8083:
8032:
8008:
7900:
7864:
7840:
7765:
7729:
7169:
7118:
6992:
6990:
6988:
6986:
6824:
6745:
6743:
6741:
6739:
6596:
6389:
6362:
6335:
6284:
6224:
6173:
6048:
5985:
5973:
5800:
5747:
5745:
5701:
5442:
5320:
4990:, XIX.74–77) the Arabs with their heavy and slow ships (
4969:
4803:-derived ships of Italian origin is uncertain. The term
4773:
3614:, since their commands were split off from the original
2902:) as a distinct command is unclear. The Irish historian
1755:, raided the Aegean. His fleet penetrated even into the
1689:
1489:
made their first appearance in Byzantine history with a
11910:
The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of
10363:
9769:
9747:
9745:
9516:
9514:
9208:
9037:
8989:
8979:
8977:
8171:
8169:
7782:
7780:
7753:
7666:
7435:
7423:
7381:
7357:
7234:
6935:
6923:
6884:
6712:
6661:
6425:
6308:
6163:
6161:
6159:
6157:
6155:
6153:
6036:
5853:
5766:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5720:
5718:
5716:
5595:
5593:
5591:
5589:
5587:
5585:
5483:
5481:
5466:
4554:
Depiction of a sea battle, from a 13th-century copy of
4440:), these extended directly from the hull. In the later
3832:('banner bearer'), who acted as executive officer, two
2401:
This revival did not last long. Following the death of
2276:
in southern Greece and the imperial governor of Samos,
1637:, Basil's new church. In 880, Ooryphas' successor, the
1501:
Byzantine Reconquest: the era of the Macedonian dynasty
1355:
The Saracen pirate fleet sails towards Crete. From the
11709:
The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204
11179:
10935:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
10147:
10087:
9781:
9757:
9706:
9694:
9670:
9538:
9403:
9379:
9109:
8872:
8698:
8563:
8539:
7852:
7401:
7399:
7142:
7014:
6788:
6560:
6536:
6296:
6272:
5877:
5605:
5546:
5425:
5408:
5370:
3745:, but in the special class of military officials, the
2838:), and included the southern coast of Asia Minor from
1879:, who in 960 set out with a fleet of 100 dromons, 200
179:
warships in 9th–10th centuries. c. 150 warships under
11183:; Tsoungarakis, Dimitris (Ed. & Transl.) (1996),
10243:
10171:
10075:
9952:
9343:
8782:
8217:
8133:
8080:
8020:
7948:
7654:
7618:
7543:
7483:
7471:
7330:
7181:
6983:
6971:
6848:
6736:
5788:
5742:
5730:
5653:
3248:
and the imperial possessions in south-western Italy (
979:
882:, the first of the wars of the reconquest of Emperor
874:
was transported to Africa by an invasion fleet of 92
428:. Progressively however it was split up into several
11822:. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society.
11092:
10441:
Andriopoulou, Vera; Kondyli, Fotini (19 June 2008).
10419:(in French), Paris: Presses Universitaires de France
10183:
10039:
9742:
9511:
9259:
8974:
8935:
8734:
8551:
8166:
7777:
7495:
6959:
6191:
6150:
6024:
5757:
5713:
5582:
5478:
5304:
4900:
system. The Venetians also developed the so-called "
4873:
4851:
2765:
2306:
1475:
1449:, aided by the defection of the Byzantine commander
1296:
1284:
1276:
939:
Despite the subsequent loss of much of Italy to the
11670:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 206–217.
11645:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 101–116.
10854:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 218–223.
10484:
The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453
10443:"Ships on the Voyage from Constantinople to Venice"
10440:
10351:
9736:
7396:
6012:
5776:
5454:
4797:The exact period when the dromon was superseded by
4734:depth. In addition, Byzantine sources refer to the
2950:
The first and for a long time only maritime theme (
2916:already in the 7th century. On the other hand, the
2299:were repulsed, and the Byzantine attempt to employ
1144:most of the Visigoth-controlled Iberian Peninsula.
12196:Michalopoulos, Dimitris; Milanos, Antonis (1994),
11839:The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People
11240:Lewis, Archibald Ross; Runyan, Timothy J. (1985),
11097:
11076:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 86–100.
4302:, thus meaning 'runner'; 6th-century authors like
2618:, and its increased activity is commented upon by
1923:
12129:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
11735:. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 78–85.
11691:War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
11601:The Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople
11573:The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology
11001:The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids
10879:War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
4331:'), which first appeared during the 8th century.
4095:were settled mostly around Constantinople and in
3285:from Arab raids. The new imperial possessions in
1666:, expanding the Byzantine foothold in Apulia and
1226:). It was Leo III who faced the second and final
14198:
11165:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
10551:The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081–1180
5088:from Crete, dated to the 10th and 12th centuries
4249:
3620:fleet, but they were then raised to the rank of
2085:
2021:Attempts at recovery under Alexios I and John II
1301:more pious an act than a night of prayer in the
1234:attacks further sapped the besiegers' strength.
12126:
11707:Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006),
11263:"Notes d'histoire et de chronologie byzantines"
11096:; Rosenthal, Franz (Ed. & Transl.) (1969),
4770:, possibly from forests in what is now Turkey.
4720:was developed exclusively as a war galley, the
3132:) in the late 9th century. It comprised it the
2013:, who by 1081 had established their capital at
409:itself. Through the use of the newly invented "
12640:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)
11187:, Athens: Kanakis Editions, pp. 268–273,
11120:Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, AD 610–1071
10423:
9604:
4642:, from which the term 'galley' derives), with
2313:Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
2107:itself, demonstrating in the Bosporus off the
1147:
400:in the 7th century. Following the loss of the
12265:
11706:
11242:European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500
10794:, Oxford University Press, pp. 182–191,
10424:Akkemik, Ünal; Kocabas, Ufuk (January 2014).
10297:
10285:
10273:
10261:
10237:
10225:
10213:
10165:
10141:
10129:
10069:
10057:
10021:
10009:
9997:
9985:
9973:
9946:
9934:
9922:
9910:
9898:
9886:
9862:
9850:
9838:
9814:
9799:
9664:
9652:
9640:
9628:
9616:
9580:
9568:
9556:
9532:
9493:
9469:
9445:
9421:
9397:
9373:
9361:
9337:
9325:
9301:
9277:
9253:
9187:
9175:
9163:
9151:
9127:
9103:
9091:
8854:
8839:
8827:
8815:
8776:
8764:
8752:
8668:
8653:
8250:
7216:
7163:
7136:
7100:
7073:
7037:
7008:
6953:
6902:
6878:
6866:
6842:
6818:
6806:
6761:
6730:
6679:
6655:
6631:
6614:
6590:
6506:
6467:
6455:
6419:
6407:
6383:
6356:
6266:
6254:
6218:
6206:
6144:
6129:
6105:
6093:
6078:
6066:
5955:
5943:
5928:
5916:
5895:
5847:
5823:
5683:
5671:
5647:
5635:
5623:
5576:
5564:
5528:
5511:
5499:
5317:base, with sulphur and various resins added.
5052:, XIX.52–56). Indeed, Leo VI openly advised (
4895:
4820:fell into gradual disuse and was replaced by
1975:, and was defeated in the next year. Another
1507:Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
974:
971:and eventually forcing the Avars to retreat.
719:
11963:The fall of Rome and the end of civilization
11957:
11933:Byzantium and the Crusader States: 1096–1204
11861:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
11364:
11045:
10117:
9592:
9505:
9481:
9313:
8641:
8629:
8617:
8581:
7930:
5002:, chiefly monoxyla), of the Slavs and Rus'.
4890:) capable of carrying from 20 to 40 horses.
4879:
3258:are attested for Sicily proper and Calabria.
2382:a direct confrontation, as evidenced by the
1346:
1041:"At that time Kallinikos, an artificer from
986:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
12279:
11994:Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations
11239:
10925:
10792:The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology
10547:
10333:
9055:
8917:
8002:
7966:
7918:
7417:
7199:
6917:
6242:
6006:
5871:
5835:
5448:
4885:
4287:
3924:
3638:in charge of the fleet administration, the
2823:
2799:
2571:(1425–1448) defeated the superior fleet of
1919:Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty
1529:
1377:
1259:in Cyprus, breaking the naval power of the
1154:Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty
12272:
12258:
12169:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
12040:
12019:
11903:
11454:The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453
11347:The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180
11284:
11135:
11100:The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History
10954:Recherches sur les institutions byzantines
10720:
10707:
10520:(2), Cambridge University Press: 173–207,
10430:Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry
10201:
9874:
8605:
7834:
7822:
7810:
6643:
6602:
6554:
6530:
6443:
6329:
6179:
6117:
6054:
5806:
5198:Depiction of the use of Greek fire in the
3929:
2199:Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty
726:
712:
379:The first threat to Roman hegemony in the
11882:
11854:
11492:Constantinople 1453: The End of Byzantium
11433:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11350:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11340:
11302:
10740:
10692:Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World
10409:
8956:
8902:
8890:
8692:
8680:
8533:
8521:
8504:
8492:
8477:
8462:
8450:
8438:
8426:
8402:
8390:
8378:
8366:
8342:
8330:
8318:
8303:
8291:
8262:
8238:
8211:
8199:
8187:
8127:
8115:
8103:
8074:
8062:
8050:
8038:
8014:
7990:
7942:
7906:
7894:
7747:
7723:
7687:
7648:
7636:
7612:
7600:
7585:
7561:
7525:
7453:
7312:
7300:
7288:
7276:
7264:
7252:
7175:
7112:
7061:
7049:
6773:
6691:
6578:
6479:
6431:
6368:
6344:
6290:
5994:
5979:
5859:
5540:
5436:
5419:
4334:
3057:, and the command variously known as the
1905:(969–976) sent 300 ships to blockade the
1815:Recovery of Crete and the northern Levant
12117:
11948:
11749:
11598:
11320:
11257:
10947:
10630:
10480:
10369:
10321:
10105:
9226:
9079:
9043:
9019:
9007:
8995:
8968:
8929:
8728:
8160:
7870:
7771:
7759:
7735:
7711:
7513:
7429:
7390:
7363:
7324:
7124:
6317:
6042:
5707:
5381:
5303:records a version of Greek fire, called
5193:
5152:, 'flies') and 100 javelins per dromon.
5075:
5027:
4777:
4577:), so named because it was manned by an
4549:
3674:
2694:
2686:Middle period (late 7th century – 1070s)
2484:. This fleet was very active during the
2316:
2311:Further information on this period:
2218:
2197:Further information on this period:
1917:Further information on this period:
1818:
1693:
1650:over the Aghlabids who were raiding the
1523:
1505:Further information on this period:
1350:
1339:naval themes staunchly opposed to their
1157:
1152:Further information on this period:
989:
984:Further information on this period:
928:. However, a defeat in a sea battle off
904:In 541 however, the new Ostrogoth king,
752:
13528:
12159:(in German), Mannheim, pp. 133–140
12154:
12071:
11987:
11836:
11798:
11549:
11528:
11507:
11489:
11471:
11373:
11155:
11117:
10894:
10789:
10567:
10509:
10460:
10393:
10381:
10345:
9787:
9433:
9139:
9067:
9031:
8866:
8803:
8593:
8414:
8354:
8279:
7978:
7882:
7858:
7798:
7672:
7537:
7240:
7085:
7020:
6890:
6718:
6706:
6566:
6542:
6518:
6494:
6395:
6302:
6278:
6018:
5967:
5883:
5794:
5751:
5695:
5659:
5611:
5552:
5472:
5460:
3004:, first mentioned in 734, was based at
1747:, the Empire's last outpost in Sicily,
1621:was attacked again in 869, and in 870,
1045:, fled to the Romans. He had devised a
58:and illustrated in the Castilian atlas
14:
14199:
12217:
12177:
12104:
11812:
11724:
11659:
11634:
11065:
11018:
10973:
10868:
10843:
10807:
10686:
10663:
10436:(2): 301–311 – via Researchgate.
10153:
10093:
9826:
9763:
9724:
9712:
9700:
9688:
9676:
9544:
9457:
9409:
9385:
9349:
9289:
9202:
9115:
8878:
8791:
8704:
8569:
8545:
8226:
8148:
8091:
8026:
7954:
7846:
7228:
7151:
6996:
6854:
6830:
6749:
6167:
5770:
5736:
5724:
5599:
5487:
4929:
3753:, where he is listed second after the
3503:text. The precise meaning of the term
3217:and the new Theme of Hellas, covering
3016:(head commander) of the Mardaites, an
2592:Early period (4th – mid-7th centuries)
2193:Angelos dynasty and the Fourth Crusade
1411:fell between 824 and 827 to a band of
1250:). In 727, a revolt of the provincial
738:
14212:Military history of the Mediterranean
14096:
13527:
13312:
13004:
12671:
12292:
12253:
11930:
11684:
11616:
11570:
11447:
11423:
11402:
11200:
11036:
10959:Studies on the Byzantine Institutions
10778:
10588:
10573:Les institutions de l'empire byzantin
10500:
10309:
10249:
10189:
10177:
10081:
10045:
10033:
9961:
9775:
9751:
9520:
9265:
9238:
9214:
8983:
8941:
8740:
8557:
7786:
7699:
7660:
7624:
7573:
7549:
7501:
7489:
7477:
7465:
7441:
7375:
7351:
7336:
7187:
6977:
6965:
6941:
6929:
6230:
6030:
5782:
5321:Role of the navy in Byzantine history
4970:Naval strategy, logistics and tactics
4774:Western designs of the last centuries
3796:, and each ship's captain was called
3225:, which also retained smaller fleets.
3008:. His principal lieutenants were the
2906:, followed by the French Byzantinist
2873:
2690:
2152:in cooperation with the ruler of the
1959:Admonitions to the Emperor, from the
1690:Arab raids during the reign of Leo VI
1295:were cited as considering one day of
1036:were available to the Arab admirals.
13313:
11917:, University of Pennsylvania Press,
11221:
10997:
10785:, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
10608:
10513:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
10487:, University of Pennsylvania Press,
10357:
8716:
8175:
7405:
6667:
4482:) that covered the captain's berth (
3373:
2262:At the same time, however, the then
1674:, which would later evolve into the
1646:, scored a significant victory in a
1469:in 846. Attacks by the Lombards and
13015:
12182:, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 91–100,
11761:(3395), Taylor & Francis: 795,
11046:Heath, Ian; McBride, Angus (1995),
10881:, Boydell Press, pp. 109–136,
10618:. London: Oxford University Press.
4954:(both drawing extensively from the
4494:) featured an elevated forecastle (
4280:) itself comes from the Greek root
4009:
3826:. Under the captain, there was the
1912:
1519:
1132:built a new city and naval base at
27:Naval force of the Byzantine Empire
24:
11990:"Problèmes de la marine byzantine"
11980:
11951:Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices
11753:(1975), "Byzantine Civilisation",
11693:, Boydell Press, pp. 83–104,
11162:The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
10694:, Johns Hopkins University Press,
10633:"The Lateen Sail in World History"
10575:(in French), Paris: Albin Michel,
6789:Kekaumenos & Tsoungarakis 1996
4121:. Most of these mercenaries, like
3143:
2945:
2819:strategos ton karabon/karabisianon
2437:, Lesbos and other islands to the
980:Emergence of the Arab naval threat
878:and 500 transports, beginning the
25:
14228:
14138:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
11226:, Jons Hopkins University Press,
10779:Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. (1928),
9583:, pp. 166–169, 322–325, 449.
9205:, pp. 243–245, Fig. 180–182.
4782:14th-century painting of a light
3722:droungarios tou basilikou ploïmou
3567:
3104:, while the eastern parts of the
2307:Nicaea and the Palaiologan period
1909:from retreating over the Danube.
1575:re-established Byzantine presence
1331:. At the same time, however, the
61:Conosçimiento de todos los reynos
14177:
12202:Greek Vessels of the Middle Ages
12141:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00091.x
12086:Journal of Mediterranean Studies
11888:Byzantium and Its Army, 284–1081
11585:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00111.x
10375:
6192:Ibn Khaldūn & Rosenthal 1969
4996:), to the small and fast craft (
3769:. The office of a deputy called
3466:Contrary to popular perception,
3361:are known for Chios, Malta, the
2166:by the Venetians, who sailed to
2135:, 10-12 large transports and 60
1323:, where he scored a significant
1308:These successes enabled Emperor
1180:period of great domestic turmoil
504:
40:
12527:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
12349:Constantinian–Valentinianic era
11534:Byzantium: The Decline and Fall
11408:The Oxford History of Byzantium
11376:Mediterranean Historical Review
11122:, University of Toronto Press,
10402:
9737:Andriopoulou & Kondyli 2008
5038:appropriate counter-formation (
4766:, but in the later years from
4344:project in the location of the
3985:
3969:
3664:, who commanded the bodyguard (
2586:
2457:Thus Andronikos II's successor
1924:Decline during the 11th century
1314:
1221:
1210:
1199:
1188:
1142:successfully invade and capture
1103:
912:, in an unsuccessful effort to
888:
850:
806:
743:
13612:Great Palace of Constantinople
13353:Patriarchate of Constantinople
12672:
12044:Byzantium at War (9th–12th c.)
11931:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes (1994),
11621:, Cambridge University Press,
11513:Byzantium: The Early Centuries
11289:, Cambridge University Press,
11222:Lane, Frederic Chapin (1973),
11104:, Princeton University Press,
11048:Byzantine Armies: AD 1118–1461
10721:Christides, Vassilios (1984),
10673:, Princeton University Press,
10603:10.1080/00253359.1966.10659307
10467:, Cambridge University Press,
5387:
5155:From the 12th century on, the
5126:) and even containers full of
4788:Byzantine and Christian Museum
3136:coast, and its capital was at
2833:general of the ships/seafarers
1015:in 644, they took to creating
13:
1:
11890:, Stanford University Press,
11711:, Brill Academic Publishers,
11388:10.1080/09518967.2021.1900171
11136:Kastritsis, Dimitris (2007),
10548:Birkenmeier, John W. (2002),
8719:, pp. 108–110, 137, 140.
7813:, pp. 138, 146–147, 188.
5183:
4850:(itself deriving from Arabic
4643:
4545:
4528:
4476:), which also housed a tent (
4250:Dromons and their derivatives
3951:megas droungarios tou ploïmou
3942:
3545:
3333:
3199:
3098:
2992:
2985:
2932:
2700:
2086:Naval expeditions of Manuel I
1899:Rus'–Byzantine War of 970–971
173:
165:
113:
65:
14074:University of Constantinople
13655:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
13005:
12805:Chartoularios tou vestiariou
12494:Byzantine successor states (
11949:Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966).
11808:, Texas A & M University
11799:Scafuri, Michael P. (2002),
11689:; Unger, Richard W. (eds.),
11285:MacCormick, Michael (2002),
11244:, Indiana University Press,
11208:, Harvard University Press,
11142:, Leiden and Boston: Brill,
10877:; Unger, Richard W. (eds.),
10810:The Journal of Roman Studies
9571:, pp. 307–308, 322–324.
