MOSFET - Knowledge

4769:(RHBD) device is enclosed-layout-transistor (ELT). Normally, the gate of the MOSFET surrounds the drain, which is placed in the center of the ELT. The source of the MOSFET surrounds the gate. Another RHBD MOSFET is called H-Gate. Both of these transistors have very low leakage currents with respect to radiation. However, they are large in size and take up more space on silicon than a standard MOSFET. In older STI (shallow trench isolation) designs, radiation strikes near the silicon oxide region cause the channel inversion at the corners of the standard MOSFET due to accumulation of radiation induced trapped charges. If the charges are large enough, the accumulated charges affect STI surface edges along the channel near the channel interface (gate) of the standard MOSFET. This causes a device channel inversion to occur along the channel edges, creating an off-state leakage path. Subsequently, the device turns on; this process severely degrades the reliability of circuits. The ELT offers many advantages, including an improvement of 279: 3043: 3003: 650: 607:

the holes will simply be repelled and what will remain on the surface will be immobile (negative) atoms of the acceptor type, which creates a depletion region on the surface. A hole is created by an acceptor atom, e.g., boron, which has one less electron than a silicon atom. Holes are not actually repelled, being non-entities; electrons are attracted by the positive field, and fill these holes. This creates a depletion region where no charge carriers exist because the electron is now fixed onto the atom and immobile.

287: 4227:. For many alternative dielectrics the value is significantly lower, tending to increase the tunneling current, somewhat negating the advantage of higher dielectric constant. The maximum gate-source voltage is determined by the strength of the electric field able to be sustained by the gate dielectric before significant leakage occurs. As the insulating dielectric is made thinner, the electric field strength within it goes up for a fixed voltage. This necessitates using lower voltages with the thinner dielectric. 3944: 181: 3057: 3029: 3017: 2996: 2989: 3036: 4058: 4699: 4050: 2687: 947: 4365:(depending on device type), at least for low drain voltages. As MOSFET size is reduced, the fields in the channel increase and the dopant impurity levels increase. Both changes reduce the carrier mobility, and hence the transconductance. As channel lengths are reduced without proportional reduction in drain voltage, raising the electric field in the channel, the result is velocity saturation of the carriers, limiting the current and the transconductance. 935: 1780: 3050: 3010: 4810: 3328: 546: 4411:, and become a greater percentage of overall transistor size as the transistor shrinks. The transistor characteristics become less certain, more statistical. The random nature of manufacture means we do not know which particular example MOSFETs actually will end up in a particular instance of the circuit. This uncertainty forces a less optimal design because the design must work for a great variety of possible component MOSFETs. See 4127:. It is also expected that smaller transistors switch faster. For example, one approach to size reduction is a scaling of the MOSFET that requires all device dimensions to reduce proportionally. The main device dimensions are the channel length, channel width, and oxide thickness. When they are scaled down by equal factors, the transistor channel resistance does not change, while gate capacitance is cut by that factor. Hence, the 1772: 409: 1708: 3616:. The silicide-polysilicon combination has better electrical properties than polysilicon alone and still does not melt in subsequent processing. Also the threshold voltage is not significantly higher than with polysilicon alone, because the silicide material is not near the channel. The process in which silicide is formed on both the gate electrode and the source and drain regions is sometimes called 6906: 3991: 4450: 4102:, which sets the pace for MOSFET development. Historically, the difficulties with decreasing the size of the MOSFET have been associated with the semiconductor device fabrication process, the need to use very low voltages, and with poorer electrical performance necessitating circuit redesign and innovation (small MOSFETs exhibit higher leakage currents and lower output resistance). 327: 2966:

the case with discrete devices) it is sometimes angled to meet the source leaving the transistor. If the bulk is not shown (as is often the case in IC design as they are generally common bulk) an inversion symbol is sometimes used to indicate PMOS, alternatively an arrow on the source may be used in the same way as for bipolar transistors (out for nMOS, in for pMOS).

31: 3262:. The two types of circuit draw upon different features of transistor behavior. Digital circuits switch, spending most of their time either fully on or fully off. The transition from one to the other is only of concern with regards to speed and charge required. Analog circuits depend on operation in the transition region where small changes to 4243:). To keep these complex junctions in place, the annealing steps formerly used to remove damage and electrically active defects must be curtailed increasing junction leakage. Heavier doping is also associated with thinner depletion layers and more recombination centers that result in increased leakage current, even without lattice damage. 689:), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by a "+" sign after the type of doping. 659:: Top panels: An applied gate voltage bends bands, depleting holes from surface (left). The charge inducing the bending is balanced by a layer of negative acceptor-ion charge (right). Bottom panel: A larger applied voltage further depletes holes but conduction band lowers enough in energy to populate a conducting channel. 3246:

consumption and giving a very large input impedance. The insulating oxide between the gate and channel effectively isolates a MOSFET in one logic stage from earlier and later stages, which allows a single MOSFET output to drive a considerable number of MOSFET inputs. Bipolar transistor-based logic (such as

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The source is the more negative side for an N-MOS or the more positive side for a P-MOS. All of these switches are limited on what signals they can pass or stop by their gate-source, gate-drain and source–drain voltages; exceeding the voltage, current, or power limits will potentially damage the switch.