7076:, pp. 106–107, 111–112.
5291:
5237:
5231:
5221:
5167:
5148:
5142:
5136:
5122:
5112:
5102:
5040:
5021:
5015:
5007:
4998:
4992:
4940:
4858:
4846:
4844:was replaced by the Western
4840:
4834:
4822:
4816:
4805:
4799:
4742:
4736:
4722:
4716:
4710:
4704:
4698:
4692:
4682:
4676:
4658:
4651:
4632:
4620:
4613:
4603:
4597:
4585:
4579:
4567:
4523:
4514:
4508:
4502:
4496:
4490:
4484:
4478:
4472:
4458:
4452:
4446:
4436:
4397:
4391:
4363:
4350:
4323:
4309:
4270:
4237:
4227:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4197:
4192:megas droungarios tou stolou
4191:
4185:
4171:
4165:
4145:
4139:
4101:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4067:
4055:
4041:
4035:
4017:
3962:
3956:
3950:
3937:
3913:
3907:
3901:
3895:
3888:
3882:
3870:
3864:
3858:
3852:
3846:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3814:
3806:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3771:
3755:
3747:
3741:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3715:
3705:
3697:
3689:
3681:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3640:
3634:
3628:
3622:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3560:
3558:type instead of the heavier
3554:
3540:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3505:
3500:Constantine Porphyrogennetos
3481:
3473:
3388:
3381:
3357:
3349:
3324:
3308:
3273:
3254:
3240:
3194:
3174:
3168:
3158:
3150:
3128:
3112:
3106:
3093:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3049:
3043:
3030:
3018:
3010:
3000:
2980:
2974:
2958:
2919:
2912:
2898:
2886:
2865:
2852:
2818:
2812:
2777:
2768:
2756:
2748:
2742:
2730:
2503:
2476:
2264:
2236:was destroyed by the pirate
2141:
2124:
2102:was able to raid Corfu, the
1948:
1940:
1932:
1881:
1868:
1788:
1780:
1725:
1639:
1633:for the construction of the
1558:
1228:Arab siege of Constantinople
1106: 685–695, 705–711
957:
422:
106:
97:
86:
7:
13744:Saint Catherine's Monastery
12800:Chartoularios tou sakelliou
12795:Logothetes tou stratiotikou
12293:
12198:Ελληνικά Πλοία του Μεσαίωνα
12118:Eickhoff, Ekkehard (1966).
11965:, Oxford University Press,
11935:, Oxford University Press,
11729:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
11664:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
11639:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
11599:Phillips, Jonathan (2004),
11410:, Oxford University Press,
11327:, Oxford University Press,
11307:, Oxford University Press,
11267:Revue des études byzantines
11224:Venice, a Maritime Republic
11070:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
10901:Revue des études byzantines
10848:; Gardiner, Robert (eds.).
5359:
5340:land-holders in the higher
5305:
5200:Madrid Skylitzes manuscript
5071:
4874:
4852:
3156:(mentioned collectively as
2978:). It was created from the
1664:Nikephoros Phokas the Elder
1605:of one of his raids before
1493:in the 830s, followed by a
1476:
1357:Madrid Skylitzes manuscript
1297:
1285:
1277:
1166:and his son and successor,
1148:Byzantine counter-offensive
525:'Classical' Byzantine army
10:
14233:
14133:Neo-Byzantine architecture
14097:
12754:Comes sacrarum largitionum
12234:10.1515/byzs.1976.69.2.411
12204:] (in Greek), Evropi,
11023:, Hambledon & London,
11021:Byzantium and The Crusades
10481:Bartusis, Mark C. (1997),
9605:Akkemik & Kocabas 2014
5342:military and civil offices
5215:
5187:
5161:
4864:
4828:
4786:, from an icon now at the
4754:
4748:
4638:
4626:
4591:
4573:
4385:
4367:), the abandonment of the
4317:
4282:
4276:
4253:
4221:
4183:, the subordinates of the
4159:
4153:
4073:
4061:
4049:
4025:
3511:
3328:) were split off from the
3318:
3302:
3267:
3234:
3188:
3122:
3094:thema tou Aigaiou Pelagous
3087:
2968:
2952:
2913:strategos ton karabisianon
2892:
2880:
2788:
2736:
2719:
2567:Islands, when the Emperor
2459:Andronikos III Palaiologos
2374:(1259–1282) concluded the
2310:
2196:
2187:
1916:
1895:threatening Constantinople
1763:the Empire's second city,
1743:, while in the next year,
1504:
1388:independence of Byzantine
1151:
1034:Byzantine military manuals
983:
975:Struggle against the Arabs
870:, an army of 15,000 under
14160:
14103:
14092:
14013:
13913:
13871:
13816:
13761:
13716:
13703:Sant'Apollinare in Classe
13688:
13645:
13577:
13547:
13538:
13534:
13523:
13465:
13323:
13319:
13308:
13230:
13176:
13115:
13072:
13024:
13011:
13000:
12959:
12934:
12903:
12862:
12853:
12828:
12772:
12736:
12689:
12682:
12678:
12667:
12540:
12456:
12403:
12334:
12305:
12301:
12288:
12221:Byzantinische Zeitschrift
11866:Stanford University Press
11118:Jenkins, Romilly (1987),
11041:, Wargames Research Group
11019:Harris, Jonathan (2006),
10744:Byzantinische Zeitschrift
10646:(1): 1–23, archived from
10526:10.1017/S1356186300000572
10461:Angelov, Dimiter (2007),
10298:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10286:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10274:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10262:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10238:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10226:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10214:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10166:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10142:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10130:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10070:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10058:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10022:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
10010:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9998:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9986:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9974:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9947:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9935:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9923:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9911:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9899:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9887:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9863:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9851:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9839:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9815:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9800:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9665:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9653:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9641:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9629:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9617:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9581:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9569:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9557:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9533:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9494:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9470:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9446:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9422:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9398:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9374:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9362:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9338:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9326:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9304:, pp. 232, 255, 276.
9302:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9278:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9254:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9188:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9176:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9164:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9152:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9128:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9104:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
9092:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8855:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8840:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8828:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8816:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8777:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8765:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8753:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8669:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8654:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
8251:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7217:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7164:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7137:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7101:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7074:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7038:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
7009:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6954:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6903:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6879:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6867:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6843:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6819:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6807:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6762:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6731:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6680:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6656:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6632:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6615:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6591:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6507:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6468:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6456:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6420:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6408:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6384:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6357:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6267:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6255:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6219:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6207:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6145:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6130:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6106:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6094:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6079:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
6067:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5956:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5944:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5929:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5917:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5896:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5848:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5824:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5684:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5672:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5648:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5636:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5624:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5577:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5565:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5529:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5512:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
5500:Pryor & Jeffreys 2006
4595:, 'all tribes'); and the
3850:, and a bow officer, the
3159:tourmarchai ton ploïmaton
3088:θέμα τοῦ Αἰγαίου Πελάγους
2964:Theme of the Cibyrrhaeots
2842:to the frontier with the
2431:Rhodes and the Dodecanese
2407:Andronikos II Palaiologos
2146:Andronikos Kontostephanos
1670:and forming the theme of
1658:another Muslim fleet off
1548:The ascension of Emperor
1405:Revolt of Thomas the Slav
1347:Renewed Muslim ascendancy
1269:Islamic apocalyptic texts
467:Andronikos II Palaiologos
331:
296:
223:
197:
187:
161:
143:
133:
123:
76:
39:
34:
13277:Droungarios of the Fleet
12122:(in German). De Gruyter.
11988:Bibicou, Helène (1958),
11914:6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813)
11864:. Stanford, California:
11259:Loenertz, Raymond-Joseph
10895:Failler, Albert (2003),
10640:Journal of World History
10348:, pp. 58–59, 61–63.
10118:Heath & McBride 1995
10108:, pp. 298–299, 331.
9802:, pp. 354, 356–357.
9448:, pp. 189–192, 372.
9178:, pp. 145–147, 152.
8755:, p. 271, note 364.
7540:, pp. 175–176, 317.
7420:, pp. 127, 153–154.
5364:
5297:Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi
4964:De Administrando Imperio
4244:
4233:cross and the firesteels
3925:Late period (1080s–1453)
3877:De Administrando Imperio
3215:Theme of the Peloponnese
3116:droungariate formed the
2372:Michael VIII Palaiologos
2164:deter an outright attack
1866:In the East, in 956 the
1491:raid against Paphlagonia
1056:Theophanes the Confessor
632:Droungarios of the Fleet
310:Byzantine–Bulgarian wars
14217:Deforestation in Turkey
13791:Early Byzantine mosaics
13153:Domestic of the Schools
12006:10.3406/ahess.1958.2743
11837:Tougher, Shaun (1997),
11617:Pryor, John H. (1988),
11490:Nicolle, David (2005),
11472:Nicolle, David (1996),
11321:Macrides, Ruth (2007),
11279:10.3406/rebyz.1959.1204
10913:10.3406/rebyz.2003.2279
10631:Campbell, I.C. (1995),
10334:Lewis & Runyan 1985
8918:Lewis & Runyan 1985
8003:Lewis & Runyan 1985
7967:Lewis & Runyan 1985
7919:Lewis & Runyan 1985
6243:Lewis & Runyan 1985
6007:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5872:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5836:Lewis & Runyan 1985
5449:Lewis & Runyan 1985
4872:Sicily, where the term
3930:Reforms of the Komnenoi
3725:(later with the prefix
3083:Theme of the Aegean Sea
3063:('Twelve Islands') and
2510:Theodore II Palaiologos
2367:another similar attempt
2363:blockade Constantinople
2116:Robert III of Loritello
1759:, before proceeding to
1601:(882–891), despite the
1559:droungarios tou ploïmou
1291:, and authorities like
945:siege of Constantinople
844:flared up, the Emperor
699:Walls of Constantinople
586:Domestic of the Schools
492:Part of a series on the
88:droungarios tou ploïmou
14108:Byzantine commonwealth
12870:Praetorian prefectures
12790:Logothetes tou genikou
12764:Quaestor sacri palatii
12759:Comes rerum privatarum
12532:Fall of Constantinople
12471:Sack of Constantinople
11494:, Praeger Publishers,
11476:, Brockhampton Press,
10927:Geanakoplos, Deno John
10447:The Syropoulos Project
8417:, pp. 1122, 1250.
7468:, pp. 74–76, 114.
5265:
5258:"As he knew that the
5202:
5089:
5034:
4896:
4886:
4880:
4794:
4630:, 'single-banked') or
4618:single-bank ship, the
4601:proper, crewed by two
4562:
4380:
4335:Evolution and features
4321:, from the Greek word
3710:
3244:) was responsible for
3024:(deputy commander) at
2800:
2707:
2486:civil war of 1341–1347
2322:
2246:Metropolitan of Athens
2238:Margaritus of Brindisi
2228:
2225:fall of Constantinople
2044:
1956:
1832:
1700:
1593:was strengthened, and
1545:
1538:Basil I the Macedonian
1530:
1428:
1378:
1360:
1175:
1118:gradually took control
1051:
995:
813:sacking and plundering
783:clashed in 324 AD
759:
657:revolts and civil wars
480:fall of Constantinople
398:early Muslim conquests
326:Byzantine–Ottoman wars
103:(8th–11th centuries),
13808:Komnenian renaissance
13803:Macedonian period art
13708:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
13680:Walls of Thessaloniki
12780:Logothetes tou dromou
12395:Twenty Years' Anarchy
12359:Valentinianic dynasty
12354:Constantinian dynasty
11555:Byzantium: The Apogee
11050:, Osprey Publishing,
10983:. London: UCL Press.
10869:Dotson, John (2003),
10757:10.1515/BYZS.2008.577
6821:, pp. 76–77, 89.
6533:, pp. 82, 86–87.
5256:
5197:
5188:Further information:
5079:
5031:
4781:
4553:
4346:Harbour of Theodosius
4254:Further information:
3886:) who rose to become
3735:logothetes tou dromou
3678:
2925:first appears in the
2923:of the Imperial Fleet
2810:. It was headed by a
2806:, or the army of the
2766:Rise and fall of the
2698:
2569:John VIII Palaiologos
2490:John VI Kantakouzenos
2320:
2222:
2206:Andronikos I Komnenos
2039:
1965:of Kekaumenos, Ch. 87
1928:
1861:Battle of the Straits
1822:
1782:logothetes tou dromou
1715:across the Danube to
1697:
1527:
1424:
1354:
1341:iconoclastic policies
1255:Alexandrian fleet at
1172:iconoclastic policies
1161:
1039:
998:During the 640s, the
993:
776:Constantine the Great
756:
318:Byzantine–Norman wars
83:(Commander-in-chief);
46:The imperial ensign (
14005:Units of measurement
13739:Panagia Gorgoepikoos
13632:Pammakaristos Church
13480:Corpus Juris Civilis
13431:Missionary activity
12890:Exarchate of Ravenna
12716:Imperial bureaucracy
11884:Treadgold, Warren T.
11551:Norwich, John Julius
11530:Norwich, John Julius
11509:Norwich, John Julius
11369:(6), Athens: 152–171
10998:Halm, Heinz (1996).
10591:The Mariner's Mirror
9328:, pp. 205, 291.
8584:, pp. 154, 159.
8053:, pp. 315, 382.
7750:, pp. 382, 387.
7354:, pp. 166, 171.
7139:, pp. 112, 115.
5397:. Flags of the World
4950:of Leo the Wise and
4878:was replaced by the
4534:m, and are built of
4228:basilikon phlamoulon
4117:their services with
4113:in the Peloponnese.
3661:komes tes hetaireias
3298:Theme of Paphlagonia
3263:Theme of Cephallenia
2538:Crusade of Nicopolis
2388:Venetian–Genoese war
2293:first Crusader siege
2157:Kingdom of Jerusalem
1887:Liutprand of Cremona
1849:Constantine Gongyles
1376:, while in 803, the
1217:Leo III the Isaurian
1164:Leo III the Isaurian
1128:. The Arab governor
800:, under the capable
672:Strategy and tactics
559:Palaiologan-era army
48:basilikon phlamoulon
13529:Culture and society
13392:Ecumenical councils
12895:Exarchate of Africa
12885:Quaestura exercitus
12749:Magister officiorum
12744:Praetorian prefects
12387:Byzantine Dark Ages
11959:Ward-Perkins, Bryan
11767:1934Natur.134S.795.
11687:Hattendorf, John B.
11305:Late Roman Warlords
11037:Heath, Ian (1984),
10875:Hattendorf, John B.
10312:, pp. 103–104.
10300:, pp. 385–386.
10276:, pp. 388–390.
10240:, pp. 610–611.
10228:, pp. 630–631.
10144:, pp. 378–379.
10132:, pp. 607–609.
10036:, pp. 102–104.
9988:, pp. 505–507.
9976:, pp. 399–400.
9925:, pp. 396–399.
9913:, pp. 394–395.
9901:, pp. 513–515.
9889:, pp. 387–392.
9841:, pp. 388–389.
9829:, pp. 219–220.
9727:, pp. 123–124.
9691:, pp. 110–111.
9655:, pp. 418–419.
9643:, pp. 415–416.
9631:, pp. 413–415.
9619:, pp. 407–411.
9535:, pp. 284–286.
9508:, pp. 159–161.
9472:, pp. 261–262.
9460:, pp. 149–150.
9436:, pp. 190–191.
9424:, pp. 143–144.
9316:, pp. 164–165.
9292:, pp. 103–104.
9280:, pp. 130–135.
9256:, pp. 153–159.
9241:, pp. 326–329.
9190:, pp. 134–135.
9166:, pp. 138–140.
9142:, pp. 188–191.
9130:, pp. 166–169.
9106:, pp. 125–126.
9094:, pp. 123–125.
9070:, pp. 232–239.
9058:, pp. 209–211.
8932:, pp. 100–101.
8893:, pp. 234–235.
8830:, pp. 270–271.
8731:, pp. 535–536.
8644:, pp. 157–158.
8632:, pp. 154–156.
8620:, pp. 154–155.
8608:, pp. 413–414.
8596:, pp. 330–331.
8465:, pp. 104–105.
7981:, pp. 324–325.
7897:, pp. 578–583.
7825:, pp. 146–147.
7801:, pp. 376–377.
7726:, pp. 386–387.
7702:, pp. 220–221.
7639:, pp. 383–384.
7588:, pp. 381–382.
7576:, pp. 164–166.
7564:, pp. 380–381.
7528:, pp. 375–378.
7516:, pp. 158–167.
7456:, pp. 374–376.
7378:, pp. 171–172.
7327:, pp. 168–169.
7315:, pp. 294–296.
7303:, pp. 291–292.
7291:, pp. 293–294.
7279:, pp. 290–291.
7267:, pp. 289–290.
7255:, pp. 288–289.
7231:, pp. 128–130.
7088:, pp. 98, 103.
6670:, pp. 404–405.
6581:, pp. 469–470.
6521:, pp. 186–188.
6497:, pp. 185–186.
6482:, pp. 463–464.
6233:, pp. 102–105.
5970:, pp. 352–353.
5698:, pp. 259–297.
5543:, pp. 306–307.
4930:Tactics and weapons
4916:Council of Florence
4680:) or supply ships (
4536:European Black Pine
4222:βασιλικὸν φλάμουλον
4123:Giovanni de lo Cavo
4004:Gallipoli peninsula
3977:Theodore I Laskaris
3871:protos protokarabos
3277:), controlling the
2975:thema Kibyrrhaioton
2802:quaestura exercitus
2577:Count of Cephalonia
2546:Ottoman Interregnum
2422:Nikephoros Gregoras
2376:Treaty of Nymphaeum
2339:Empire of Trebizond
2335:Despotate of Epirus
2282:Alexios III Angelos
2007:Battle of Manzikert
1749:fell to the Muslims
1676:Catepanate of Italy
1461:, followed soon by
1079:Battle of the Masts
1017:a navy of their own
967:passage across the
838:Ostrogothic Kingdom
739:Operational history
463:Palaiologan dynasty
314:Rus'–Byzantine wars
306:Arab–Byzantine wars
144:Active regions
13946:Flags and insignia
13592:Baths of Zeuxippus
13475:Codex Theodosianus
13365:Oriental Orthodoxy
12323:Later Roman Empire
11814:Setton, Kenneth M.
11202:Laiou, Angeliki E.
11157:Kazhdan, Alexander
10949:Guilland, Rodolphe
6422:, pp. 65, 68.
6120:, pp. 76–106.
5686:, pp. 19, 24.
5203:
5090:
5035:
4960:Syrianos Magistros
4952:Nikephoros Ouranos
4795:
4768:broad-leaved trees
4563:
4416:Isidore of Seville
3880:to first oarsmen (
3711:
3709:(late 9th century)
3672:) of the admiral.
3584:were two or three
3309:thema Paphlagonias
3274:thema Kephallenias
2874:The Imperial Fleet
2708:
2691:Fleet organization
2615:Notitia Dignitatum
2427:Benedetto Zaccaria
2323:
2229:
2177:Philip of Flanders
2096:Roger II of Sicily
2035:Alexios I Komnenos
1833:
1805:Tiberios Apsimaros
1701:
1546:
1514:Macedonian dynasty
1447:conquest of Sicily
1374:Carolingian Empire
1361:
1176:
996:
760:
546:Komnenian-era army
513:Structural history
451:period of recovery
374:command of the sea
125:Dates of operation
52:tetragrammic cross
14194:
14193:
14156:
14155:
14113:Byzantine studies
14088:
14087:
14084:
14083:
13899:Alexander Romance
13757:
13756:
13734:Nea Moni of Chios
13597:Blachernae Palace
13519:
13518:
13515:
13514:
13485:Code of Justinian
13333:Eastern Orthodoxy
13304:
13303:
13300:
13299:
13226:
13225:
13100:Scholae Palatinae
12996:
12995:
12992:
12991:
12961:Foreign relations
12955:
12954:
12849:
12848:
12663:
12662:
12659:
12658:
12462:(1204–1453)
11972:978-0-19-280728-1
11924:978-0-8122-1128-3
11905:Turtledove, Harry
11856:Treadgold, Warren
11784:978-0-416-70380-1
11727:Morrison, John S.
11718:978-90-04-15197-0
11662:Morrison, John S.
11637:Morrison, John S.
11610:978-0-14-303590-9
11564:978-0-14-011448-5
11557:, Penguin Books,
11543:978-0-14-011449-2
11536:, Penguin Books,
11522:978-0-14-011447-8
11515:, Penguin Books,
11501:978-0-275-98856-2
11464:978-0-521-43991-6
11334:978-0-19-921067-1
11314:978-0-19-925244-2
11296:978-0-521-66102-7
11233:978-0-8018-1460-0
11149:978-90-04-15836-8
11111:978-0-691-01754-9
11068:Morrison, John S.
11057:978-1-85532-347-6
11030:978-1-85285-501-7
10846:Morrison, John S.
10801:978-0-19-537517-6
10727:Academy of Athens
10680:978-0-691-01477-7
10582:978-2-226-04722-9
10474:978-0-521-85703-1
10411:Ahrweiler, Hélène
10336:, pp. 38–39.
10120:, pp. 19–21.
9877:, pp. 79–80.
9778:, pp. 71–77.
9593:Makrypoulias 1995
9506:Makrypoulias 1995
9482:Makrypoulias 1995
9314:Makrypoulias 1995
9217:, pp. 57–64.
9022:, pp. 46–47.
8971:, pp. 44–45.
8642:Makrypoulias 1995
8630:Makrypoulias 1995
8618:Makrypoulias 1995
8582:Makrypoulias 1995
8453:, pp. 95–96.
8441:, pp. 85–89.
8405:, pp. 83ff..
8369:, pp. 83–85.
8333:, pp. 64–65.
8321:, pp. 79–81.
8306:, pp. 76–79.
8294:, pp. 82–83.
8241:, pp. 26–31.
8214:, pp. 50–51.
8202:, pp. 33–34.
8190:, pp. 73–74.
8130:, pp. 31–35.
8118:, pp. 24–25.
8077:, pp. 22–23.
7969:, pp. 20–22.
7931:Ward-Perkins 2005
7885:, pp. 53–56.
7849:, pp. 18–19.
7714:, pp. 98–99.
7444:, pp. 59–60.
6944:, pp. 59–61.
6932:, pp. 55–58.
6869:, pp. 91–93.
6833:, pp. 90–91.
6809:, pp. 87–88.
6764:, pp. 75–76.
6709:, pp. 63–79.
6682:, pp. 74–75.
6557:, pp. 93–94.
6458:, pp. 65–66.
6410:, pp. 64–65.
6398:, pp. 49–50.
6221:, pp. 48–49.
6132:, pp. 46–47.
6108:, pp. 45–46.
6081:, pp. 41–42.
5958:, pp. 31–32.
5931:, pp. 29–30.
5850:, pp. 26–27.
5674:, pp. 17–18.
5638:, pp. 14–15.
5475:, pp. 48–49.
4408:mortise and tenon
4266:liburnian galleys
4213:, and the junior
4172:megas droungarios
3706:basilikon ploïmon
3679:Seal of Niketas,
3652:('counts', sing.
3464:
3463:
3374:Manpower and size
3164:Taktikon Uspensky
2969:θέμα Κιβυρραιωτῶν
2928:Taktikon Uspensky
2908:Rodolphe Guilland
2899:basilikon ploïmon
2893:βασιλικὸν πλόϊμον
2797:
2728:
2635:Codex Justinianus
2482:Alexios Apokaukos
2347:John III Vatatzes
2270:Michael Stryphnos
2249:Michael Choniates
2182:Niketas Choniates
2100:George of Antioch
2092:Manuel I Komnenos
2003:Kingdom of Sicily
1877:Nikephoros Phokas
1873:Basil Hexamilites
1801:Romanos Lekapenos
1599:Yazaman al-Khadim
1261:Umayyad Caliphate
1126:briefly retake it
1077:(641–668) in the
1021:Arabian peninsula
949:Sassanid Persians
924:and the coast of
736:
735:
383:was posed by the
381:Mediterranean Sea
362:Roman predecessor
346:
345:
287:Anatolian beyliks
148:Mediterranean Sea
81:Byzantine Emperor
16:(Redirected from
14224:
14181:
14094:
14093:
14037:Imperial Library
13983:Byzantine Greeks
13724:Daphni Monastery
13675:Panagia Chalkeon
13670:Hagios Demetrios
13637:Prison of Anemas
13587:Basilica Cistern
13545:
13544:
13536:
13535:
13525:
13524:
13380:West Syriac Rite
13370:Alexandrian Rite
13321:
13320:
13314:Religion and law
13310:
13309:
13245:Maritime themata
13201:Palaiologan army
13054:Military manuals
13022:
13021:
13013:
13012:
13002:
13001:
12860:
12859:
12836:Megas logothetes
12687:
12686:
12680:
12679:
12669:
12668:
12542:By modern region
12463:
12410:
12409:(717–1204)
12341:
12303:
12302:
12290:
12289:
12281:Byzantine Empire
12274:
12267:
12260:
12251:
12250:
12245:
12214:
12192:
12174:
12168:
12160:
12151:
12123:
12114:
12101:
12068:
12066:
12060:, archived from
12049:
12037:
12035:
12028:
12016:
11975:
11954:
11945:
11927:
11900:
11879:
11851:
11833:
11809:
11807:
11795:
11775:10.1038/134795c0
11751:Runciman, Steven
11746:
11721:
11703:
11681:
11656:
11631:
11613:
11595:
11567:
11546:
11525:
11504:
11486:
11468:
11449:Nicol, Donald M.
11444:
11425:Nicol, Donald M.
11420:
11399:
11370:
11361:
11337:
11317:
11299:
11281:
11254:
11236:
11218:
11197:
11176:
11152:
11132:
11114:
11103:
11087:
11060:
11042:
11033:
11015:
10994:
10970:
10944:
10922:
10921:
10919:
10891:
10865:
10840:
10804:
10786:
10775:
10737:
10717:
10704:
10683:
10660:
10659:
10658:
10652:
10637:
10627:
10605:
10585:
10564:
10544:
10506:
10497:
10477:
10457:
10455:
10454:
10437:
10420:
10397:
10391:
10379:
10373:
10367:
10361:
10355:
10349:
10343:
10337:
10331:
10325:
10319:
10313:
10307:
10301:
10295:
10289:
10283:
10277:
10271:
10265:
10259:
10253:
10247:
10241:
10235:
10229:
10223:
10217:
10211:
10205:
10199:
10193:
10187:
10181:
10175:
10169:
10163:
10157:
10151:
10145:
10139:
10133:
10127:
10121:
10115:
10109:
10103:
10097:
10091:
10085:
10079:
10073:
10067:
10061:
10055:
10049:
10043:
10037:
10031:
10025:
10019:
10013:
10007:
10001:
9995:
9989:
9983:
9977:
9971:
9965:
9959:
9950:
9944:
9938:
9932:
9926:
9920:
9914:
9908:
9902:
9896:
9890:
9884:
9878:
9872:
9866:
9860:
9854:
9848:
9842:
9836:
9830:
9824:
9818:
9812:
9803:
9797:
9791:
9785:
9779:
9773:
9767:
9761:
9755:
9749:
9740:
9734:
9728:
9722:
9716:
9710:
9704:
9698:
9692:
9686:
9680:
9674:
9668:
9662:
9656:
9650:
9644:
9638:
9632:
9626:
9620:
9614:
9608:
9602:
9596:
9590:
9584:
9578:
9572:
9566:
9560:
9554:
9548:
9542:
9536:
9530:
9524:
9518:
9509:
9503:
9497:
9491:
9485:
9479:
9473:
9467:
9461:
9455:
9449:
9443:
9437:
9431:
9425:
9419:
9413:
9407:
9401:
9395:
9389:
9383:
9377:
9371:
9365:
9359:
9353:
9347:
9341:
9335:
9329:
9323:
9317:
9311:
9305:
9299:
9293:
9287:
9281:
9275:
9269:
9263:
9257:
9251:
9242:
9236:
9230:
9229:, pp. 8–11.
9224:
9218:
9212:
9206:
9200:
9191:
9185:
9179:
9173:
9167:
9161:
9155:
9149:
9143:
9137:
9131:
9125:
9119:
9113:
9107:
9101:
9095:
9089:
9083:
9077:
9071:
9065:
9059:
9056:Geanakoplos 1959
9053:
9047:
9041:
9035:
9029:
9023:
9017:
9011:
9005:
8999:
8993:
8987:
8981:
8972:
8966:
8960:
8954:
8945:
8939:
8933:
8927:
8921:
8915:
8906:
8900:
8894:
8888:
8882:
8876:
8870:
8864:
8858:
8852:
8843:
8837:
8831:
8825:
8819:
8813:
8807:
8801:
8795:
8789:
8780:
8774:
8768:
8762:
8756:
8750:
8744:
8738:
8732:
8726:
8720:
8714:
8708:
8702:
8696:
8690:
8684:
8678:
8672:
8666:
8657:
8651:
8645:
8639:
8633:
8627:
8621:
8615:
8609:
8603:
8597:
8591:
8585:
8579:
8573:
8567:
8561:
8555:
8549:
8543:
8537:
8531:
8525:
8519:
8508:
8502:
8496:
8490:
8481:
8475:
8466:
8460:
8454:
8448:
8442:
8436:
8430:
8424:
8418:
8412:
8406:
8400:
8394:
8388:
8382:
8376:
8370:
8364:
8358:
8352:
8346:
8340:
8334:
8328:
8322:
8316:
8307:
8301:
8295:
8289:
8283:
8277:
8266:
8260:
8254:
8248:
8242:
8236:
8230:
8224:
8215:
8209:
8203:
8197:
8191:
8185:
8179:
8173:
8164:
8158:
8152:
8146:
8131:
8125:
8119:
8113:
8107:
8101:
8095:
8089:
8078:
8072:
8066:
8060:
8054:
8048:
8042:
8036:
8030:
8024:
8018:
8012:
8006:
8000:
7994:
7988:
7982:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7928:
7922:
7916:
7910:
7904:
7898:
7892:
7886:
7880:
7874:
7868:
7862:
7856:
7850:
7844:
7838:
7832:
7826:
7820:
7814:
7808:
7802:
7796:
7790:
7784:
7775:
7769:
7763:
7757:
7751:
7745:
7739:
7733:
7727:
7721:
7715:
7709:
7703:
7697:
7691:
7685:
7676:
7670:
7664:
7658:
7652:
7646:
7640:
7634:
7628:
7622:
7616:
7610:
7604:
7598:
7589:
7583:
7577:
7571:
7565:
7559:
7553:
7547:
7541:
7535:
7529:
7523:
7517:
7511:
7505:
7499:
7493:
7487:
7481:
7475:
7469:
7463:
7457:
7451:
7445:
7439:
7433:
7427:
7421:
7418:Geanakoplos 1959
7415:
7409:
7403:
7394:
7388:
7379:
7373:
7367:
7361:
7355:
7349:
7340:
7334:
7328:
7322:
7316:
7310:
7304:
7298:
7292:
7286:
7280:
7274:
7268:
7262:
7256:
7250:
7244:
7238:
7232:
7226:
7220:
7214:
7203:
7200:Birkenmeier 2002
7197:
7191:
7185:
7179:
7173:
7167:
7161:
7155:
7149:
7140:
7134:
7128:
7122:
7116:
7110:
7104:
7098:
7089:
7083:
7077:
7071:
7065:
7059:
7053:
7047:
7041:
7035:
7024:
7018:
7012:
7006:
7000:
6994:
6981:
6975:
6969:
6963:
6957:
6951:
6945:
6939:
6933:
6927:
6921:
6918:Birkenmeier 2002
6915:
6906:
6900:
6894:
6888:
6882:
6876:
6870:
6864:
6858:
6852:
6846:
6840:
6834:
6828:
6822:
6816:
6810:
6804:
6798:
6786:
6777:
6771:
6765:
6759:
6753:
6747:
6734:
6728:
6722:
6716:
6710:
6704:
6695:
6689:
6683:
6677:
6671:
6665:
6659:
6653:
6647:
6641:
6635:
6629:
6618:
6612:
6606:
6600:
6594:
6588:
6582:
6576:
6570:
6564:
6558:
6552:
6546:
6540:
6534:
6528:
6522:
6516:
6510:
6504:
6498:
6492:
6483:
6477:
6471:
6465:
6459:
6453:
6447:
6441:
6435:
6429:
6423:
6417:
6411:
6405:
6399:
6393:
6387:
6381:
6372:
6366:
6360:
6354:
6348:
6342:
6333:
6327:
6321:
6315:
6306:
6300:
6294:
6288:
6282:
6276:
6270:
6264:
6258:
6252:
6246:
6240:
6234:
6228:
6222:
6216:
6210:
6204:
6195:
6189:
6183:
6177:
6171:
6165:
6148:
6142:
6133:
6127:
6121:
6115:
6109:
6103:
6097:
6091:
6082:
6076:
6070:
6064:
6058:
6052:
6046:
6040:
6034:
6028:
6022:
6016:
6010:
6004:
5998:
5992:
5983:
5977:
5971:
5965:
5959:
5953:
5947:
5941:
5932:
5926:
5920:
5914:
5899:
5893:
5887:
5881:
5875:
5869:
5863:
5857:
5851:
5845:
5839:
5833:
5827:
5821:
5810:
5804:
5798:
5792:
5786:
5780:
5774:
5768:
5755:
5749:
5740:
5734:
5728:
5722:
5711:
5710:, pp. 9–10.
5705:
5699:
5693:
5687:
5681:
5675:
5669:
5663:
5657:
5651:
5645:
5639:
5633:
5627:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5603:
5597:
5580:
5574:
5568:
5562:
5556:
5550:
5544:
5538:
5532:
5526:
5515:
5509:
5503:
5497:
5491:
5485:
5476:
5470:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5440:
5434:
5423:
5417:
5406:
5405:
5403:
5402:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5308:
5294:
5279:
5240:
5234:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5170:
5164:
5163:
5151:
5145:
5139:
5125:
5115:
5105:
5066:boarding actions
5043:
5024:
5018:
5012:
5001:
4995:
4943:
4936:military manuals
4910:
4899:
4889:
4883:
4877:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4855:
4849:
4843:
4837:
4831:
4830:
4825:
4819:
4808:
4802:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4739:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4688:horse-transports
4685:
4679:
4663:
4654:
4648:
4645:
4641:
4640:
4635:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4616:
4606:
4600:
4594:
4593:
4588:
4582:
4576:
4575:
4570:
4533:
4530:
4526:
4517:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4493:
4487:
4481:
4475:
4461:
4455:
4449:
4439:
4402:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4366:
4353:
4326:
4320:
4319:
4314:
4301:
4298:
4295:
4292:
4289:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4240:
4230:
4224:
4223:
4218:
4212:
4206:
4200:
4194:
4188:
4174:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4156:
4155:
4150:
4142:
4104:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4076:
4075:
4070:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4038:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4010:Palaiologan navy
3989:
3988: 1254–1258
3987:
3965:
3959:
3953:
3947:
3944:
3940:
3916:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3891:
3885:
3873:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3819:
3811:
3803:
3795:
3789:
3776:
3760:
3752:
3744:
3738:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3708:
3702:
3694:
3686:
3671:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3645:
3637:
3631:
3625:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3589:
3583:
3577:
3563:
3557:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3531:
3525:
3514:
3513:
3508:
3484:
3478:
3398:
3397:
3391:
3384:
3360:
3354:
3338:
3335:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3314:Theme of Chaldia
3311:
3305:
3304:
3303:θέμα Παφλαγονίας
3276:
3270:
3269:
3268:θέμα Κεφαλληνίας
3257:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3209:with capital at
3204:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3177:
3171:
3161:
3155:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3115:
3109:
3103:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3062:
3052:
3046:
3034:of Attaleia and
3033:
3023:
3015:
3003:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2983:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2940:Hélène Ahrweiler
2937:
2934:
2922:
2915:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2889:
2887:basilikos stolos
2883:
2882:
2881:βασιλικὸς στόλος
2868:
2855:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2805:
2792:
2790:
2782:
2771:
2761:
2753:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2723:
2721:
2705:
2702:
2610:Classis Histrica
2581:Despot of Epirus
2514:Gemistos Plethon
2508:
2498:sunk or captured
2479:
2403:Charles of Anjou
2343:Empire of Nicaea
2267:
2214:Isaac II Angelos
2144:
2137:horse transports
2129:
2072:John II Komnenos
1966:
1953:
1945:
1937:
1913:Komnenian period
1903:John I Tzimiskes
1884:
1871:
1829:Madrid Skylitzes
1794:Emirate of Crete
1791:
1785:
1737:Damian of Tarsus
1730:
1642:
1563:Niketas Ooryphas
1561:
1535:
1520:Reign of Basil I
1495:major expedition
1481:
1441:
1383:
1318:
1316:
1300:
1290:
1282:
1225:
1223:
1214:
1212:
1203:
1201:
1192:
1190:
1107:
1105:
1088:first Arab siege
1065:
1027:(especially the
962:
892:
890:
854:
852:
810:
808:
794:Vandalic Kingdom
768:Battle of Actium
728:
721:
714:
690:Military manuals
646:Campaign history
581:Magister militum
508:
489:
488:
455:Komnenos dynasty
427:
358:Byzantine Empire
335:Preceded by
302:Justinianic Wars
297:Battles and wars
247:Emirate of Crete
192:Byzantine Empire
178:
175:
170:
167:
126:
118:
115:
111:
102:
91:
70:
67:
44:
32:
31:
21:
14232:
14231:
14227:
14226:
14225:
14223:
14222:
14221:
14197:
14196:
14195:
14190:
14187:
14152:
14128:Cyrillic script
14099:
14080:
14025:
14009:
13909:
13891:Digenes Akritas
13867:
13812:
13753:
13717:Other locations
13712:
13684:
13641:
13573:
13562:Cross-in-square
13530:
13511:
13461:
13315:
13296:
13222:
13172:
13168:Varangian Guard
13111:
13085:East Roman army
13080:Late Roman army
13068:
13007:
12988:
12951:
12930:
12899:
12845:
12824:
12820:Epi ton deeseon
12810:Epi tou eidikou
12768:
12732:
12674:
12655:
12642:
12545:
12543:
12536:
12522:Palaiologan era
12464:
12461:
12452:
12423:Nikephorian era
12411:
12408:
12399:
12342:
12340:(330–717)
12339:
12330:
12310:
12297:
12284:
12278:
12248:
12212:
12190:
12162:
12161:
12113:, Rome: 324–339
12064:
12058:
12047:
12033:
12026:
11983:
11981:Further reading
11978:
11973:
11943:
11925:
11898:
11876:
11849:
11830:
11805:
11785:
11743:
11719:
11701:
11678:
11653:
11629:
11611:
11565:
11544:
11523:
11502:
11484:
11465:
11441:
11418:
11358:
11342:Magdalino, Paul
11335:
11315:
11297:
11252:
11234:
11216:
11195:
11173:
11150:
11130:
11112:
11084:
11058:
11031:
11012:
10991:
10917:
10915:
10889:
10862:
10802:
10702:
10681:
10656:
10654:
10650:
10635:
10583:
10562:
10495:
10475:
10452:
10450:
10405:
10400:
10380:
10376:
10368:
10364:
10356:
10352:
10344:
10340:
10332:
10328:
10320:
10316:
10308:
10304:
10296:
10292:
10284:
10280:
10272:
10268:
10260:
10256:
10248:
10244:
10236:
10232:
10224:
10220:
10212:
10208:
10202:Christides 1984
10200:
10196:
10188:
10184:
10176:
10172:
10164:
10160:
10152:
10148:
10140:
10136:
10128:
10124:
10116:
10112:
10104:
10100:
10092:
10088:
10080:
10076:
10068:
10064:
10056:
10052:
10044:
10040:
10032:
10028:
10020:
10016:
10008:
10004:
9996:
9992:
9984:
9980:
9972:
9968:
9960:
9953:
9945:
9941:
9933:
9929:
9921:
9917:
9909:
9905:
9897:
9893:
9885:
9881:
9875:Christides 1981
9873:
9869:
9861:
9857:
9849:
9845:
9837:
9833:
9825:
9821:
9813:
9806:
9798:
9794:
9786:
9782:
9774:
9770:
9762:
9758:
9750:
9743:
9735:
9731:
9723:
9719:
9711:
9707:
9699:
9695:
9687:
9683:
9675:
9671:
9663:
9659:
9651:
9647:
9639:
9635:
9627:
9623:
9615:
9611:
9603:
9599:
9591:
9587:
9579:
9575:
9567:
9563:
9555:
9551:
9543:
9539:
9531:
9527:
9519:
9512:
9504:
9500:
9492:
9488:
9480:
9476:
9468:
9464:
9456:
9452:
9444:
9440:
9432:
9428:
9420:
9416:
9408:
9404:
9396:
9392:
9384:
9380:
9372:
9368:
9360:
9356:
9348:
9344:
9336:
9332:
9324:
9320:
9312:
9308:
9300:
9296:
9288:
9284:
9276:
9272:
9264:
9260:
9252:
9245:
9237:
9233:
9225:
9221:
9213:
9209:
9201:
9194:
9186:
9182:
9174:
9170:
9162:
9158:
9150:
9146:
9138:
9134:
9126:
9122:
9114:
9110:
9102:
9098:
9090:
9086:
9078:
9074:
9066:
9062:
9054:
9050:
9042:
9038:
9034:, p. 1394.