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have a different structure. As with most power devices, the structure is vertical and not planar. Using a vertical structure, it is possible for the transistor to sustain both high blocking voltage and high current. The voltage rating of the transistor is a function of the doping and thickness of the

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connection, if shown, is shown connected to the back of the channel with an arrow indicating pMOS or nMOS. Arrows always point from P to N, so an NMOS (N-channel in P-well or P-substrate) has the arrow pointing in (from the bulk to the channel). If the bulk is connected to the source (as is generally

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to indicate the lack of channel region near the drain. Although the channel does not extend the full length of the device, the electric field between the drain and the channel is very high, and conduction continues. The drain current is now weakly dependent upon drain voltage and controlled primarily

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device in which a buried oxide is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the channel region between the gate dielectric and the buried oxide region is very thin, the channel is referred to as an ultrathin channel region with the source and drain regions formed on either side in or above the thin

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at the interface between the p region and the oxide. This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain, and current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between the two electrodes. Increasing the voltage on the gate leads to a higher electron density in the inversion layer

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The MOS capacitor structure is the heart of the MOSFET. Consider a MOS capacitor where the silicon base is of p-type. If a positive voltage is applied at the gate, holes which are at the surface of the p-type substrate will be repelled by the electric field generated by the voltage applied. At first,

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description, though accurate, does not replicate the vacuum-tube tetrode. Vacuum-tube tetrodes, using a screen grid, exhibit much lower grid-plate capacitance and much higher output impedance and voltage gains than triode vacuum tubes. These improvements are commonly an order of magnitude (10 times)

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The ever-increasing density of MOSFETs on an integrated circuit creates problems of substantial localized heat generation that can impair circuit operation. Circuits operate more slowly at high temperatures, and have reduced reliability and shorter lifetimes. Heat sinks and other cooling devices and

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For analog operation, good gain requires a high MOSFET output impedance, which is to say, the MOSFET current should vary only slightly with the applied drain-to-source voltage. As devices are made smaller, the influence of the drain competes more successfully with that of the gate due to the growing

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Smaller MOSFETs are desirable for several reasons. The main reason to make transistors smaller is to pack more and more devices in a given chip area. This results in a chip with the same functionality in a smaller area, or chips with more functionality in the same area. Since fabrication costs for a

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MOSFET analog switches use the MOSFET to pass analog signals when on, and as a high impedance when off. Signals flow in both directions across a MOSFET switch. In this application, the drain and source of a MOSFET exchange places depending on the relative voltages of the source and drain electrodes.

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The gate oxide, which serves as insulator between the gate and channel, should be made as thin as possible to increase the channel conductivity and performance when the transistor is on and to reduce subthreshold leakage when the transistor is off. However, with current gate oxides with a thickness

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Nevertheless, MOSFETs are widely used in many types of analog circuits because of their own advantages (zero gate current, high and adjustable output impedance and improved robustness vs. BJTs which can be permanently degraded by even lightly breaking down the emitter-base). The characteristics and

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depends exponentially upon threshold voltage, introducing a strong dependence on any manufacturing variation that affects threshold voltage; for example: variations in oxide thickness, junction depth, or body doping that change the degree of drain-induced barrier lowering. The resulting sensitivity

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If the Fermi level lies above the intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of n-type, therefore at inversion, when the intrinsic level reaches and crosses the Fermi level (which lies closer to the valence band), the semiconductor type changes at the surface as dictated by the relative positions of the

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proposed a silicon MOS transistor in 1959 and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960. Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and

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and Lincoln Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer, for which they observed surface passivation effects. By 1957 Frosch and Derrick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors, the first transistors in which

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With MOSFETs becoming smaller, the number of atoms in the silicon that produce many of the transistor's properties is becoming fewer, with the result that control of dopant numbers and placement is more erratic. During chip manufacturing, random process variations affect all transistor dimensions:

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electrode located above the body and insulated from all other device regions by a gate dielectric layer. If dielectrics other than an oxide are employed, the device may be referred to as a metal-insulator-semiconductor FET (MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional

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by reducing unwanted surface inversion at the gate edges which occurs in the standard MOSFET. Since the gate edges are enclosed in ELT, there is no gate oxide edge (STI at gate interface), and thus the transistor off-state leakage is reduced very much. Low-power microelectronic circuits including

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are relatively fixed, the cost per integrated circuits is mainly related to the number of chips that can be produced per wafer. Hence, smaller ICs allow more chips per wafer, reducing the price per chip. In fact, over the past 30 years the number of transistors per chip has been doubled every 2–3

3250:) does not have such a high fanout capacity. This isolation also makes it easier for the designers to ignore to some extent loading effects between logic stages independently. That extent is defined by the operating frequency: as frequencies increase, the input impedance of the MOSFETs decreases. 1052:

of electron energies which allow some of the more energetic electrons at the source to enter the channel and flow to the drain. This results in a subthreshold current that is an exponential function of gate-source voltage. While the current between drain and source should ideally be zero when the