9030:
9026:
9018:
9014:
9006:
9002:
8994:
8990:
8982:
8975:
8967:
8963:
8955:
8948:
8940:
8936:
8928:
8924:
8916:
8909:
8901:
8897:
8889:
8885:
8877:
8873:
8869:, p. 1330.
8865:
8861:
8853:
8846:
8838:
8834:
8826:
8822:
8814:
8810:
8806:, p. 1745.
8802:
8798:
8790:
8783:
8775:
8771:
8763:
8759:
8751:
8747:
8739:
8735:
8727:
8723:
8715:
8711:
8703:
8699:
8691:
8687:
8679:
8675:
8667:
8660:
8652:
8648:
8640:
8636:
8628:
8624:
8616:
8612:
8606:MacCormick 2002
8604:
8600:
8592:
8588:
8580:
8576:
8568:
8564:
8556:
8552:
8544:
8540:
8532:
8528:
8520:
8511:
8503:
8499:
8491:
8484:
8476:
8469:
8461:
8457:
8449:
8445:
8437:
8433:
8425:
8421:
8413:
8409:
8401:
8397:
8389:
8385:
8377:
8373:
8365:
8361:
8357:, p. 1836.
8353:
8349:
8341:
8337:
8329:
8325:
8317:
8310:
8302:
8298:
8290:
8286:
8282:, p. 1127.
8278:
8269:
8261:
8257:
8249:
8245:
8237:
8233:
8225:
8218:
8210:
8206:
8198:
8194:
8186:
8182:
8174:
8167:
8159:
8155:
8147:
8134:
8126:
8122:
8114:
8110:
8102:
8098:
8090:
8081:
8073:
8069:
8061:
8057:
8049:
8045:
8037:
8033:
8025:
8021:
8013:
8009:
8001:
7997:
7989:
7985:
7977:
7973:
7965:
7961:
7953:
7949:
7941:
7937:
7929:
7925:
7921:, pp. 4–8.
7917:
7913:
7905:
7901:
7893:
7889:
7881:
7877:
7869:
7865:
7857:
7853:
7845:
7841:
7835:Kastritsis 2007
7833:
7829:
7823:Kastritsis 2007
7821:
7817:
7811:Kastritsis 2007
7809:
7805:
7797:
7793:
7785:
7778:
7770:
7766:
7758:
7754:
7746:
7742:
7734:
7730:
7722:
7718:
7710:
7706:
7698:
7694:
7686:
7679:
7671:
7667:
7659:
7655:
7647:
7643:
7635:
7631:
7623:
7619:
7611:
7607:
7599:
7592:
7584:
7580:
7572:
7568:
7560:
7556:
7548:
7544:
7536:
7532:
7524:
7520:
7512:
7508:
7500:
7496:
7488:
7484:
7476:
7472:
7464:
7460:
7452:
7448:
7440:
7436:
7428:
7424:
7416:
7412:
7404:
7397:
7389:
7382:
7374:
7370:
7362:
7358:
7350:
7343:
7339:, pp. 4–5.
7335:
7331:
7323:
7319:
7311:
7307:
7299:
7295:
7287:
7283:
7275:
7271:
7263:
7259:
7251:
7247:
7239:
7235:
7227:
7223:
7215:
7206:
7198:
7194:
7186:
7182:
7174:
7170:
7162:
7158:
7150:
7143:
7135:
7131:
7123:
7119:
7111:
7107:
7099:
7092:
7084:
7080:
7072:
7068:
7060:
7056:
7048:
7044:
7036:
7027:
7019:
7015:
7007:
7003:
6995:
6984:
6976:
6972:
6964:
6960:
6952:
6948:
6940:
6936:
6928:
6924:
6916:
6909:
6901:
6897:
6889:
6885:
6877:
6873:
6865:
6861:
6853:
6849:
6841:
6837:
6829:
6825:
6817:
6813:
6805:
6801:
6787:
6780:
6772:
6768:
6760:
6756:
6748:
6737:
6729:
6725:
6717:
6713:
6705:
6698:
6690:
6686:
6678:
6674:
6666:
6662:
6654:
6650:
6644:MacCormick 2002
6642:
6638:
6630:
6621:
6613:
6609:
6603:Christides 1981
6601:
6597:
6589:
6585:
6577:
6573:
6565:
6561:
6555:Christides 1981
6553:
6549:
6541:
6537:
6531:Christides 1981
6529:
6525:
6517:
6513:
6505:
6501:
6493:
6486:
6478:
6474:
6466:
6462:
6454:
6450:
6444:MacCormick 2002
6442:
6438:
6430:
6426:
6418:
6414:
6406:
6402:
6394:
6390:
6382:
6375:
6367:
6363:
6355:
6351:
6343:
6336:
6330:MacCormick 2002
6328:
6324:
6316:
6309:
6301:
6297:
6289:
6285:
6277:
6273:
6265:
6261:
6253:
6249:
6241:
6237:
6229:
6225:
6217:
6213:
6205:
6198:
6190:
6186:
6180:Christides 1981
6178:
6174:
6166:
6151:
6143:
6136:
6128:
6124:
6118:Christides 1981
6116:
6112:
6104:
6100:
6092:
6085:
6077:
6073:
6065:
6061:
6055:Christides 1981
6053:
6049:
6041:
6037:
6029:
6025:
6017:
6013:
6005:
6001:
5993:
5986:
5978:
5974:
5966:
5962:
5954:
5950:
5942:
5935:
5927:
5923:
5915:
5902:
5894:
5890:
5882:
5878:
5870:
5866:
5858:
5854:
5846:
5842:
5834:
5830:
5822:
5813:
5807:Turtledove 1982
5805:
5801:
5793:
5789:
5781:
5777:
5769:
5758:
5750:
5743:
5735:
5731:
5723:
5714:
5706:
5702:
5694:
5690:
5682:
5678:
5670:
5666:
5658:
5654:
5646:
5642:
5634:
5630:
5622:
5618:
5610:
5606:
5598:
5583:
5575:
5571:
5563:
5559:
5551:
5547:
5539:
5535:
5527:
5518:
5510:
5506:
5498:
5494:
5486:
5479:
5471:
5467:
5459:
5455:
5447:
5443:
5435:
5426:
5418:
5409:
5400:
5398:
5393:
5392:
5388:
5380:
5371:
5367:
5362:
5323:
5313:), which had a
5281:
5267:
5192:
5186:
5146:with 200 bolts
5074:
4977:First Punic War
4972:
4941:peri naumachias
4932:
4904:
4812:William of Tyre
4776:
4665:Basil Lekapenos
4646:
4548:
4531:
4464:quarter rudders
4337:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4258:
4252:
4247:
4181:Book of Offices
4012:
3984:
3972:
3945:
3932:
3927:
3763:Book of Offices
3658:), including a
3570:
3548:
3376:
3365:, and possibly
3336:
3293:) in about 910.
3230:Theme of Sicily
3202:
3184:Theme of Hellas
3146:
3144:Local squadrons
3101:
3050:Aigaion Pelagos
2995:
2988:
2948:
2946:Maritime themes
2935:
2876:
2856:at Cibyrrha in
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2773:
2712:thematic system
2703:
2693:
2688:
2594:
2589:
2443:Catalan Company
2394:in Negroponte (
2315:
2309:
2201:
2195:
2190:
2088:
2023:
1981:George Maniakes
1968:
1958:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1845:Constantine VII
1817:
1705:Leo VI the Wise
1692:
1583:Corinthian Gulf
1542:Constantine VII
1522:
1509:
1503:
1443:
1430:
1384:recognized the
1370:Harun al-Rashid
1366:Gulf of Antalya
1349:
1313:
1220:
1209:
1198:
1187:
1156:
1150:
1130:Musa bin Nusair
1102:
1067:
1053:
1000:Muslim conquest
988:
982:
977:
887:
849:
834:
805:
751:
746:
741:
732:
596:Stratopedarches
571:Varangian Guard
521:East Roman army
342:
341:
337:
279:Crusader states
214:Crusader states
181:Manuel Komnenos
176:
172:
168:
124:
116:
104:
84:
72:
68:
28:
23:
22:
18:Byzantine fleet
15:
12:
11:
5:
14230:
14220:
14219:
14214:
14209:
14207:Byzantine navy
14192:
14191:
14189:
14188:
14186:
14185:
14175:
14170:
14164:
14161:
14158:
14157:
14154:
14153:
14151:
14150:
14145:
14140:
14135:
14130:
14125:
14120:
14115:
14110:
14104:
14101:
14100:
14090:
14089:
14086:
14085:
14082:
14081:
14079:
14078:
14077:
14076:
14066:
14061:
14060:
14059:
14049:
14044:
14039:
14034:
14028:
14026:
14024:
14023:
14020:
14014:
14011:
14010:
14008:
14007:
14002:
13997:
13992:
13987:
13986:
13985:
13975:
13974:
13973:
13968:
13958:
13953:
13948:
13943:
13938:
13933:
13928:
13923:
13917:
13915:
13911:
13910:
13908:
13907:
13902:
13895:
13894:
13893:
13883:
13877:
13875:
13869:
13868:
13866:
13865:
13860:
13859:
13858:
13853:
13848:
13838:
13833:
13828:
13822:
13820:
13814:
13813:
13811:
13810:
13805:
13800:
13795:
13794:
13793:
13783:
13778:
13773:
13767:
13765:
13759:
13758:
13755:
13754:
13752:
13751:
13746:
13741:
13736:
13731:
13726:
13720:
13718:
13714:
13713:
13711:
13710:
13705:
13700:
13694:
13692:
13686:
13685:
13683:
13682:
13677:
13672:
13667:
13662:
13660:Byzantine Bath
13657:
13651:
13649:
13643:
13642:
13640:
13639:
13634:
13629:
13624:
13619:
13614:
13609:
13604:
13599:
13594:
13589:
13583:
13581:
13579:Constantinople
13575:
13574:
13572:
13571:
13570:
13569:
13564:
13554:
13548:
13542:
13532:
13531:
13521:
13520:
13517:
13516:
13513:
13512:
13510:
13509:
13504:
13499:
13494:
13489:
13488:
13487:
13477:
13471:
13469:
13463:
13462:
13460:
13459:
13454:
13453:
13452:
13447:
13442:
13437:
13429:
13424:
13419:
13414:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13389:
13388:
13387:
13382:
13377:
13372:
13362:
13361:
13360:
13355:
13350:
13345:
13340:
13338:Byzantine Rite
13329:
13327:
13317:
13316:
13306:
13305:
13302:
13301:
13298:
13297:
13295:
13294:
13289:
13284:
13279:
13274:
13269:
13264:
13263:
13262:
13257:
13252:
13242:
13236:
13234:
13228:
13227:
13224:
13223:
13221:
13220:
13218:Grand domestic
13215:
13214:
13213:
13208:
13198:
13197:
13196:
13191:
13184:Komnenian army
13180:
13178:
13174:
13173:
13171:
13170:
13165:
13160:
13155:
13150:
13145:
13140:
13135:
13130:
13125:
13119:
13117:
13113:
13112:
13110:
13109:
13108:
13107:
13102:
13097:
13092:
13082:
13076:
13074:
13070:
13069:
13067:
13066:
13061:
13059:Military units
13056:
13051:
13046:
13041:
13036:
13031:
13029:Battle tactics
13025:
13019:
13009:
13008:
12998:
12997:
12994:
12993:
12990:
12989:
12987:
12986:
12981:
12976:
12971:
12965:
12963:
12957:
12956:
12953:
12952:
12950:
12949:
12944:
12938:
12936:
12932:
12931:
12929:
12928:
12923:
12918:
12913:
12907:
12905:
12901:
12900:
12898:
12897:
12892:
12887:
12882:
12877:
12872:
12866:
12864:
12857:
12851:
12850:
12847:
12846:
12844:
12843:
12838:
12832:
12830:
12826:
12825:
12823:
12822:
12817:
12812:
12807:
12802:
12797:
12792:
12787:
12782:
12776:
12774:
12770:
12769:
12767:
12766:
12761:
12756:
12751:
12746:
12740:
12738:
12734:
12733:
12731:
12730:
12725:
12724:
12723:
12721:Medieval Greek
12713:
12712:
12711:
12706:
12701:
12690:
12684:
12676:
12675:
12665:
12664:
12661:
12660:
12657:
12656:
12654:
12653:
12648:
12643:
12638:
12636:
12631:
12626:
12621:
12616:
12615:
12614:
12609:
12599:
12594:
12589:
12584:
12579:
12574:
12569:
12564:
12559:
12554:
12548:
12546:
12541:
12538:
12537:
12535:
12534:
12529:
12524:
12519:
12492:
12491:
12490:
12480:
12479:
12478:
12476:Fourth Crusade
12467:
12465:
12457:
12454:
12453:
12451:
12450:
12445:
12440:
12435:
12433:Macedonian era
12430:
12425:
12420:
12414:
12412:
12404:
12401:
12400:
12398:
12397:
12392:
12391:
12390:
12378:
12373:
12368:
12366:Theodosian era
12363:
12362:
12361:
12356:
12345:
12343:
12335:
12332:
12331:
12329:
12328:
12327:
12326:
12313:
12311:
12306:
12299:
12298:
12286:
12285:
12277:
12276:
12269:
12262:
12254:
12247:
12246:
12228:(2): 411–438.
12215:
12210:
12193:
12188:
12175:
12152:
12135:(1): 108–116,
12124:
12115:
12102:
12092:(2): 219–248.
12069:
12056:
12038:
12017:
12000:(2): 327–338,
11984:
11982:
11979:
11977:
11976:
11971:
11955:
11946:
11941:
11928:
11923:
11907:, ed. (1982),
11901:
11896:
11880:
11874:
11852:
11847:
11834:
11828:
11810:
11796:
11783:
11747:
11741:
11722:
11717:
11704:
11699:
11682:
11676:
11657:
11651:
11632:
11627:
11614:
11609:
11596:
11579:(2): 326–329,
11568:
11563:
11547:
11542:
11526:
11521:
11505:
11500:
11487:
11482:
11469:
11463:
11445:
11439:
11421:
11416:
11400:
11371:
11367:Graeco-Arabica
11362:
11356:
11338:
11333:
11318:
11313:
11300:
11295:
11282:
11255:
11250:
11237:
11232:
11219:
11214:
11198:
11193:
11177:
11171:
11159:, ed. (1991).
11153:
11148:
11133:
11128:
11115:
11110:
11089:
11088:
11082:
11062:
11061:
11056:
11043:
11034:
11029:
11016:
11010:
10995:
10989:
10971:
10945:
10923:
10892:
10887:
10866:
10860:
10841:
10822:10.2307/298170
10805:
10800:
10787:
10776:
10751:(2): 577–603,
10738:
10718:
10705:
10700:
10688:Casson, Lionel
10684:
10679:
10665:Casson, Lionel
10661:
10628:
10606:
10586:
10581:
10569:Bréhier, Louis
10565:
10560:
10545:
10507:
10498:
10493:
10478:
10473:
10458:
10438:
10421:
10406:
10404:
10401:
10399:
10398:
10374:
10362:
10350:
10338:
10326:
10324:, p. 149.