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In schematics where G, S, D are not labeled, the detailed features of the symbol indicate which terminal is source and which is drain. For enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols (in columns two and five), the source terminal is the one connected to the triangle. Additionally, in this

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The switch is turned on, and a channel has been created, which allows current between the drain and source. Since the drain voltage is higher than the source voltage, the electrons spread out, and conduction is not through a narrow channel but through a broader, two- or three-dimensional current

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this will shift the intrinsic energy level band so that it will curve downwards towards the valence band. If the Fermi level lies closer to the valence band (for p-type), there will be a point when the Intrinsic level will start to cross the Fermi level and when the voltage reaches the threshold

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Polysilicon is not a great conductor (approximately 1000 times more resistive than metals) which reduces the signal propagation speed through the material. The resistivity can be lowered by increasing the level of doping, but even highly doped polysilicon is not as conductive as most metals. To

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In the case of an n-type switch, the body is connected to the most negative supply (usually GND) and the gate is used as the switch control. Whenever the gate voltage exceeds the source voltage by at least a threshold voltage, the MOSFET conducts. The higher the voltage, the more the MOSFET can

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General Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964. Additionally, the method of coupling two complementary MOSFETs (P-channel and N-channel) into one high/low switch, known as CMOS, means that digital circuits dissipate very little power except when actually

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relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges. Application of a source-to-substrate reverse bias of the source-body pn-junction introduces a split between the Fermi levels for electrons and holes, moving the Fermi level for the channel further from the band edge, lowering the occupancy of the

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at the surface. This can be seen on a band diagram. The Fermi level defines the type of semiconductor in discussion. If the Fermi level is equal to the Intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of intrinsic, or pure type. If the Fermi level lies closer to the conduction band (valence band) then the

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layer (see cross section), while the current rating is a function of the channel width (the wider the channel, the higher the current). In a planar structure, the current and breakdown voltage ratings are both a function of the channel dimensions (respectively width and length of the channel),

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devices already described. These are MOSFET devices that are doped so that a channel exists even with zero voltage from gate to source. To control the channel, a negative voltage is applied to the gate (for an n-channel device), depleting the channel, which reduces the current flow through the

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As MOSFET geometries shrink, the voltage that can be applied to the gate must be reduced to maintain reliability. To maintain performance, the threshold voltage of the MOSFET has to be reduced as well. As threshold voltage is reduced, the transistor cannot be switched from complete turn-off to

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The threshold voltage is tuned by including a thin "work function metal" layer between the high-κ dielectric and the main metal. This layer is thin enough that the total work function of the gate is influenced by both the main metal and thin metal work functions (either due to alloying during

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are being switched. CMOS accomplishes this current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with a pMOSFET and connecting both gates and both drains together. A high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET not to conduct and a low voltage on the gates causes the

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Power MOSFETs with lateral structure are mainly used in high-end audio amplifiers and high-power PA systems. Their advantage is a better behaviour in the saturated region (corresponding to the linear region of a bipolar transistor) than the vertical MOSFETs. Vertical MOSFETs are designed for

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Modern ICs are computer-simulated with the goal of obtaining working circuits from the first manufactured lot. As devices are miniaturized, the complexity of the processing makes it difficult to predict exactly what the final devices look like, and modeling of physical processes becomes more

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has traditionally been used as the gate insulator. Silicon dioxide however has a modest dielectric constant. Increasing the dielectric constant of the gate dielectric allows a thicker layer while maintaining a high capacitance (capacitance is proportional to dielectric constant and inversely

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of the transistor scales with a similar factor. While this has been traditionally the case for the older technologies, for the state-of-the-art MOSFETs reduction of the transistor dimensions does not necessarily translate to higher chip speed because the delay due to interconnections is more

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has provided the motivation to advance MOSFET technology faster than any other type of silicon-based transistor. A big advantage of MOSFETs for digital switching is that the oxide layer between the gate and the channel prevents DC current from flowing through the gate, further reducing power

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at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage for the p-channel) is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only a very small

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case, and the application determines whether to favor one over the other. Subthreshold leakage (including subthreshold conduction, gate-oxide leakage and reverse-biased junction leakage), which was ignored in the past, now can consume upwards of half of the total power consumption of modern

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drain and source were adjacent at the surface. They showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into the wafer. After this, J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides and fabricated a high quality Si/

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For the symbols in which the bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here shown internally connected to the source (i.e., the black triangles in the diagrams in columns 2 and 5). This is a typical configuration, but by no means the only important configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a

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challenging as well. In addition, microscopic variations in structure due simply to the probabilistic nature of atomic processes require statistical (not just deterministic) predictions. These factors combine to make adequate simulation and "right the first time" manufacture difficult.

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diagram, the gate is shown as an "L" shape, whose input leg is closer to S than D, also indicating which is which. However, these symbols are often drawn with a T-shaped gate (as elsewhere on this page), so it is the triangle which must be relied upon to indicate the source terminal.

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The transistor is turned on, and a channel has been created which allows current between the drain and the source. The MOSFET operates like a resistor, controlled by the gate voltage relative to both the source and drain voltages. The current from drain to source is modeled as:

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A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line for the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then bending back at right angles into the same direction as the channel. Sometimes three line segments are used for

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circuits, as billions may be included in a memory chip or microprocessor. Since MOSFETs can be made with either p-type or n-type semiconductors, complementary pairs of MOS transistors can be used to make switching circuits with very low power consumption, in the form of

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resulting in inefficient use of the "silicon estate". With the vertical structure, the component area is roughly proportional to the current it can sustain, and the component thickness (actually the N-epitaxial layer thickness) is proportional to the breakdown voltage.

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The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a simplified algebraic model is used. Modern MOSFET characteristics are more complex than the algebraic model presented here.

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process, it is preferable to deposit the gate material prior to certain high-temperature steps in order to make better-performing transistors. Such high temperature steps would melt some metals, limiting the types of metal that can be used in a metal-gate-based

2854: 5002: 3310:(SOI). Since MOSFETs require more space to handle a given amount of power than a BJT, fabrication processes can incorporate BJTs and MOSFETs into a single device. Mixed-transistor devices are called bi-FETs (bipolar FETs) if they contain just one BJT-FET and 610:

As the voltage at the gate increases, there will be a point at which the surface above the depletion region will be converted from p-type into n-type, as electrons from the bulk area will start to get attracted by the larger electric field. This is known as

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This "complementary" or CMOS type of switch uses one P-MOS and one N-MOS FET to counteract the limitations of the single-type switch. The FETs have their drains and sources connected in parallel, the body of the P-MOS is connected to the high potential

4272:, channel formation is not entirely done by the gate, but now the drain and source also affect the channel formation. As the channel length decreases, the depletion regions of the source and drain come closer together and make the threshold voltage ( 2283: 3512:

The voltage limits for this switch are the gate-source, gate-drain and source-drain voltage limits for both FETs. Also, the P-MOS is typically two to three times wider than the N-MOS, so the switch will be balanced for speed in the two directions.

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proximity of these two electrodes, increasing the sensitivity of the MOSFET current to the drain voltage. To counteract the resulting decrease in output resistance, circuits are made more complex, either by requiring more devices, for example the

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was pivotal in recognising that this ongoing reduction was possible. Intel began production of a process featuring a 32 nm feature size (with the channel being even shorter) in late 2009. The semiconductor industry maintains a "roadmap", the

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analog circuits practical. In their linear region, MOSFETs can be used as precision resistors, which can have a much higher controlled resistance than BJTs. In high power circuits, MOSFETs sometimes have the advantage of not suffering from

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as the underlying silicon channel, it is quite straightforward to tune the work function to achieve low threshold voltages for both NMOS and PMOS devices. By contrast, the work functions of metals are not easily modulated, so tuning the

1408:= capacitance of the oxide layer. This equation is generally used, but is only an adequate approximation for the source tied to the bulk. For the source not tied to the bulk, the subthreshold equation for drain current in saturation is 6502:

Lindsay, R.; Pawlak; Kittl; Henson; Torregiani; Giangrandi; Surdeanu; Vandervorst; Mayur; Ross; McCoy; Gelpey; Elliott; Pages; Satta; Lauwers; Stolk; Maex (2011). "A Comparison of Spike, Flash, SPER and Laser Annealing for 45nm CMOS".

4377:(the capacitance of the metal-layer connections between different parts of the chip) is becoming a large percentage of capacitance. Signals have to travel through the interconnect, which leads to increased delay and lower performance. 2266: 1617:

Some micropower analog circuits are designed to take advantage of subthreshold conduction. By working in the weak-inversion region, the MOSFETs in these circuits deliver the highest possible transconductance-to-current ratio, namely:

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configuration, where both gates control the current in the device. It is commonly used for small-signal devices in radio frequency applications where biasing the drain-side gate at constant potential reduces the gain loss caused by

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system possessed the technical attractions of low cost of production (on a per circuit basis) and ease of integration. Largely because of these two factors, the MOSFET has become the most widely used type of transistor in the

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region. The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for n-channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers leave the channel.

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as BJTs do. This means that complete analog circuits can be made on a silicon chip in a much smaller space and with simpler fabrication techniques. MOSFETS are ideally suited to switch inductive loads because of tolerance to

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silicates and oxides are being used to reduce the gate leakage from the 45 nanometer technology node onwards. On the other hand, the barrier height of the new gate insulator is an important consideration; the difference in

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difference between the gate material and channel material. Because polysilicon is a semiconductor, its work function can be modulated by adjusting the type and level of doping. Furthermore, because polysilicon has the same

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at high inversion charge density. In addition, drain-induced barrier lowering increases off-state (cutoff) current and requires an increase in threshold voltage to compensate, which in turn reduces the saturation current.