10314:
10302:
10290:
10288:, p. 385.
10278:
10266:
10264:, p. 386.
10254:
10252:, p. 197.
10242:
10230:
10218:
10216:, p. 384.
10206:
10194:
10182:
10180:, p. 292.
10170:
10168:, p. 617.
10158:
10156:, p. 105.
10146:
10134:
10122:
10110:
10098:
10096:, p. 134.
10086:
10084:, p. 102.
10074:
10072:, p. 381.
10062:
10060:, p. 509.
10050:
10038:
10026:
10024:, p. 402.
10014:
10012:, p. 505.
10002:
10000:, p. 499.
9990:
9978:
9966:
9964:, p. 100.
9951:
9949:, p. 399.
9939:
9937:, p. 144.
9927:
9915:
9903:
9891:
9879:
9867:
9865:, p. 387.
9855:
9853:, p. 383.
9843:
9831:
9819:
9817:, p. 360.
9804:
9792:
9780:
9768:
9766:, p. 209.
9756:
9741:
9729:
9717:
9715:, p. 123.
9705:
9703:, p. 116.
9693:
9681:
9679:, p. 115.
9669:
9667:, p. 420.
9657:
9645:
9633:
9621:
9609:
9597:
9595:, p. 168.
9585:
9573:
9561:
9559:, p. 305.
9549:
9547:, p. 108.
9537:
9525:
9510:
9498:
9496:, p. 190.
9486:
9484:, p. 165.
9474:
9462:
9450:
9438:
9426:
9414:
9412:, p. 104.
9402:
9400:, p. 282.
9390:
9388:, p. 189.
9378:
9376:, p. 203.
9366:
9364:, p. 215.
9354:
9342:
9340:, p. 238.
9330:
9318:
9306:
9294:
9282:
9270:
9258:
9243:
9231:
9219:
9207:
9192:
9180:
9168:
9156:
9154:, p. 127.
9144:
9132:
9120:
9118:, p. 102.
9108:
9096:
9084:
9082:, p. 540.
9072:
9060:
9048:
9036:
9024:
9012:
9010:, p. 158.
9000:
8988:
8973:
8961:
8959:, p. 405.
8957:Ahrweiler 1966
8946:
8934:
8922:
8907:
8905:, p. 233.
8903:Magdalino 2002
8895:
8891:Magdalino 2002
8883:
8881:, p. 144.
8871:
8859:
8857:, p. 274.
8844:
8842:, p. 273.
8832:
8820:
8818:, p. 275.
8808:
8796:
8781:
8779:, p. 268.
8769:
8767:, p. 393.
8757:
8745:
8733:
8721:
8709:
8707:, p. 119.
8697:
8693:Ahrweiler 1966
8685:
8683:, p. 104.
8681:Treadgold 1998
8673:
8671:, p. 267.
8658:
8656:, p. 266.
8646:
8634:
8622:
8610:
8598:
8586:
8574:
8572:, p. 267.
8562:
8550:
8548:, p. 188.
8538:
8536:, p. 843.
8534:Treadgold 1997
8526:
8524:, p. 576.
8522:Treadgold 1997
8509:
8507:, p. 412.
8505:Treadgold 1997
8497:
8495:, p. 277.
8493:Treadgold 1997
8482:
8480:, p. 145.
8478:Treadgold 1997
8467:
8463:Treadgold 1998
8455:
8451:Ahrweiler 1966
8443:
8439:Ahrweiler 1966
8431:
8429:, p. 433.
8427:Treadgold 1997
8419:
8407:
8403:Ahrweiler 1966
8395:
8393:, p. 427.
8391:Treadgold 1997
8383:
8381:, p. 383.
8379:Treadgold 1997
8371:
8367:Ahrweiler 1966
8359:
8347:
8343:Treadgold 1998
8335:
8331:Ahrweiler 1966
8323:
8319:Ahrweiler 1966
8308:
8304:Ahrweiler 1966
8296:
8292:Ahrweiler 1966
8284:
8267:
8263:Ahrweiler 1966
8255:
8243:
8239:Ahrweiler 1966
8231:
8216:
8212:Ahrweiler 1966
8204:
8200:Ahrweiler 1966
8192:
8188:Ahrweiler 1966
8180:
8178:, p. 109.
8165:
8163:, p. 535.
8153:
8132:
8128:Ahrweiler 1966
8120:
8116:Ahrweiler 1966
8108:
8104:Treadgold 1998
8096:
8079:
8075:Ahrweiler 1966
8067:
8065:, p. 602.
8063:Cosentino 2008
8055:
8051:Treadgold 1997
8043:
8039:Ahrweiler 1966
8031:
8019:
8015:Treadgold 1998
8007:
7995:
7993:, p. 580.
7991:Cosentino 2008
7983:
7971:
7959:
7947:
7945:, p. 307.
7943:MacGeorge 2002
7935:
7923:
7911:
7907:Treadgold 1997
7899:
7895:Cosentino 2008
7887:
7875:
7873:, p. 132.
7863:
7851:
7839:
7837:, p. 169.
7827:
7815:
7803:
7791:
7776:
7774:, p. 110.
7764:
7752:
7748:Ahrweiler 1966
7740:
7738:, p. 219.
7728:
7724:Ahrweiler 1966
7716:
7704:
7692:
7690:, p. 385.
7688:Ahrweiler 1966
7677:
7675:, p. 341.
7665:
7663:, p. 199.
7653:
7651:, p. 384.
7649:Ahrweiler 1966
7641:
7637:Ahrweiler 1966
7629:
7627:, p. 171.
7617:
7615:, p. 383.
7613:Ahrweiler 1966
7605:
7603:, p. 382.
7601:Ahrweiler 1966
7590:
7586:Ahrweiler 1966
7578:
7566:
7562:Ahrweiler 1966
7554:
7552:, p. 115.
7542:
7530:
7526:Ahrweiler 1966
7518:
7506:
7494:
7492:, p. 158.
7482:
7480:, p. 246.
7470:
7458:
7454:Ahrweiler 1966
7446:
7434:
7422:
7410:
7395:
7380:
7368:
7356:
7341:
7329:
7317:
7313:Ahrweiler 1966
7305:
7301:Ahrweiler 1966
7293:
7289:Ahrweiler 1966
7281:
7277:Ahrweiler 1966
7269:
7265:Ahrweiler 1966
7257:
7253:Ahrweiler 1966
7245:
7243:, p. 151.
7233:
7221:
7219:, p. 121.
7204:
7192:
7190:, p. 215.
7180:
7176:Magdalino 2002
7168:
7166:, p. 116.
7156:
7154:, p. 109.
7141:
7129:
7127:, p. 158.
7117:
7115:, p. 643.
7113:Treadgold 1997
7105:
7103:, p. 113.
7090:
7078:
7066:
7064:, p. 641.
7062:Treadgold 1997
7054:
7052:, p. 631.
7050:Treadgold 1997
7042:
7040:, p. 111.
7025:
7013:
7011:, p. 109.
7001:
6982:
6980:, p. 113.
6970:
6958:
6956:, p. 100.
6946:
6934:
6922:
6907:
6895:
6893:, p. 335.
6883:
6871:
6859:
6847:
6835:
6823:
6811:
6799:
6778:
6776:, p. 509.
6774:Treadgold 1997
6766:
6754:
6735:
6723:
6721:, p. 195.
6711:
6696:
6694:, p. 495.
6692:Treadgold 1997
6684:
6672:
6660:
6648:
6646:, p. 414.
6636:
6619:
6607:
6595:
6583:
6579:Treadgold 1997
6571:
6569:, p. 120.
6559:
6547:
6545:, p. 191.
6535:
6523:
6511:
6499:
6484:
6480:Treadgold 1997
6472:
6460:
6448:
6446:, p. 955.
6436:
6432:Treadgold 1998
6424:
6412:
6400:
6388:
6373:
6371:, p. 458.
6369:Treadgold 1997
6361:
6349:
6347:, p. 457.
6345:Treadgold 1997
6334:
6332:, p. 413.
6322:
6320:, p. 151.
6307:
6305:, p. 192.
6295:
6293:, p. 534.
6291:Treadgold 1997
6283:
6281:, p. 183.
6271:
6259:
6247:
6235:
6223:
6211:
6196:
6194:, p. 120.
6184:
6172:
6149:
6134:
6122:
6110:
6098:
6083:
6071:
6059:
6047:
6045:, p. 150.
6035:
6033:, p. 141.
6023:
6011:
5999:
5997:, p. 352.
5995:Treadgold 1997
5984:
5982:, p. 349.
5980:Treadgold 1997
5972:
5960:
5948:
5933:
5921:
5900:
5888:
5886:, p. 334.
5876:
5864:
5860:Treadgold 1998
5852:
5840:
5828:
5811:
5799:
5787:
5775:
5756:
5741:
5739:, p. 154.
5729:
5712:
5700:
5688:
5676:
5664:
5652:
5640:
5628:
5616:
5614:, p. 207.
5604:
5581:
5569:
5557:
5555:, p. 166.
5545:
5541:MacGeorge 2002
5533:
5516:
5504:
5492:
5490:, p. 213.
5477:
5465:
5453:
5441:
5437:Treadgold 1998
5424:
5420:Treadgold 1998
5407:
5386:
5384:, p. 167.
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5322:
5319:
5255:
5185:
5182:
5113:toxoballistrai
5073:
5070:
4971:
4968:
4931:
4928:
4775:
4772:
4660:parakoimomenos
4547:
4544:
4540:Oriental plane
4399:Vatican Vergil
4336:
4333:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4177:Ferran d'Aunés
4131:Andrea Morisco
4011:
4008:
3971:
3968:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3793:droungarokomes
3767:Pseudo-Kodinos
3757:hetaireiarches
3569:
3568:Rank structure
3566:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3408:
3405:
3402:
3375:
3372:
3345:
3344:
3330:Armeniac Theme
3325:thema Chaldias
3294:
3279:Ionian Islands
3259:
3241:thema Sikelias
3226:
3219:Central Greece
3203: 686–689
3198:), founded in
3195:thema Hellados
3145:
3142:
3118:Theme of Samos
2959:thema nautikon
2947:
2944:
2875:
2872:
2772:
2764:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2674:, and Aelana (
2630:De Re Militari
2625:De Re Militari
2600:Under Emperor
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2522:war with Genoa
2512:, the scholar
2308:
2305:
2289:Fourth Crusade
2234:Isaac Komnenos
2210:Sea of Marmara
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2104:Ionian islands
2087:
2084:
2076:John of Poutza
2048:Michael Maurex
2022:
2019:
1989:Constantine IX
1927:
1925:
1922:
1914:
1911:
1837:Tyrrhenian Sea
1816:
1813:
1753:Leo of Tripoli
1691:
1688:
1652:Ionian Islands
1521:
1518:
1502:
1499:
1467:attacking Rome
1423:
1348:
1345:
1317: 741–775
1224: 717–741
1213: 715–717
1206:Theodosius III
1202: 713–715
1191: 705–715
1149:
1146:
1069:After seizing
1038:
981:
978:
976:
973:
934:southern Spain
891: 527–565
853: 491–518
833:
830:
809: 428–477
789:(429 to 442).
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
734:
733:
731:
730:
723:
716:
708:
705:
704:
703:
702:
695:Fortifications
692:
687:
682:
674:
673:
669:
668:
665:Constantinople
648:
647:
643:
642:
641:
640:
634:
625:
620:
614:Byzantine navy
608:
607:
606:
605:
604:
603:
598:
593:
591:Grand Domestic
588:
583:
573:
568:
567:
566:
556:
555:
554:
543:
542:
541:
536:
531:
523:
515:
514:
510:
509:
501:
500:
498:Byzantine army
494:
493:
484:Ottoman Empire
459:Fourth Crusade
415:several sieges
407:Constantinople
350:Byzantine navy
344:
343:
333:
332:
329:
328:
298:
294:
293:
257:, Bulgarians,
225:
221:
220:
199:
195:
194:
189:
185:
184:
163:
159:
158:
145:
141:
140:
138:Constantinople
135:
131:
130:
127:
121:
120:
78:
74:
73:
56:Pseudo-Kodinos
45:
37:
36:
35:Byzantine navy
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14229:
14218:
14215:
14213:
14210:
14208:
14205:
14204:
14202:
14184:
14180:
14176:
14174:
14171:
14169:
14166:
14165:
14163:
14162:
14159:
14149:
14146:
14144:
14141:
14139:
14136:
14134:
14131:
14129:
14126:
14124:
14121:
14119:
14116:
14114:
14111:
14109:
14106:
14105:
14102:
14095:
14091:
14075:
14072:
14071:
14070:
14067:
14065:
14062:
14058:
14055:
14054:
14053:
14050:
14048:
14045:
14043:
14040:
14038:
14035:
14033:
14032:Encyclopedias
14030:
14029:
14027:
14021:
14019:
14016:
14015:
14012:
14006:
14003:
14001:
13998:
13996:
13993:
13991:
13988:
13984:
13981:
13980:
13979:
13976:
13972:
13969:
13967:
13964:
13963:
13962:
13959:
13957:
13956:Hellenization
13954:
13952:
13949:
13947:
13944:
13942:
13939:
13937:
13934:
13932:
13929:
13927:
13924:
13922:
13919:
13918:
13916:
13914:Everyday life
13912:
13906:
13903:
13901:
13900:
13896:
13892:
13889:
13888:
13887:
13886:Acritic songs
13884:
13882:
13879:
13878:
13876:
13874:
13870:
13864:
13861:
13857:
13854:
13852:
13849:
13847:
13844:
13843:
13842:
13839:
13837:
13834:
13832:
13829:
13827:
13824:
13823:
13821:
13819:
13815:
13809:
13806:
13804:
13801:
13799:
13796:
13792:
13789:
13788:
13787:
13784:
13782:
13779:
13777:
13774:
13772:
13769:
13768:
13766:
13764:
13760:
13750:
13747:
13745:
13742:
13740:
13737:
13735:
13732:
13730:
13729:Hosios Loukas
13727:
13725:
13722:
13721:
13719:
13715:
13709:
13706:
13704:
13701:
13699:
13696:
13695:
13693:
13691:
13687:
13681:
13678:
13676:
13673:
13671:
13668:
13666:
13663:
13661:
13658:
13656:
13653:
13652:
13650:
13648:
13644:
13638:
13635:
13633:
13630:
13628:
13625:
13623:
13620:
13618:
13615:
13613:
13610:
13608:
13605:
13603:
13600:
13598:
13595:
13593:
13590:
13588:
13585:
13584:
13582:
13580:
13576:
13568:
13565:
13563:
13560:
13559:
13558:
13555:
13553:
13550:
13549:
13546:
13543:
13541:
13537:
13533:
13526:
13522:
13508:
13505:
13503:
13500:
13498:
13495:
13493:
13490:
13486:
13483:
13482:
13481:
13478:
13476:
13473:
13472:
13470:
13468:
13464:
13458:
13455:
13451:
13448:
13446:
13443:
13441:
13438:
13436:
13433:
13432:
13430:
13428:
13425:
13423:
13420:
13418:
13415:
13413:
13410:
13408:
13405:
13403:
13402:Monophysitism
13400:
13398:
13395:
13393:
13390:
13386:
13383:
13381:
13378:
13376:
13375:Armenian Rite
13373:
13371:
13368:
13367:
13366:
13363:
13359:
13356:
13354:
13351:
13349:
13346:
13344:
13341:
13339:
13336:
13335:
13334:
13331:
13330:
13328:
13326:
13322:
13318:
13311:
13307:
13293:
13292:Naval battles
13290:
13288:
13285:
13283:
13280:
13278:
13275:
13273:
13270:
13268:
13265:
13261:
13258:
13256:
13253:
13251:
13248:
13247:
13246:
13243:
13241:
13238:
13237:
13235:
13233:
13229:
13219:
13216:
13212:
13209:
13207:
13204:
13203:
13202:
13199:
13195:
13192:
13190:
13187:
13186:
13185:
13182:
13181:
13179:
13175:
13169:
13166:
13164:
13161:
13159:
13156:
13154:
13151:
13149:
13146:
13144:
13141:
13139:
13136:
13134:
13131:
13129:
13126:
13124:
13121:
13120:
13118:
13114:
13106:
13103:
13101:
13098:
13096:
13093:
13091:
13088:
13087:
13086:
13083:
13081:
13078:
13077:
13075:
13071:
13065:
13062:
13060:
13057:
13055:
13052:
13050:
13047:
13045:
13042:
13040:
13037:
13035:
13032:
13030:
13027:
13026:
13023:
13020:
13018:
13014:
13010:
13003:
12999:
12985:
12982:
12980:
12977:
12975:
12972:
12970:
12967:
12966:
12964:
12962:
12958:
12948:
12945:
12943:
12940:
12939:
12937:
12933:
12927:
12924:
12922:
12919:
12917:
12914:
12912:
12909:
12908:
12906:
12902:
12896:
12893:
12891:
12888:
12886:
12883:
12881:
12878:
12876:
12873:
12871:
12868:
12867:
12865:
12861:
12858:
12856:
12852:
12842:
12839:
12837:
12834:
12833:
12831:
12827:
12821:
12818:
12816:
12815:Protasekretis
12813:
12811:
12808:
12806:
12803:
12801:
12798:
12796:
12793:
12791:
12788:
12786:
12783:
12781:
12778:
12777:
12775:
12771:
12765:
12762:
12760:
12757:
12755:
12752:
12750:
12747:
12745:
12742:
12741:
12739:
12735:
12729:
12726:
12722:
12719:
12718:
12717:
12714:
12710:
12707:
12705:
12702:
12700:
12697:
12696:
12695:
12692:
12691:
12688:
12685:
12681:
12677:
12670:
12666:
12652:
12649:
12647:
12644:
12641:
12637:
12635:
12632:
12630:
12627:
12625:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12613:
12610:
12608:
12605:
12604:
12603:
12600:
12598:
12595:
12593:
12590:
12588:
12585:
12583:
12580:
12578:
12575:
12573:
12570:
12568:
12565:
12563:
12560:
12558:
12555:
12553:
12550:
12549:
12547:
12539:
12533:
12530:
12528:
12525:
12523:
12520:
12517:
12513:
12509:
12505:
12501:
12497:
12493:
12489:
12486:
12485:
12484:
12481:
12477:
12474:
12473:
12472:
12469:
12468:
12466:
12460:
12455:
12449:
12446:
12444:
12443:Komnenian era
12441:
12439:
12436:
12434:
12431:
12429:
12426:
12424:
12421:
12419:
12416:
12415:
12413:
12407:
12402:
12396:
12393:
12388:
12384:
12383:
12382:
12381:Heraclian era
12379:
12377:
12376:Justinian era
12374:
12372:
12369:
12367:
12364:
12360:
12357:
12355:
12352:
12351:
12350:
12347:
12346:
12344:
12338:
12333:
12325:
12324:
12320:
12319:
12318:
12315:
12314:
12312:
12309:
12304:
12300:
12296:
12291:
12287:
12282:
12275:
12270:
12268:
12263:
12261:
12256:
12255:
12252:
12243:
12239:
12235:
12231:
12227:
12223:
12222:
12216:
12213:
12211:960-253-028-6
12207:
12203:
12199:
12194:
12191:
12189:0-88402-288-9
12185:
12181:
12176:
12172:
12166:
12158:
12153:
12150:
12146:
12142:
12138:
12134:
12130:
12125:
12121:
12116:
12112:
12108:
12103:
12099:
12095:
12091:
12087:
12083:
12079:
12075:
12070:
12067:on 2011-07-25
12063:
12059:
12057:960-371-001-6
12053:
12046:
12045:
12039:
12036:on 2012-03-06
12032:
12025:
12024:
12018:
12015:
12011:
12007:
12003:
11999:
11996:(in French),
11995:
11991:
11986:
11985:
11974:
11968:
11964:
11960:
11956:
11952:
11947:
11944:
11942:0-19-820407-8
11938:
11934:
11929:
11926:
11920:
11916:
11915:
11911:
11906:
11902:
11899:
11897:0-8047-3163-2
11893:
11889:
11885:
11881:
11877:
11875:0-8047-2630-2
11871:
11867:
11863:
11862:
11857:
11853:
11850:
11848:90-04-09777-5
11844:
11840:
11835:
11831:
11829:0-87169-127-2
11825:
11821:
11820:
11815:
11811:
11804:
11803:
11797:
11794:
11790:
11786:
11780:
11776:
11772:
11768:
11764:
11760:
11756:
11752:
11748:
11744:
11742:0-85177-554-3
11738:
11734:
11733:
11728:
11723:
11720:
11714:
11710:
11705:
11702:
11700:0-85115-903-6
11696:
11692:
11688:
11683:
11679:
11677:0-85177-554-3
11673:
11669:
11668:
11663:
11658:
11654:
11652:0-85177-554-3
11648:
11644:
11643:
11638:
11633:
11630:
11628:0-521-42892-0
11624:
11620:
11615:
11612:
11606:
11602:
11597:
11594:
11590:
11586:
11582:
11578:
11574:
11569:
11566:
11560:
11556:
11552:
11548:
11545:
11539:
11535:
11531:
11527:
11524:
11518:
11514:
11510:
11506:
11503:
11497:
11493:
11488:
11485:
11483:1-86019-861-9
11479:
11475:
11470:
11466:
11460:
11456:
11455:
11450:
11446:
11442:
11440:0-521-34157-4
11436:
11432:
11431:
11426:
11422:
11419:
11417:0-19-814098-3
11413:
11409:
11405:
11401:
11397:
11393:
11389:
11385:
11381:
11377:
11372:
11368:
11363:
11359:
11357:0-521-52653-1
11353:
11349:
11348:
11343:
11339:
11336:
11330:
11326:
11325:
11319:
11316:
11310:
11306:
11301:
11298:
11292:
11288:
11283:
11280:
11276:
11272:
11269:(in French),
11268:
11264:
11260:
11256:
11253:
11251:0-253-20573-5
11247:
11243:
11238:
11235:
11229:
11225:
11220:
11217:
11215:0-674-16535-7
11211:
11207:
11203:
11199:
11196:
11194:960-7420-25-X
11190:
11186:
11182:
11178:
11174:
11172:0-19-504652-8
11168:
11164:
11163:
11158:
11154:
11151:
11145:
11141:
11140:
11134:
11131:
11129:0-8020-6667-4
11125:
11121:
11116:
11113:
11107:
11102:
11101:
11095:
11091:
11090:
11085:
11083:0-85177-554-3
11079:
11075:
11074:
11069:
11064:
11063:
11059:
11053:
11049:
11044:
11040:
11035:
11032:
11026:
11022:
11017:
11013:
11007:
11003:
11002:
10996:
10992:
10990:1-85728-495-X
10986:
10982:
10981:
10976:
10972:
10968:
10964:
10960:
10956:
10955:
10950:
10946:
10942:
10938:
10934:
10933:
10928:
10924:
10914:
10910:
10906:
10903:(in French),
10902:
10898:
10893:
10890:
10888:0-85115-903-6
10884:
10880:
10876:
10872:
10867:
10863:
10861:0-85177-554-3
10857:
10853:
10852:
10847:
10842:
10839:
10835:
10831:
10827:
10823:
10819:
10815:
10811:
10806:
10803:
10797:
10793:
10788:
10784:
10783:
10777:
10774:
10770:
10766:
10762:
10758:
10754:
10750:
10746:
10745:
10739:
10736:
10732:
10728:
10724:
10719:
10715:
10711:
10706:
10703:
10701:0-8018-5130-0
10697:
10693:
10689:
10685:
10682:
10676:
10672:
10671:
10666:
10662:
10653:on 2016-08-04
10649:
10645:
10641:
10634:
10629:
10625:
10621:
10617:
10616:
10611:
10607:
10604:
10600:
10596:
10592:
10587:
10584:
10578:
10574:
10570:
10566:
10563:
10561:90-04-11710-5
10557:
10553:
10552:
10546:
10543:
10539:
10535:
10531:
10527:
10523:
10519:
10515:
10514:
10508:
10504:
10499:
10496:
10494:0-8122-1620-2
10490:
10486:
10485:
10479:
10476:
10470:
10466:
10465:
10459:
10448:
10444:
10439:
10435:
10431:
10427:
10422:
10418:
10417:
10412:
10408:
10407:
10395:
10389:
10385:
10378:
10372:, p. 10.