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is an acceptable but certainly not ideal conductor, and also suffers from some more technical deficiencies in its role as the standard gate material. Nevertheless, there are several reasons favoring use of polysilicon:

4690:, unlike CMOS logic, NMOS logic consumes power even when no switching is taking place. With advances in technology, CMOS logic displaced NMOS logic in the mid-1980s to become the preferred process for digital chips. 3628:, where a depletion layer is formed in the gate polysilicon layer next to the gate dielectric when the transistor is in the inversion. To avoid this problem, a metal gate is desired. A variety of metal gates such as 362:, do not form good semiconductor-to-insulator interfaces, and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues on creating insulators with acceptable electrical characteristics on other semiconductor materials. 191:

is below the threshold for making a conductive channel; there is little or no conduction between the terminals drain and source; the switch is off. When the gate is more positive, it attracts electrons, inducing an

112:. It has an insulated gate, the voltage of which determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic 667:

C–V profile for a bulk MOSFET with different oxide thickness. The leftmost part of the curve corresponds to accumulation. The valley in the middle corresponds to depletion. The curve on the right corresponds to

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While polysilicon gates have been the de facto standard for the last twenty years, they do have some disadvantages which have led to their likely future replacement by metal gates. These disadvantages include:

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at the semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion layer provides a channel through which current can pass between source and drain terminals. Varying the voltage between the gate and body modulates the

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semiconductor layer. Other semiconductor materials may be employed. When the source and drain regions are formed above the channel in whole or in part, they are referred to as raised source/drain regions.

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When the transistors are extremely scaled down, it is necessary to make the gate dielectric layer very thin, around 1 nm in state-of-the-art technologies. A phenomenon observed here is the so-called

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symbols. The orientation of the symbols, (most significantly the position of source relative to drain) is such that more positive voltages appear higher on the page than less positive voltages, implying

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channel. The effect is to increase the gate voltage necessary to establish the channel, as seen in the figure. This change in channel strength by application of reverse bias is called the "body effect."

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but many other dielectric materials are employed. The generic term for the dielectric is gate dielectric since the dielectric lies directly below the gate electrode and above the channel of the MOSFET.

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refers to the narrow channel between source and drain. A thin insulating oxide layer on either side of the fin separates it from the gate. SOI FinFETs with a thick oxide on top of the fin are called

165:(polycrystalline silicon). Similarly, "oxide" in the name can also be a misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used with the aim of obtaining strong channels with smaller applied voltages. 664: 3766: 3418:

In the case of a P-MOS, the body is connected to the most positive voltage, and the gate is brought to a lower potential to turn the switch on. The P-MOS switch passes all voltages higher than

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According to the basic threshold model, the transistor is turned off, and there is no conduction between drain and source. A more accurate model considers the effect of thermal energy on the

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computers, communication devices, and monitoring systems in space shuttles and satellites are very different from what is used on earth. They are radiation (high-speed atomic particles like

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reverse. During the switching time as the voltage goes from one state to another, both MOSFETs will conduct briefly. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation.

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introduces drain voltage dependence that depends in a complex way upon the device geometry (for example, the channel doping, the junction doping and so on). Frequently, threshold voltage

1749: 1244: 4394:. As their on-state resistance rises with temperature, if the load is approximately a constant-current load then the power loss rises correspondingly, generating further heat. When the 3743: 3567:(LVT) becomes a significant challenge. Additionally, obtaining low-threshold devices on both PMOS and NMOS devices sometimes requires the use of different metals for each device type. 2658:

As the channel length becomes very short, these equations become quite inaccurate. New physical effects arise. For example, carrier transport in the active mode may become limited by

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by forcing the positively charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions (see

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etc.) tolerant circuits. These special electronics are designed by applying different techniques using RHBD MOSFETs to ensure safe space journeys and safe space-walks of astronauts.

3306:, making the needed board space even smaller. This creates a need to isolate the analog circuits from the digital circuits on a chip level, leading to the use of isolation rings and 631:

voltage, the intrinsic level does cross the Fermi level, and that is what is known as inversion. At that point, the surface of the semiconductor is inverted from p-type into n-type.

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performance of many analog circuits can be scaled up or down by changing the sizes (length and width) of the MOSFETs used. By comparison, in bipolar transistors follow a different

6784:"High performance organic field-effect transistors using cyanoethyl pullulan (CEP) high-k polymer cross-linked with trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether (TTE) at low temperatures" 4373:

Traditionally, switching time was roughly proportional to the gate capacitance of gates. However, with transistors becoming smaller and more transistors being placed on the chip,

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interface has been well studied and is known to have relatively few defects. By contrast many metal-insulator interfaces contain significant levels of defects which can lead to

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and therefore increases the current flow between the source and drain. For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated, and only a very small

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is a challenge, and the difficulties of semiconductor device fabrication are always a limiting factor in advancing integrated circuit technology. Though processes such as

3760:= electric field. From this law it appears the same charge can be maintained in the channel at a lower field provided κ is increased. The voltage on the gate is given by: 2499: 3963:

doping can be used, that is, the addition of very thin heavily doped regions of the same doping type as the body tight against the junction walls to limit the extent of

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current, the insulator can be made thinner by choosing a material with a higher dielectric constant. To see how thickness and dielectric constant are related, note that

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four-terminal device, and in integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body connection, not necessarily connected to the source terminals of all the transistors.

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positions the electron Fermi level near the interface, deciding occupancy of these levels near the interface, and hence the strength of the inversion layer or channel.

3415:. When the switch is conducting, it typically operates in the linear (or ohmic) mode of operation, since the source and drain voltages will typically be nearly equal. 2011: 6614:

Frontiers in electronics: future chips : proceedings of the 2002 Workshop on Frontiers in Electronics (WOFE-02), St Croix, Virgin Islands, USA, 6–11 January 2002

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Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the

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is the gate oxide capacitance per unit area. The transition from the exponential subthreshold region to the triode region is not as sharp as the equations suggest.

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At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor surface the conduction band edge is brought close to the Fermi level, populating the surface with electrons in an

2419:{\displaystyle g_{m}={\frac {\partial I_{D}}{\partial V_{\text{GS}}}}={\frac {2I_{\text{D}}}{V_{\text{GS}}-V_{\text{th}}}}={\frac {2I_{\text{D}}}{V_{\text{ov}}}},} 6756: 6726: 6148: 4001: 1977:{\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}=\mu _{n}C_{\text{ox}}{\frac {W}{L}}\left(\left(V_{\text{GS}}-V_{\rm {th}}\right)V_{\text{DS}}-{\frac {{V_{\text{DS}}}^{2}}{2}}\right)} 3285:. MOSFETs' ideal characteristics regarding gate current (zero) and drain-source offset voltage (zero) also make them nearly ideal switch elements, and also make 5945: 3112:

and memory devices contain thousands to billions of integrated MOSFET transistors on each device, providing the basic switching functions required to implement

2051: 2031: 7166: 3459:). To turn the switch on, the gate of the P-MOS is driven to the low potential and the gate of the N-MOS is driven to the high potential. For voltages between 3970:

The capacitive effects are limited by using raised source and drain geometries that make most of the contact area border thick dielectric instead of silicon.

3671:

HKMG processes exist that do not require the metals to experience high temperature anneals; other processes select metals that can survive the annealing step.

3519:

sometimes incorporates a CMOS MOSFET switch on its output to provide for a low-ohmic, full-range output when on, and a high-ohmic, mid-level signal when off.

2584: 456:

When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with

2655:

If λ is taken as zero, an infinite output resistance of the device results that leads to unrealistic circuit predictions, particularly in analog circuits.

6993: 6666: 3665:

annealing, or simply due to the incomplete screening by the thin metal). The threshold voltage thus can be tuned by the thickness of the thin metal layer.

7043: 4945:, Patent No. GB439457, European Patent Office, filed in Great Britain 1934-03-02, published December 6, 1935 (originally filed in Germany March 2, 1934). 4099: 4085:

Over the past decades, the MOSFET (as used for digital logic) has continually been scaled down in size; typical MOSFET channel lengths were once several

314:

and was initially seen as inferior. Nevertheless, Kahng pointed out several advantages of the device, notably ease of fabrication and its application in

2937:

The body can be operated as a second gate, and is sometimes referred to as the "back gate"; the body effect is sometimes called the "back-gate effect".

5364: 4682:), and producing only one type of MOSFET on a silicon substrate is cheaper and technically simpler. These were the driving principles in the design of 3947:

MOSFET showing shallow junction extensions, raised source and drain and halo implant. Raised source and drain are separated from gate by oxide spacers.

5505:

V., Sriramkumar; Paydavosi, Navid; Lu, Darsen; Lin, Chung-Hsun; Dunga, Mohan; Yao, Shijing; Morshed, Tanvir; Niknejad, Ali & Hu, Chenming (2012).

4398:

is not able to keep the temperature low enough, the junction temperature may rise quickly and uncontrollably, resulting in destruction of the device.

2516: 351: 7147: 3224:

since ever more transistors are packed into ever smaller chips. CMOS logic reduces power consumption because no current flows (ideally), and thus no

7005: 5513: 4143:

have improved fabrication for small components, the small size of the MOSFET (less than a few tens of nanometers) has created operational problems:

6201: 3897:= insulator thickness. This equation shows the gate voltage will not increase when the insulator thickness increases, provided κ increases to keep 1299: 7241: 4670:

For devices of equal current driving capability, n-channel MOSFETs can be made smaller than p-channel MOSFETs, due to p-channel charge carriers (

307:

H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device. This was a culmination of decades of field-effect research that began with Lilienfeld.

5438: 4495:

device, one of a number of geometries being introduced to mitigate the effects of short channels and reduce drain-induced barrier lowering. The

4012: 1529:{\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}\approx I_{\text{D0}}e^{\frac {V_{\text{G}}-V_{\text{th}}}{nV_{\text{T}}}}e^{-{\frac {V_{\text{S}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}}.} 5000:, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., "Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion", issued 1957-08-13 725:

With sufficient gate voltage, the valence band edge is driven far from the Fermi level, and holes from the body are driven away from the gate.

7158: 6982: 7103: 6696: 3314:(bipolar-CMOS) if they contain complementary BJT-FETs. Such devices have the advantages of both insulated gates and higher current density. 4655: 290:

Simulation of formation of inversion channel (electron density) and attainment of threshold voltage (IV) in a nanowire MOSFET. Note:

4757:

Semiconductor sub-micrometer and nanometer electronic circuits are the primary concern for operating within the normal tolerance in harsh

4484:

or considerably more. Tetrode transistors (whether bipolar junction or field-effect) do not exhibit improvements of such a great degree.