10371:
10370:Bartusis 1997
10366:
10360:, p. 34.
10359:
10354:
10347:
10342:
10335:
10330:
10323:
10322:Runciman 1975
10318:
10311:
10306:
10299:
10294:
10287:
10282:
10275:
10270:
10263:
10258:
10251:
10246:
10239:
10234:
10227:
10222:
10215:
10210:
10204:, p. 64.
10203:
10198:
10192:, p. 97.
10191:
10186:
10179:
10174:
10167:
10162:
10155:
10150:
10143:
10138:
10131:
10126:
10119:
10114:
10107:
10106:Bartusis 1997
10102:
10095:
10090:
10083:
10078:
10071:
10066:
10059:
10054:
10048:, p. 96.
10047:
10042:
10035:
10030:
10023:
10018:
10011:
10006:
9999:
9994:
9987:
9982:
9975:
9970:
9963:
9958:
9956:
9948:
9943:
9936:
9931:
9924:
9919:
9912:
9907:
9900:
9895:
9888:
9883:
9876:
9871:
9864:
9859:
9852:
9847:
9840:
9835:
9828:
9823:
9816:
9811:
9809:
9801:
9796:
9790:, p. 69.
9789:
9784:
9777:
9772:
9765:
9760:
9754:, p. 70.
9753:
9748:
9746:
9738:
9733:
9726:
9721:
9714:
9709:
9702:
9697:
9690:
9685:
9678:
9673:
9666:
9661:
9654:
9649:
9642:
9637:
9630:
9625:
9618:
9613:
9606:
9601:
9594:
9589:
9582:
9577:
9570:
9565:
9558:
9553:
9546:
9541:
9534:
9529:
9523:, p. 84.
9522:
9517:
9515:
9507:
9502:
9495:
9490:
9483:
9478:
9471:
9466:
9459:
9454:
9447:
9442:
9435:
9430:
9423:
9418:
9411:
9406:
9399:
9394:
9387:
9382:
9375:
9370:
9363:
9358:
9352:, p. 52.
9351:
9346:
9339:
9334:
9327:
9322:
9315:
9310:
9303:
9298:
9291:
9286:
9279:
9274:
9268:, p. 64.
9267:
9262:
9255:
9250:
9248:
9240:
9235:
9228:
9227:Campbell 1995
9223:
9216:
9211:
9204:
9199:
9197:
9189:
9184:
9177:
9172:
9165:
9160:
9153:
9148:
9141:
9136:
9129:
9124:
9117:
9112:
9105:
9100:
9093:
9088:
9081:
9080:Guilland 1967
9076:
9069:
9064:
9057:
9052:
9046:, p. 60.
9045:
9044:Bartusis 1997
9040:
9033:
9028:
9021:
9020:Bartusis 1997
9016:
9009:
9008:Bartusis 1997
9004:
8998:, p. 46.
8997:
8996:Bartusis 1997
8992:
8986:, p. 42.
8985:
8980:
8978:
8970:
8969:Bartusis 1997
8965:
8958:
8953:
8951:
8944:, p. 16.
8943:
8938:
8931:
8930:Macrides 2007
8926:
8920:, p. 37.
8919:
8914:
8912:
8904:
8899:
8892:
8887:
8880:
8875:
8868:
8863:
8856:
8851:
8849:
8841:
8836:
8829:
8824:
8817:
8812:
8805:
8800:
8794:, p. 97.
8793:
8788:
8786:
8778:
8773:
8766:
8761:
8754:
8749:
8743:, p. 20.
8742:
8737:
8730:
8729:Guilland 1967
8725:
8718:
8713:
8706:
8701:
8695:, p. 70.
8694:
8689:
8682:
8677:
8670:
8665:
8663:
8655:
8650:
8643:
8638:
8631:
8626:
8619:
8614:
8607:
8602:
8595:
8590:
8583:
8578:
8571:
8566:
8560:, p. 76.
8559:
8554:
8547:
8542:
8535:
8530:
8523:
8518:
8516:
8514:
8506:
8501:
8494:
8489:
8487:
8479:
8474:
8472:
8464:
8459:
8452:
8447:
8440:
8435:
8428:
8423:
8416:
8411:
8404:
8399:
8392:
8387:
8380:
8375:
8368:
8363:
8356:
8351:
8345:, p. 76.
8344:
8339:
8332:
8327:
8320:
8315:
8313:
8305:
8300:
8293:
8288:
8281:
8276:
8274:
8272:
8265:, p. 82.
8264:
8259:
8253:, p. 32.
8252:
8247:
8240:
8235:
8229:, p. 77.
8228:
8223:
8221:
8213:
8208:
8201:
8196:
8189:
8184:
8177:
8172:
8170:
8162:
8161:Guilland 1967
8157:
8151:, p. 99.
8150:
8145:
8143:
8141:
8139:
8137:
8129:
8124:
8117:
8112:
8106:, p. 73.
8105:
8100:
8094:, p. 74.
8093:
8088:
8086:
8084:
8076:
8071:
8064:
8059:
8052:
8047:
8041:, p. 22.
8040:
8035:
8029:, p. 78.
8028:
8023:
8017:, p. 28.
8016:
8011:
8005:, p. 22.
8004:
7999:
7992:
7987:
7980:
7975:
7968:
7963:
7957:, p. 68.
7956:
7951:
7944:
7939:
7933:, p. 60.
7932:
7927:
7920:
7915:
7909:, p. 19.
7908:
7903:
7896:
7891:
7884:
7879:
7872:
7871:Bartusis 1997
7867:
7861:, p. 45.
7860:
7855:
7848:
7843:
7836:
7831:
7824:
7819:
7812:
7807:
7800:
7795:
7789:, p. 23.
7788:
7783:
7781:
7773:
7772:Bartusis 1997
7768:
7762:, p. 99.
7761:
7760:Bartusis 1997
7756:
7749:
7744:
7737:
7736:Bartusis 1997
7732:
7725:
7720:
7713:
7712:Bartusis 1997
7708:
7701:
7696:
7689:
7684:
7682:
7674:
7669:
7662:
7657:
7650:
7645:
7638:
7633:
7626:
7621:
7614:
7609:
7602:
7597:
7595:
7587:
7582:
7575:
7570:
7563:
7558:
7551:
7546:
7539:
7534:
7527:
7522:
7515:
7514:Loenertz 1959
7510:
7504:, p. 75.
7503:
7498:
7491:
7486:
7479:
7474:
7467:
7462:
7455:
7450:
7443:
7438:
7432:, p. 59.
7431:
7430:Bartusis 1997
7426:
7419:
7414:
7408:, p. 76.
7407:
7402:
7400:
7393:, p. 39.
7392:
7391:Bartusis 1997
7387:
7385:
7377:
7372:
7366:, p. 24.
7365:
7364:Bartusis 1997
7360:
7353:
7348:
7346:
7338:
7333:
7326:
7325:Macrides 2007
7321:
7314:
7309:
7302:
7297:
7290:
7285:
7278:
7273:
7266:
7261:
7254:
7249:
7242:
7237:
7230:
7225:
7218:
7213:
7211:
7209:
7202:, p. 22.
7201:
7196:
7189:
7184:
7178:, p. 97.
7177:
7172:
7165:
7160:
7153:
7148:
7146:
7138:
7133:
7126:
7125:Phillips 2004
7121:
7114:
7109:
7102:
7097:
7095:
7087:
7082:
7075:
7070:
7063:
7058:
7051:
7046:
7039:
7034:
7032:
7030:
7023:, p. 69.
7022:
7017:
7010:
7005:
6999:, p. 96.
6998:
6993:
6991:
6989:
6987:
6979:
6974:
6968:, p. 58.
6967:
6962:
6955:
6950:
6943:
6938:
6931:
6926:
6920:, p. 39.
6919:
6914:
6912:
6905:, p. 99.
6904:
6899:
6892:
6887:
6881:, p. 94.
6880:
6875:
6868:
6863:
6857:, p. 91.
6856:
6851:
6845:, p. 88.
6844:
6839:
6832:
6827:
6820:
6815:
6808:
6803:
6796:
6795:
6790:
6785:
6783:
6775:
6770:
6763:
6758:
6752:, p. 93.
6751:
6746:
6744:
6742:
6740:
6733:, p. 73.
6732:
6727:
6720:
6715:
6708:
6703:
6701:
6693:
6688:
6681:
6676:
6669:
6664:
6658:, p. 71.
6657:
6652:
6645:
6640:
6634:, p. 72.
6633:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6617:, p. 64.
6616:
6611:
6605:, p. 94.
6604:
6599:
6593:, p. 63.
6592:
6587:
6580:
6575:
6568:
6563:
6556:
6551:
6544:
6539:
6532:
6527:
6520:
6515:
6509:, p. 65.
6508:
6503:
6496:
6491:
6489:
6481:
6476:
6470:, p. 66.
6469:
6464:
6457:
6452:
6445:
6440:
6434:, p. 33.
6433:
6428:
6421:
6416:
6409:
6404:
6397:
6392:
6386:, p. 62.
6385:
6380:
6378:
6370:
6365:
6359:, p. 61.
6358:
6353:
6346:
6341:
6339:
6331:
6326:
6319:
6318:Runciman 1975
6314:
6312:
6304:
6299:
6292:
6287:
6280:
6275:
6269:, p. 50.
6268:
6263:
6257:, p. 60.
6256:
6251:
6245:, p. 30.
6244:
6239:
6232:
6227:
6220:
6215:
6209:, p. 48.
6208:
6203:
6201:
6193:
6188:
6182:, p. 92.
6181:
6176:
6170:, p. 92.
6169:
6164:
6162:
6160:
6158:
6156:
6154:
6147:, p. 47.
6146:
6141:
6139:
6131:
6126:
6119:
6114:
6107:
6102:
6096:, p. 45.
6095:
6090:
6088:
6080:
6075:
6069:, p. 41.
6068:
6063:
6057:, p. 76.
6056:
6051:
6044:
6043:Runciman 1975
6039:
6032:
6027:
6020:
6015:
6009:, p. 29.
6008:
6003:
5996:
5991:
5989:
5981:
5976:
5969:
5964:
5957:
5952:
5946:, p. 31.
5945:
5940:
5938:
5930:
5925:
5919:, p. 33.
5918:
5913:
5911:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5898:, p. 28.
5897:
5892:
5885:
5880:
5874:, p. 27.
5873:
5868:
5862:, p. 72.
5861:
5856:
5849:
5844:
5838:, p. 24.
5837:
5832:
5826:, p. 25.
5825:
5820:
5818:
5816:
5809:, p. 53.
5808:
5803:
5797:, p. 87.
5796:
5791:
5785:, p. 62.
5784:
5779:
5773:, p. 98.
5772:
5767:
5765:
5763:
5761:
5754:, p. 47.
5753:
5748:
5746:
5738:
5733:
5727:, p. 91.
5726:
5721:
5719:
5717:
5709:
5708:Campbell 1995
5704:
5697:
5692:
5685:
5680:
5673:
5668:
5662:, p. 77.
5661:
5656:
5650:, p. 15.
5649:
5644:
5637:
5632:
5626:, p. 14.
5625:
5620:
5613:
5608:
5602:, p. 90.
5601:
5596:
5594:
5592:
5590:
5588:
5586:
5579:, p. 13.
5578:
5573:
5567:, p. 10.
5566:
5561:
5554:
5549:
5542:
5537:
5530:
5525:
5523:
5521:
5513:
5508:
5501:
5496:
5489:
5484:
5482:
5474:
5469:
5462:
5457:
5451:, p. 20.
5450:
5445:
5439:, p. 85.
5438:
5433:
5431:
5429:
5422:, p. 67.