2741:

The body effect upon the channel can be described using a modification of the threshold voltage, approximated by the following equation:

5259: 7028: 6537: 942:

bottom left: Active mode at onset of pinch-off, bottom right: Active mode well into pinch-off – channel length modulation evident

8115: 6103: 3170: 1621: 5393: 387:

When a voltage is applied between the gate and the source, the electric field generated penetrates through the oxide and creates an

4223:

energy) also affects leakage current level. For the traditional gate oxide, silicon dioxide, the former barrier is approximately 8

2673:. In the ballistic regime, the carriers travel at an injection velocity that may exceed the saturation velocity and approaches the 532:

This structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET, which requires the addition of n-type source and drain regions.

2270:

The additional factor involving λ, the channel-length modulation parameter, models current dependence on drain voltage due to the

7756: 7063: 6275: 6444: 4081:

are in Ohmic mode, and act like resistors. The operational amplifier provides feedback that maintains a high output resistance.

3645: 618:

In the case of a p-type MOSFET, bulk inversion happens when the intrinsic energy level at the surface becomes smaller than the

330:

Photomicrograph of two metal-gate MOSFETs in a test pattern. Probe pads for two gates and three source/drain nodes are labeled.

7141: 7113: 6822: 6766: 6736: 6650: 6621: 6565: 6486: 6428: 6398: 6335: 6308: 5918: 5891: 5864: 5837: 5810: 5783: 5756: 5725: 5696: 5669: 5642: 5575: 5548: 5492: 5333: 5308: 5221: 6582: 4239:

levels, shallower junctions, "halo" doping and so forth, all to decrease drain-induced barrier lowering (see the section on

4152:

complete turn-on with the limited voltage swing available; the circuit design is a compromise between strong current in the

7673: 6078: 3866:{\displaystyle V_{\text{G}}=V_{\text{ch}}+E\,t_{\text{ins}}=V_{\text{ch}}+{\frac {Qt_{\text{ins}}}{\kappa \epsilon _{0}}},} 1053:

transistor is being used as a turned-off switch, there is a weak-inversion current, sometimes called subthreshold leakage.

6234:"Computer History Museum – The Silicon Engine | 1963 – Complementary MOS Circuit Configuration is Invented" 6126:

IEEE Std 315-1975 — Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (Including Reference Designation Letters)

2720: 7454: 7234: 4942: 4912: 3136:

spectrum use MOSFET transistors as analog signal and power amplifiers. Radio systems also use MOSFETs as oscillators, or

142:

The main advantage of a MOSFET is that it requires almost no input current to control the load current, when compared to

6139: 3140:

to convert frequencies. MOSFET devices are also applied in audio-frequency power amplifiers for public address systems,

5159: 5134: 4111:

years once a new technology node is introduced. For example, the number of MOSFETs in a microprocessor fabricated in a

3936:

of the device, lowering output resistance, and also the speed of the device through the loading effect of the junction

2849:{\displaystyle V_{\text{TB}}=V_{T0}+\gamma \left({\sqrt {V_{\text{SB}}+2\varphi _{B}}}-{\sqrt {2\varphi _{B}}}\right),} 3277:

and certain temperature characteristics which simplify keeping performance predictable as circuit temperature varies.

2120:

distribution extending away from the interface and deeper in the substrate. The onset of this region is also known as

7437: 7333: 6954: 6592: 6062: 5615: 4841: 4412: 4030: 3375: 593: 3357: 575: 7577: 7304: 6165: 5418: 1541: 4702:

Cross section of a power MOSFET, with square cells. A typical transistor is constituted of several thousand cells.

1775:

Cross section of a MOSFET operating in the linear (Ohmic) region; strong inversion region present even near drain.

139:

The basic working principle is to control the flow of current between two terminals (i.e., the Source and Drain).

7625: 7424: 3303: 2951: 1714: 1209: 400:

of this layer and thereby controls the current flow between drain and source. This is known as enhancement mode.

376:

The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer, traditionally of silicon dioxide and later of

7227: 6997: 6674: 5592: 5213: 4258: 3929: 3353: 1579: 571: 196:-type conductive channel in the substrate below the oxide (yellow), which allows electrons to flow between the 7047: 5512:. Department of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, University of California Berkeley. Archived from 4943:

Heil, Oskar, "Improvements in or relating to electrical amplifiers and other control arrangements and devices"

3706: 3692:

of carriers through the insulator from the channel to the gate electrode takes place. To reduce the resulting

615:. The threshold voltage at which this conversion happens is one of the most important parameters in a MOSFET. 369:

is used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is replaced by metal gates (e.g.