5421:
5416:
5414:
5412:
5396:
5390:
5383:
5382:Verpeaux 1966
5378:
5376:
5374:
5369:
5357:
5355:
5354:Louis Bréhier
5349:
5345:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5334:thalassocracy
5330:
5328:
5318:
5316:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5298:
5293:
5287:
5280:
5277:
5273:
5272:
5264:
5261:
5254:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5239:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5212:
5208:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5181:
5179:
5175:
5169:
5158:
5153:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5133:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5087:
5083:
5078:
5069:
5067:
5061:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5042:
5041:antiparataxis
5030:
5026:
5023:
5017:
5011:
5010:
5003:
5000:
4994:
4989:
4985:
4980:
4978:
4967:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4949:
4948:
4942:
4937:
4927:
4925:
4924:sailing ships
4921:
4917:
4912:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4891:
4888:
4882:
4876:
4871:
4860:
4856:, adopted as
4854:
4848:
4842:
4836:
4824:
4818:
4813:
4807:
4801:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4780:
4771:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4760:De Ceremoniis
4744:
4738:
4733:
4729:
4724:
4718:
4712:
4706:
4700:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4678:
4672:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4653:
4634:
4622:
4615:
4610:
4609:De Ceremoniis
4605:
4599:
4587:
4581:
4569:
4561:
4557:
4552:
4543:
4541:
4537:
4525:
4519:
4516:
4510:
4504:
4498:
4492:
4488:). The prow (
4486:
4480:
4474:
4469:
4465:
4460:
4454:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4412:
4409:
4406:
4401:
4400:
4393:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4352:
4347:
4343:
4332:
4330:
4325:
4313:
4312:
4305:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4257:
4242:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4217:
4211:
4207:, the junior
4205:
4199:
4193:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4173:
4167:
4149:
4148:
4141:
4136:
4132:
4129:and Rhodes),
4128:
4124:
4120:
4114:
4112:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4069:
4057:
4045:
4044:
4037:
4032:
4021:
4020:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3982:
3978:
3967:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3939:
3922:
3920:
3915:
3909:
3903:
3897:
3890:
3884:
3879:
3878:
3872:
3866:
3860:
3854:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3817:
3810:
3809:
3802:
3801:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3780:
3775:
3774:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3758:
3751:
3750:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3729:
3723:
3717:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3693:
3692:
3685:
3684:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3642:protomandator
3636:
3635:chartoularios
3630:
3629:protonotarios
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3576:
3565:
3562:
3556:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3517:De Ceremoniis
3507:
3501:
3497:
3496:
3495:De Ceremoniis
3490:
3488:
3483:
3477:
3476:
3469:
3468:galley slaves
3459:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3383:
3371:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3342:
3331:
3326:
3315:
3310:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3275:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3235:θέμα Σικελίας
3231:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3196:
3185:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3176:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3119:
3114:
3108:
3095:
3084:
3079:
3073:
3067:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3021:
3014:
3013:
3007:
3002:
2982:
2976:
2965:
2960:
2953:θέμα ναυτικόν
2943:
2941:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2921:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2888:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2820:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2803:
2795:
2786:
2785:Ancient Greek
2781:
2780:
2770:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2752:
2751:
2744:
2732:
2726:
2717:
2716:Ancient Greek
2713:
2697:
2683:
2681:
2680:Gulf of Aqaba
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2573:Carlo I Tocco
2570:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2452:
2451:Ottoman Turks
2446:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2412:
2411:1296–1302 war
2408:
2404:
2399:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2319:
2314:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2200:
2185:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2049:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1950:protonotarios
1944:
1943:
1936:
1935:
1920:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1823:The siege of
1821:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1795:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1777:
1772:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1728:
1723:and took its
1722:
1718:
1717:raid Bulgaria
1714:
1710:
1706:
1696:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1533:
1526:
1517:
1515:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1427:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1381:
1380:Pax Nicephori
1375:
1371:
1367:
1358:
1353:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1311:
1310:Constantine V
1306:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1288:
1281:
1280:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1218:
1207:
1196:
1195:Anastasios II
1185:
1181:
1173:
1169:
1168:Constantine V
1165:
1160:
1155:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1100:
1097:In the 680s,
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1054:Chronicle of
1050:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1001:
992:
987:
972:
970:
966:
961:
960:
954:
950:
946:
942:
937:
935:
931:
927:
923:
920:, and raided
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
864:
862:
858:
847:
843:
839:
829:
827:
823:
819:
814:
803:
799:
795:
790:
788:
784:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
755:
729:
724:
722:
717:
715:
710:
709:
707:
706:
700:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
685:Siege warfare
683:
681:
678:
677:
676:
675:
671:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
649:
645:
644:
638:
635:
633:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
615:
612:
611:
610:
609:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
577:
574:
572:
569:
565:
562:
561:
560:
557:
552:
549:
548:
547:
544:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
526:
524:
522:
519:
518:
517:
516:
512:
511:
507:
503:
502:
499:
496:
495:
491:
490:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
438:
436:
431:
426:
425:
418:
416:
412:
408:
403:
399:
394:
390:
386:
382:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
340:
336:
330:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
241:
237:
233:
229:
226:
222:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
200:
196:
193:
190:
186:
182:
169: 42,000
164:
160:
157:
153:
149:
146:
142:
139:
136:
132:
128:
122:
110:
109:
101:
100:
95:
90:
89:
82:
79:
75:
63:
62:
57:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
13897:
13665:Hagia Sophia
13647:Thessalonica
13622:Hagia Sophia
13602:Chora Church
13540:Architecture
13417:Great Schism
13407:Paulicianism
13385:Miaphysitism
13240:Karabisianoi
13231:
12544:or territory
12504:Thessalonica
12488:Latin Empire
12483:Frankokratia
12458:
12418:Isaurian era
12405:
12336:
12321:
12317:Roman Empire
12307:
12225:
12219:
12201:
12197:
12179:
12156:
12132:
12128:
12119:
12110:
12106:
12089:
12085:
12081:
12077:
12073:
12062:the original
12043:
12031:the original
12022:
11997:
11993:
11962:
11950:
11932:
11913:
11909:
11887:
11860:
11838:
11818:
11801:
11758:
11754:
11731:
11708:
11690:
11666:
11641:
11618:
11600:
11576:
11572:
11554:
11533:
11512:
11491:
11473:
11453:
11429:
11407:
11404:Mango, Cyril
11382:(1): 63–94.
11379:
11375:
11366:
11346:
11323:
11304:
11286:
11270:
11266:
11241:
11223:
11205:
11184:
11160:
11138:
11119:
11099:
11072:
11047:
11038:
11020:
11000:
10979:
10975:Haldon, John
10958:
10953:
10931:
10916:, retrieved
10904:
10900:
10878:
10850:
10813:
10809:
10791:
10781:
10748:
10742:
10722:
10713:
10709:
10691:
10669:
10655:, retrieved
10648:the original
10643:
10639:
10614:
10594:
10590:
10572:
10550:
10517:
10511:
10502:
10483:
10463:
10451:. Retrieved
10446:
10433:
10429:
10415:
10403:Bibliography
10394:Scafuri 2002
10387:
10383:
10377:
10365:
10353:
10346:Scafuri 2002
10341:
10329:
10317:
10305:
10293:
10281:
10269:
10257:
10245:
10233:
10221:
10209:
10197:
10185:
10173:
10161:
10149:
10137:
10125:
10113:
10101:
10089:
10077:
10065:
10053:
10041:
10029:
10017:
10005:
9993:
9981:
9969:
9942:
9930:
9918:
9906:
9894:
9882:
9870:
9858:
9846:
9834:
9822:
9795:
9788:McMahon 2021
9783:
9771:
9759:
9732:
9720:
9708:
9696:
9684:
9672:
9660:
9648:
9636:
9624:
9612:
9600:
9588:
9576:
9564:
9552:
9540:
9528:
9501:
9489:
9477:
9465:
9453:
9441:
9434:Delgado 2011
9429:
9417:
9405:
9393:
9381:
9369:
9357:
9345:
9333:
9321:
9309:
9297:
9285:
9273:
9261:
9234:
9222:
9210:
9183:
9171:
9159:
9147:
9140:Delgado 2011
9135:
9123:
9111:
9099:
9087:
9075:
9068:Failler 2003
9063:
9051:
9039:
9032:Kazhdan 1991
9027:
9015:
9003:
8991:
8964:
8937:
8925:
8898:
8886:
8874:
8867:Kazhdan 1991
8862:
8835:
8823:
8811:
8804:Kazhdan 1991
8799:
8772:
8760:
8748:
8736:
8724:
8712:
8700:
8688:
8676:
8649:
8637:
8625:
8613:
8601:
8594:Bréhier 2000
8589:
8577:
8565:
8553:
8541:
8529:
8500:
8458:
8446:
8434:
8422:
8415:Kazhdan 1991
8410:
8398:
8386:
8374:
8362:
8355:Kazhdan 1991
8350:
8338:
8326:
8299:
8287:
8280:Kazhdan 1991
8258:
8246:
8234:
8207:
8195:
8183:
8156:
8123:
8111:
8099:
8070:
8058:
8046:
8034:
8022:
8010:
7998:
7986:
7979:Bréhier 2000
7974:
7962:
7950:
7938:
7926:
7914:
7902:
7890:
7883:Nicolle 2005
7878:
7866:
7859:Nicolle 2005
7854:
7842:
7830:
7818:
7806:
7799:Norwich 1996
7794:
7767:
7755:
7743:
7731:
7719:
7707:
7695:
7673:Bréhier 2000
7668:
7656:
7644:
7632:
7620:
7608:
7581:
7569:
7557:
7545:
7538:Angelov 2007
7533:
7521:
7509:
7497:
7485:
7473:
7461:
7449:
7437:
7425:
7413:
7371:
7359:
7332:
7320:
7308:
7296:
7284:
7272:
7260:
7248:
7241:Norwich 1996
7236:
7224:
7195:
7183:
7171:
7159:
7132:
7120:
7108:
7086:Norwich 1996
7081:
7069:
7057:
7045:
7021:Nicolle 2005
7016:
7004:
6973:
6961:
6949:
6937:
6925:
6898:
6891:Bréhier 2000
6886:
6874:
6862:
6850:
6838:
6826:
6814:
6802:
6792:
6769:
6757:
6726:
6719:Norwich 1999
6714:
6707:McMahon 2021
6687:
6675:
6663:
6651:
6639:
6610:
6598:
6586:
6574:
6567:Norwich 1999
6562:
6550:
6543:Tougher 1997
6538:
6526:
6519:Tougher 1997
6514:
6502:
6495:Tougher 1997
6475:
6463:
6451:
6439:
6427:
6415:
6403:
6396:Scafuri 2002
6391:
6364:
6352:
6325:
6303:Jenkins 1987
6298:
6286:
6279:Jenkins 1987
6274:
6262:
6250:
6238:
6226:
6214:
6187:
6175:
6125:
6113:
6101:
6074:
6062:
6050:
6038:
6026:
6019:Bashear 1991
6014:
6002:
5975:
5968:Norwich 1990
5963:
5951:
5924:
5891:
5884:Norwich 1990
5879:
5867:
5855:
5843:
5831:
5802:
5795:Nicolle 1996
5790:
5778:
5752:Nicolle 1996
5732:
5703:
5696:Norwich 1990
5691:
5679:
5667:
5660:Norwich 1990
5655:
5643:
5631:
5619:
5612:Norwich 1990
5607:
5572:
5560:
5553:Norwich 1990
5548:
5536:
5531:, p. 9.
5514:, p. 8.
5507:
5502:, p. 7.
5495:
5473:Norwich 1990
5468:
5463:, p. 1.
5461:Scafuri 2002
5456:
5444:
5399:. Retrieved
5389:
5350:
5346:
5331:
5324:
5282:
5276:Anna Komnene
5269:
5266:
5257:
5247:Anna Komnene
5243:flamethrower
5238:cheirosiphon
5204:
5154:
5131:
5095:
5091:
5062:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5036:
5004:
4987:
4981:
4973:
4963:
4955:
4945:
4933:
4913:
4902:great galley
4897:alla sensile
4892:
4796:
4759:
4673:
4611:, the heavy
4608:
4583:of 108; the
4564:
4559:
4520:
4497:pseudopation
4437:parexeiresia
4429:
4356:
4338:
4259:
4180:
4115:
4107:Kontoskalion
4013:
3973:
3970:Nicaean navy
3933:
3896:siphonatores
3889:protokaraboi
3875:
3865:protokarabos
3859:protokaraboi
3841:protokarabos
3835:protokaraboi
3783:
3779:port admiral
3762:
3712:
3617:Karabisianoi
3571:
3516:
3493:
3491:
3465:
3394:
3377:
3346:
3319:θέμα Χαλδίας
3189:θέμα Ἑλλάδος
3163:
3147:
3040:
2991:and another
2981:Karabisianoi
2949:
2936: 842/3
2926:
2877:
2866:Karabisianoi
2862:
2789:Καραβισιάνοι
2779:Karabisianoi
2774:
2769:Karabisianoi
2709:
2658:
2656:
2651:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2613:
2609:
2599:
2595:
2587:Organization
2558:
2518:
2456:
2447:
2435:Hospitallers
2415:
2400:
2380:
2324:
2286:
2261:
2230:
2202:
2161:
2150:invade Egypt
2148:was sent to
2113:
2109:Great Palace
2089:
2082:basis only.
2079:
2052:
2045:
2040:
2024:
2011:Seljuk Turks
1993:
1969:
1960:
1957:
1929:
1892:
1865:
1834:
1828:
1798:
1773:
1768:
1765:Thessalonica
1733:Cibyrrhaeots
1702:
1680:heavy defeat
1648:night battle
1635:Nea Ekklesia
1611:
1603:heavy defeat
1547:
1510:
1484:
1444:
1435:
1429:
1425:
1402:
1385:
1362:
1328:
1307:
1293:Abu Hurayrah
1265:
1236:
1177:
1122:North Africa
1099:Justinian II
1096:
1068:
1059:
1052:
1040:
997:
965:Persian army
938:
930:Sena Gallica
914:relieve Rome
903:
880:Vandalic War
865:
846:Anastasius I
835:
791:
766:. After the
764:Roman Empire
761:
744:Early period
613:
601:Protostrator
476:Ottoman Navy
439:
435:Muslim world
424:Karabisianoi
419:
378:
366:Roman Empire
349:
347:
334:
171:men in 899.
134:Headquarters
59:
47:
29:
14148:Megali Idea
14123:Byzantinism
13826:Agriculture
13617:Hagia Irene
13450:Kievan Rus'
13427:Mount Athos
13250:Cibyrrhaeot
13194:Vestiaritai
13049:Mercenaries
12926:Catepanates
12785:Sakellarios
12704:Family tree
12629:Mesopotamia
12448:Angelid era
12428:Amorian era
12082:Prosalentai
11273:: 158–167,
11185:Στρατηγικὸν
11094:Ibn Khaldūn
10907:: 229–239,
10782:The Alexiad
10610:Bury, J. B.
10396:, p. 2
10392:, cited in
10154:Pryor 1995a
10094:Dotson 2003
9827:Dotson 1995
9764:Pryor 1995b
9725:Casson 1995
9713:Casson 1995
9701:Pryor 1995a
9689:Pryor 1995a
9677:Pryor 1995a
9545:Pryor 1995a
9458:Casson 1995
9410:Pryor 1995a
9386:Haldon 1999
9350:Dolley 1948
9290:Pryor 1995a
9203:Casson 1995
9116:Pryor 1995a
8879:Haldon 1999
8792:Hocker 1995
8705:Haldon 1999
8570:Haldon 1999
8546:Casson 1991
8227:Haldon 1999
8149:Hocker 1995
8092:Haldon 1999
8027:Haldon 1999
7955:Haldon 1999
7847:Setton 1978
7229:Harris 2006
7152:Harris 2006
6997:Haldon 1999
6855:Haldon 1999
6831:Haldon 1999
6794:Strategikon
6750:Hocker 1995
6168:Hocker 1995
5771:Hocker 1995
5737:Casson 1995
5725:Hocker 1995
5600:Hocker 1995
5488:Casson 1991
5209:instead of
5080:Greek fire
4984:sea control
4905: [
4424:Hellenistic
4405:shell-first
4210:droungarioi
4080:Prosalentai
4074:Προσελῶντες
4068:Proselontes
4062:Προσαλενταί
4056:Prosalentai
4002:across the
3981:Theodore II
3946: 1092
3829:bandophoros
3816:trierarchos
3773:topoteretes
3749:stratarchai
3691:droungarios
3611:droungarioi
3605:droungarios
3599:droungarioi
3593:tourmarches
3587:tourmarchai
3382:droungarios
3363:Euboic Gulf
3339:by Emperor
3291:Longobardia
3255:tourmarchai
3152:tourmarches
3129:thema Samou
3107:Dodekanesos
3078:droungarioi
3072:droungarioi
3060:Dodekanesos
3055:Marmara Sea
3044:droungarios
3031:droungarioi
3020:ek prosopou
2920:droungarios
2853:droungarios
2550:Musa Çelebi
2331:partitioned
2297:Golden Horn
2274:Leo Sgouros
2175:, as Count
2118:arrived at
2060:John Doukas
2031:Dyrrhachium
1977:Rus' attack
1962:Strategikon
1942:droungarios
1907:Kievan Rus'
1757:Dardanelles
1672:Longobardia
1660:Punta Stilo
1640:droungarios
1581:and in the
1554:Michael III
1536:of Emperor
1432:Ibn Khaldun
1075:Constans II
1061:Annus Mundi
884:Justinian I
389:Justinian I
354:naval force
117: 1092
69: 1350
50:) with the
14201:Categories
14143:Third Rome
14069:University
14052:Philosophy
14042:Inventions
13905:Historians
13873:Literature
13856:Varangians
13698:San Vitale
13627:Hippodrome
13607:City Walls
13507:Mutilation
13502:Hexabiblos
13422:Bogomilism
13412:Iconoclasm
13282:Megas doux
13272:Greek fire
13255:Aegean Sea
13128:Kleisourai
13105:Excubitors
13095:Bucellarii
12947:Despotates
12916:Kleisourai
12855:Provincial
12699:Coronation
12673:Governance
12438:Doukid era
12371:Leonid era
11912:anni mundi
11603:, Viking,
11181:Kekaumenos
11011:9004100563
10941:1011763434
10657:2016-08-04
10624:1046639111
10453:2009-03-09
10310:Pryor 2003
10250:Mango 2002
10190:Pryor 2003
10178:Dawes 1928
10082:Pryor 2003
10046:Pryor 2003
10034:Pryor 2003
9962:Pryor 2003
9776:Pryor 1988
9752:Pryor 1988
9521:Pryor 2003
9266:Basch 2001
9239:Pomey 2006
9215:Basch 2001
8984:Nicol 1993
8942:Nicol 1993
8741:Heath 1984
8558:Pryor 1988
7787:Heath 1984
7700:Nicol 1993
7661:Nicol 1993
7625:Nicol 1993
7574:Laiou 1972
7550:Laiou 1972
7502:Laiou 1972
7490:Nicol 1993
7478:Nicol 1988
7466:Laiou 1972
7442:Nicol 1993
7376:Nicol 1988
7352:Nicol 1988
7337:Bryer 1966
7188:Lilie 1994
6978:Pryor 1988
6966:Nicol 1988
6942:Nicol 1988
6930:Nicol 1988
6231:Pryor 1988
6031:Mango 2002
5783:Pryor 1988
5401:2010-08-07
5327:hinterland
5190:Greek fire
5184:Greek fire
5178:land walls
5143:ballistrai
5046:stratagems
5022:kamelaukia
4956:Naumachiai
4841:chelandion
4723:chelandion
4705:chelandion
4683:skeuophora
4560:Cynegetica
4546:Ship types
4509:xylokastra
4503:kastelloma
4364:katastrōma
4311:chelandion
4238:megas doux
4204:protokomes
4186:megas doux
4166:megas doux
4140:megas doux
4111:Monemvasia
3957:megas doux
3938:megas doux
3902:boukinator
3883:protelatai
3847:kybernetes
3800:kentarchos
3549: 240
3482:Toulmatzoi
3337: 819
3312:) and the
3283:Ionian Sea
3123:θέμα Σάμου
3102: 843
2996: 727
2989: 719
2962:) was the
2904:J. B. Bury
2704: 900
2602:Diocletian
2477:megas doux
2418:Pachymeres
2341:, and the
2325:After the
2265:megas doux
2253:Steiriones
2142:megas doux
2126:megas doux
2027:laid siege
1996:Kekaumenos
1841:Fraxinetum
1769:Naumachica
1739:plundered
1571:Arab siege
1437:Muqaddimah
1413:Andalusian
1396:, the new
1184:al-Walid I
1092:Greek fire
1084:Muawiyah I
1043:Heliopolis
1013:Alexandria
895:Gothic War
872:Belisarius
826:fire ships
822:Basiliscus
772:Punic Wars
637:Megas doux
618:Greek fire
472:Aegean Sea
453:under the
411:Greek fire
339:Roman navy
243:Caliphates
232:Ostrogoths
177: 300
108:megas doux
13971:Octoechos
13851:Silk Road
13343:Hesychasm
13211:Paramonai
13158:Hetaireia
13090:Foederati
12979:Diplomacy
12974:Diplomats
12880:Provinces
12709:Empresses
12512:Trebizond
12308:Preceding
12242:159571822
12149:108961383
12098:2523-9465
12074:Gasmouloi
12014:245989631
11841:, Brill,
11593:162300888
11396:235676141
11344:(2002) .
10967:878894516
10838:162710370
10773:192015598
10765:0007-7704
10710:Byzantion
10554:, Brill,
10542:161589616
10384:Byzantion
10358:Lane 1973
8717:Bury 1911
8176:Bury 1911
7406:Lane 1973
6797:, Ch. 87.
6668:Halm 1996
5338:Anatolian
5315:petroleum
5292:strategos
5268:From the
5216:ὑγρόν πῦρ
5108:ballistae
5098:catapults
4993:koumbaria
4944:) in the
4755:σανδάλιον
4743:sandalion
4699:chelandia
4693:hippagoga
4677:phortegoi
4647: 60
4607:. In the
4592:πᾶν+φῦλον
4586:pamphylon
4532: 30
4521:The four
4459:katartion
4432:outrigger
4318:χελάνδιον
4304:Procopius
4283:δρομ-(άω)
4231:) of the
4198:ameralios
4189:were the
4137:, became
4125:(lord of
4102:Gasmouloi
4086:Gasmouloi
4033:, called
4026:Γασμοῦλοι
4019:Gasmouloi
4000:Lampsakos
3808:nauarchos
3683:magistros
3668:hetaireia
3623:strategos
3581:strategos
3575:strategos
3523:pamphyloi
3367:Vagenetia
3358:archontes
3175:strategos
3001:strategos
2858:Pamphylia
2844:Caliphate
2813:strategos
2808:Illyricum
2750:strategos
2725:romanized
2678:) in the
2565:Echinades
2530:Manuel II
2528:in 1390,
2439:Gattilusi
2353:, Chios,
2301:fireships
2278:Pegonites
2064:Crusaders
2042:activity.
1882:chelandia
1869:strategos
1789:pamphyloi
1741:Demetrias
1727:strategos
1656:defeating
1565:relieved
1471:Lothair I
1451:Euphemios
1337:iconodule
1321:Anchialus
1273:End Times
1110:Mardaites
842:Theodoric
818:Cartagena
651:Lists of
539:Hetaireia
486:in 1453.
224:Opponents
156:Black Sea
99:strategoi
14064:Scholars
14057:Rhetoric
14047:Medicine
14022:Learning
13921:Calendar
13798:Painters
13497:Basilika
13435:Bulgaria
13397:Arianism
13348:Hayhurum
13325:Religion
13287:Admirals
13206:Allagion
13138:Droungos
13044:Generals
13006:Military
12969:Treaties
12875:Dioceses
12694:Emperors
12607:Sardinia
12587:Dalmatia
12567:Bulgaria
12557:Anatolia
12516:Theodoro
12510: /
12506: /
12498: /
12165:citation
12078:Tzakones
11961:(2005),
11886:(1998),
11858:(1997).
11816:(1978).
11553:(1999),
11532:(1996),
11511:(1990),
11451:(1993).
11427:(1988).
11406:(2002),
11261:(1959),
11204:(1972),
10977:(1999).
10929:(1959).
10735:14344967
10716:: 76–111
10690:(1995),
10667:(1991),
10612:(1911).
10597:: 3–12,
10571:(2000),
10534:25182323
10413:(1966),
5360:See also
5286:Caucasus
5159:(called
5157:crossbow
5123:triboloi
5118:caltrops
5086:caltrops
5082:grenades
5072:Armament
4835:katergon
4829:κάτεργον
4823:katergon
4764:conifers
4749:σάνδαλος
4737:sandalos
4708:and the
4574:οὑσιακόν
4568:ousiakon
4515:peronion
4485:krabatos
4342:Marmaray
4169:and the
4160:ἀμηραλῆς
4154:ἀμηράλης
4147:amerales
4092:Tzakones
4050:Τζάκωνες
4043:Tzakones
3908:koplatai
3812:or even
3699:katepano
3555:ousiakos
3535:dromones
3529:ousiakoi
3487:treaties
3475:strateia
3250:Calabria
3223:Thessaly
3026:Syllaeum
3012:katepano
3006:Attaleia
2848:Seleucia
2734:, sing.
2620:Vegetius
2563:off the
2554:Murad II
2526:John VII
2505:despotes
2471:Trigleia
2467:Bithynia
2154:Crusader
1985:Basil II
1973:Cyclades
1934:Rhōmania
1853:Fatimids
1776:Himerios
1745:Taormina
1668:Calabria
1619:Syracuse
1569:from an
1497:in 860.
1459:Brindisi
1440:, III.32
1398:Aghlabid
1394:Ifriqiya
1386:de facto
1333:Isaurian
1329:en route
1257:Keramaia
1252:thematic
1244:Damietta
1239:Laodicea
1162:Emperor
1047:sea fire
969:Bosporus
959:monoxyla
941:Lombards
899:Dalmatia
868:Sardinia
857:Vitalian
802:Geiseric
798:Carthage
792:The new
780:Licinius
758:century.
628:Admirals
576:Generals
430:regional
352:was the
324:and the
322:Crusades
291:Ottomans
251:Fatimids
218:Aydinids
129:330–1453
94:thematic
14173:Outline
14118:Museums
14018:Science
13995:Slavery
13951:Gardens
13931:Cuisine
13863:Dynatoi
13831:Coinage
13818:Economy
13786:Mosaics
13749:Mystras
13690:Ravenna
13552:Secular
13440:Moravia
13189:Pronoia
13163:Akritai
13148:Tagmata
13123:Themata
13064:Revolts
13034:Battles
12942:Kephale
12911:Themata
12841:Mesazon
12683:Central
12619:Maghreb
12572:Corsica
12562:Armenia
12552:Albania
12295:History
11793:4118229
11763:Bibcode
5311:naphtha
5301:Saladin
5278:, XI.10
5271:Alexiad
5232:gerania
5174:Cannons
5168:tzangra
5162:τζᾶγγρα
5137:neurika
5132:Tactica
5103:mangana
5058:Tactica
5054:Tactica
5050:Tactica
5016:touldon
5009:aplekta
4988:Tactica
4947:Tactica
4920:galleys
4887:usserii
4870:Angevin
4853:tarrida
4669:trireme
4627:μονήρης
4621:moneres
4466:at the
4447:elasiai
4392:embolos
4386:ἔμβολος
4381:rostrum
4329:courser
4291:
4216:kometes
4135:Licario
4036:Lakones
4031:Laconia
3996:Stadeia
3853:proreus
3838:(sing.
3742:tagmata
3716:tagmata
3703:of the
3649:kometes
3602:(sing.
3590:(sing.
3532:and 42
3492:In his
3433:Rowers
3389:tagmata
3211:Corinth
3169:taxatoi
3162:in the
2840:Miletus
2827:
2796:
2758:tagmata
2731:themata
2727::
2670:in the
2668:Cherson
2652:Notitia
2644:XI.13.1
2608:Fleet (
2463:Phocaea
2433:to the
2327:capture
2242:Genoese
2188:Decline
2133:galleys
2068:Tripoli
2056:Tzachas
1938:. The
1901:, when
1857:Rometta
1825:Chandax
1713:Magyars
1684:Milazzo
1607:Euripos
1591:Cilicia
1550:Basil I
1532:solidus
1455:Taranto
1325:victory
1140:and to
1138:Maghreb
1114:marines
947:by the
918:Corsica
876:dromons
861:Marinus
787:Vandals
680:Tactics
661:battles
564:allagia
551:pronoia
534:tagmata
482:to the
433:of the
385:Vandals
356:of the
283:Seljuks
263:Normans
240:Abbasid
236:Umayyad
228:Vandals
188:Part of
112:(after
77:Leaders
14183:Portal
14098:Impact
13978:People
13926:Cities
13776:Enamel
13557:Sacred
13492:Ecloga
13358:Saints
13267:Dromon
13143:Bandon
13133:Tourma
13116:Middle
13039:Beacon
12921:Bandon
12904:Middle
12773:Middle
12728:Senate
12651:Thrace
12634:Serbia
12612:Sicily
12597:Greece
12582:Cyprus
12500:Epirus
12496:Nicaea
12406:Middle
12283:topics
12240:
12208:
12186:
12147:
12096:
12054:
12012:
11969:
11939:
11921:
11894:
11872:
11845:
11826:
11791:
11781:
11755:Nature
11739:
11715:
11697:
11674:
11649:
11625:
11607:
11591:
11561:
11540:
11519:
11498:
11480:
11461:
11437:
11414:
11394:
11354:
11331:
11311:
11293:
11248:
11230:
11212:
11191:
11169:
11146:
11126:
11108:
11080:
11054:
11027:
11008:
10987:
10965:
10939:
10918:29 May
10885:
10858:
10836:
10830:298170
10828:
10798:
10771:
10763:
10733:
10698:
10677:
10622:
10579:
10558:
10540:
10532:
10491:
10471:
5260:Pisans
5251:napalm
5227:cranes
5222:siphon
5211:Romans
5207:Greeks
5106:) and
5033:spurs.
4999:akatia
4881:taride
4865:ταρέτα
4859:tareta
4847:taride
4817:dromon
4806:dromon
4792:Athens
4784:galley
4717:dromon
4711:dromon
4614:dromon
4604:ousiai
4598:dromon
4556:Oppian
4524:galeai
4473:prymne
4453:histos
4442:bireme
4373:lateen
4354:type.
4297:to run
4277:δρόμων
4271:dromon
4262:dromon
4256:Dromon
4235:, the
4201:, the
4195:, the
4097:Thrace
3992:Rhodes
3948:. The
3914:elatai
3856:. The
3823:ousiai
3561:dromon
3541:Stenon
3526:, 100
3460:3,080
3457:34,200
3454:34,200
3451:14,600
3448:18,500
3445:30,000
3442:30,000
3439:32,000
3436:32,000
3351:archon
3287:Apulia
3246:Sicily
3207:Greece
3138:Smyrna
3134:Ionian
3113:Kolpos
3066:Kolpos
3047:: the
2998:. Its
2720:θέματα
2672:Crimea
2659:ad hoc
2642:&
2640:XI.2.4
2606:Danube
2561:battle
2542:Thasos
2534:John V
2494:Galata
2396:Euboea
2384:defeat
2359:Icaria
2357:, and
2351:Lesbos
2337:, the
2257:Sestos
2139:under
2120:Ancona
2098:under
2080:ad hoc
2015:Nicaea
2000:Norman
1809:Lemnos
1778:, the
1709:Simeon
1699:reign.
1631:marble
1627:Apulia
1595:Tarsos
1579:Kardia
1567:Ragusa
1418:razing
1390:Venice
1248:Tinnis
1232:Bulgar
1071:Cyprus
1025:Levant
926:Epirus
906:Totila
659:, and
623:Dromon
529:themes
443:Venice
402:Levant
393:dromon
320:, the
316:, the
312:, the
308:, the
304:, the
271:Venice
202:Venice
198:Allies
152:Danube
14168:Index
14000:Death
13990:Women
13961:Music
13941:Dress
13936:Dance
13881:Novel
13841:Trade
13836:Mints
13781:Glass
13771:Icons
13567:Domes
13445:Serbs
13260:Samos
13073:Early
12863:Early
12737:Early
12646:Syria
12624:Malta
12602:Italy
12592:Egypt
12577:Crete
12508:Morea
12337:Early
12238:S2CID
12200:[
12145:S2CID
12065:(PDF)
12048:(PDF)
12034:(PDF)
12027:(PDF)
12010:S2CID
11806:(PDF)
11789:S2CID
11589:S2CID
11392:S2CID
10957:[
10873:, in
10834:S2CID
10826:JSTOR
10769:S2CID
10651:(PDF)
10636:(PDF)
10538:S2CID
10530:JSTOR
5365:Notes
4909:]
4800:galea
4652:galea
4639:γαλέα
4633:galea
4580:ousia
4491:prora
4479:skene
4468:stern
4420:India
4377:Latin
4351:galea
4324:keles
4245:Ships
4127:Anafi
4119:fiefs
4065:) or
4039:) or
3787:komes
3728:megas
3655:komes
3512:οὺσία
3506:ousia
3428:1321
3341:Leo V
3097:) in
2890:, or
2846:near
2743:thema
2676:Eilat
2664:Ceuta
2648:Goths
2392:Oreos
2355:Samos
2168:Chios
1721:Samos
1644:Nasar
1623:Malta
1528:Gold
1478:ghazi
1409:Crete
1303:Kaaba
1298:ribat
1287:jihad
1279:ribat
1134:Tunis
1064:6165.
1029:Copts
1008:Egypt
1004:Syria
953:Avars
922:Corfu
910:Tiber
447:Genoa
267:Genoa
255:Slavs
206:Genoa
13966:Lyra
13846:silk
13457:Jews
13232:Navy
13177:Late
13017:Army
12984:Wars
12935:Late
12829:Late
12459:Late
12206:ISBN
12184:ISBN
12171:link
12094:ISSN
12080:and
12052:ISBN
11967:ISBN
11937:ISBN
11919:ISBN
11892:ISBN
11870:ISBN
11843:ISBN
11824:ISBN
11779:ISBN
11737:ISBN
11713:ISBN
11695:ISBN
11672:ISBN
11647:ISBN
11623:ISBN
11605:ISBN
11559:ISBN
11538:ISBN
11517:ISBN
11496:ISBN
11478:ISBN
11459:ISBN
11435:ISBN
11412:ISBN
11352:ISBN
11329:ISBN
11309:ISBN
11291:ISBN
11246:ISBN
11228:ISBN
11210:ISBN
11189:ISBN
11167:ISBN
11144:ISBN
11124:ISBN
11106:ISBN
11078:ISBN
11052:ISBN
11025:ISBN
11006:ISBN
10985:ISBN
10963:OCLC
10937:OCLC
10920:2011
10883:ISBN
10856:ISBN
10796:ISBN
10761:ISSN
10731:OCLC
10696:ISBN
10675:ISBN
10620:OCLC
10577:ISBN
10556:ISBN
10489:ISBN
10469:ISBN
5306:naft
5299:for
5149:myai
5128:lime
5084:and
4922:and
4875:lang
4732:hold
4730:and
4728:beam
4538:and
4411:hull
4369:rams
4359:deck
4288:lit.
4089:and
3963:oria
3919:army
3695:and
3425:1025
3401:Year
3296:The
3261:The
3228:The
3221:and
3182:The
3028:and
2863:The
2824:lit.
2794:lit.
2737:θέμα
2579:and
2420:and
2223:The
2173:Acre
1946:and
1761:sack
1682:off
1678:. A
1615:Enna
1587:Bari
1573:and
1487:Rus'
1463:Bari
1457:and
1246:and
1006:and
778:and
653:wars
445:and
370:army
348:The
300:the
275:Pisa
259:Rus'
238:and
210:Pisa
162:Size
92:and
13763:Art
13467:Law
12230:doi
12137:doi
12002:doi
11771:doi
11759:134
11581:doi
11384:doi
11275:doi
10909:doi
10818:doi
10753:doi
10749:100
10599:doi
10522:doi
5274:of
4958:of
4790:at
4740:or
4558:'s
4456:or
4327:, '
4157:or
3911:or
3790:or
3765:of
3422:959
3419:842
3416:775
3413:540
3410:518
3407:457
3404:300
3332:in
3036:Kos
2931:of
2666:),
2029:to
1771:).
1120:of
1002:of
840:of
796:of
14203::
12236:.
12226:69
12224:.
12167:}}
12163:{{
12143:,
12133:35
12131:,
12109:,
12090:19
12088:.
12076:,
12008:,
11998:13
11992:,
11868:.
11787:,
11777:,
11769:,
11757:,
11587:,
11577:35
11575:,
11390:.
11380:36
11378:.
11271:17
11265:,
10905:61
10899:,
10832:,
10824:,
10814:38
10812:,
10767:,
10759:,
10747:,
10729:,
10725:,
10714:51
10712:,
10642:,
10638:,
10595:52
10593:,
10536:,
10528:,
10516:,
10445:.
10434:14
10432:.
10428:.
10388:19
10386:,
9954:^
9807:^
9744:^
9513:^
9246:^
9195:^
8976:^
8949:^
8910:^
8847:^
8784:^
8661:^
8512:^
8485:^
8470:^
8311:^
8270:^
8219:^
8168:^
8135:^
8082:^
7779:^
7680:^
7593:^
7398:^
7383:^
7344:^
7207:^
7144:^
7093:^
7028:^
6985:^
6910:^
6791:,
6781:^
6738:^
6699:^
6622:^
6487:^
6376:^
6337:^
6310:^
6199:^
6152:^
6137:^
6086:^
5987:^
5936:^
5903:^
5814:^
5759:^
5744:^
5715:^
5584:^
5519:^
5480:^
5427:^
5410:^
5372:^
5165:,
4907:it
4862:,
4752:,
4644:c.
4542:.
4529:c.
4389:,
4383:;
4379::
4286:,
4225:,
4006:.
3986:r.
3943:c.
3921:.
3687:,
3546:c.
3498:,
3489:.
3334:c.
3322:,
3306:,
3271:,
3238:,
3200:c.
3192:,
3140:.
3126:,
3099:c.
3091:,
2993:c.
2986:c.
2972:,
2956:,
2933:c.
2896:,
2884:,
2822:,
2791:,
2787::
2740:,
2722:,
2718::
2701:c.
2654:.
2638:,
2575:,
2556:.
2480:,
2429:,
2413:.
2268:,
1609:.
1434:,
1315:r.
1305:.
1263:.
1222:r.
1211:r.
1200:r.
1189:r.
1104:r.
1058:,
951:,
889:r.
851:r.
807:r.
655:,
616::
372:,
289:,
285:,
281:,
277:,
273:,
269:,
265:,
261:,
253:,
249:,
245:,
234:,
230:,
216:,
212:,
208:,
204:,
174:c.
166:c.
154:,
150:,
114:c.
66:c.
12518:)
12514:–
12502:–
12389:"
12385:"
12273:e
12266:t
12259:v
12244:.
12232::
12173:)
12139::
12111:I
12100:.
12004::
11878:.
11832:.
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11765::
11745:.
11680:.
11655:.
11583::
11467:.
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11360:.
11277::
11175:.
11086:.
11014:.
10993:.
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10864:.
10820::
10755::
10644:6
10626:.
10601::
10524::
10518:1
10456:.
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9739:.
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64:(
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.