278: 5368: 4479:

configuration. Other common uses in RF circuits include gain control and mixing (frequency conversion). The

7656: 7408: 6186: 4847: 4548: 4416: 2662:. When velocity saturation dominates, the saturation drain current is more nearly linear than quadratic in 1049: 644: 143: 3904:/ κ = constant (see the article on high-κ dielectrics for more detail, and the section in this article on 7460: 7397: 7009: 5126: 4770: 4749:(vertical double-diffused metal oxide semiconductor). Most power MOSFETs are made using this technology. 4424: 3296: 3270: 3247: 3132:

applications where each device may be switching thousands of watts. Radio-frequency amplifiers up to the

253: 17: 6369: 6208: 2975: 2917:

and gate bias is sufficient to ensure that a channel is present. As this equation shows, a reverse bias

1170:{\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}\approx I_{\text{D0}}e^{\frac {V_{\text{GS}}-V_{\text{th}}}{nV_{\text{T}}}},} 8120: 7667: 7182: 6557:

Integrated Circuit Design: Power and Timing Modeling, Optimization, and Simulation (10th Int. Workshop)

6233: 4089:, but modern integrated circuits are incorporating MOSFETs with channel lengths of tens of nanometers. 3121: 1249: 8279: 7874: 7588: 7431: 7316: 7094: 3952: 3181: 2275: 2121: 1784: 464: 7082: 6975: 6783: 1357: 7883: 7741: 7593: 7449: 7174: 6936: 6932: 6916: 6138:

Jaeger, Richard C.; Blalock, Travis N. "Figure 4.15 IEEE Standard MOS transistor circuit symbols".

3693: 3338: 3220:) logic, which uses p- and n-channel MOSFETs as building blocks. Overheating is a major concern in 3125: 2056: 1384: 1182: 1059: 1017: 990: 556: 6351: 4544: 4005:

that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.

2477: 358:) in MOSFET channels. Many semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such as 7894: 7614: 7413: 7119: 6704: 5267: 4881: 4622: 4420: 4307:, the depletion regions increase in size, and a considerable amount of charge is depleted by the 4236: 4191:

proportional to dielectric thickness). All else equal, a higher dielectric thickness reduces the

4140: 3537: 3349: 3342: 567: 560: 442: 397: 214: 210: 101: 5079: 8063: 7630: 7495: 7471: 6839:"Power MOSFET Basics: Understanding MOSFET Characteristics Associated With The Figure of Merit" 4928:

Lilienfeld, Julius Edgar (1926-10-08) "Method and apparatus for controlling electric currents"

4630: 4579: 4346: 3273:(BJT) are preferred for accurate matching (of adjacent devices in integrated circuits), higher 490: 237: 6638: 6418: 6298: 6050: 5713: 5686: 5659: 5118: 1989: 8132: 8084: 7905: 7721: 7636: 7567: 7403: 6869:"Power MOSFET Basics: Understanding Gate Charge and Using It To Assess Switching Performance" 6609: 6555: 6476: 5746: 5632: 5565: 5207: 3911:

The insulator in a MOSFET is a dielectric which can in any event be silicon oxide, formed by

3564: 2883: 244:

effect. However, the structure failed to show the anticipated effects, due to the problem of

42: 6530: 6388: 6325: 5773: 2261:{\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}={\frac {\mu _{n}C_{\text{ox}}}{2}}{\frac {W}{L}}\left^{2}\left.} 421:

The traditional metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by growing a layer of

8206: 7950: 7845: 7619: 7512: 7366: 7327: 7258: 7250: 5450: 4823: 4492: 4269: 3533: 3307: 2947: 2907:

is the approximate potential drop between surface and bulk across the depletion layer when

750: 738: 672:

A MOSFET is based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a

504:

located in a thin layer next to the interface between the semiconductor and the insulator.

6976:"Understanding power MOSFET data sheet parameters – Nexperia PDF Application Note AN11158" 6111: 6031:{\displaystyle \varphi _{B}={\frac {k_{B}T}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {N_{A}}{n_{i}}}\right)\ ,} 4203: 3928:

are the object of much attention because of three major factors: their design affects the

3653: 3641: 2501:

which would otherwise appear at the transition between the triode and saturation regions.

1056:

In weak inversion where the source is tied to bulk, the current varies exponentially with

749:

subthreshold current can flow between the source and the drain. The device may comprise a

366: 150:

MOSFET, voltage applied to the gate terminal increases the conductivity of the device. In

8: 7926: 7834: 7726: 7562: 7539: 4766: 4219:

energy between the semiconductor and the dielectric (and the corresponding difference in

4199: 4107: 3575: 3141: 2670: 2659: 950:

Example application of an n-channel MOSFET. When the switch is pushed, the LED lights up.

311: 249: 5454: 4959: 3680:

As devices are made smaller, insulating layers are made thinner, often through steps of

2669:. At even shorter lengths, carriers transport with near zero scattering, known as quasi- 1783:

Cross section of a MOSFET operating in the saturation (active) region; channel exhibits

8231: 8091: 7799: 7766: 7582: 7466: 7444: 5176: 5048: 5017: 4815: 4575: 4183: 4179: 3286: 3221: 3105: 2036: 2016: 377: 315: 45:. Operating as switches, each of these components can sustain a blocking voltage of 120 5439:"Modeling and simulation of insulated-gate field-effect transistor switching circuits" 4859: 2638:{\displaystyle g_{\text{DS}}={\frac {\partial I_{\text{DS}}}{\partial V_{\text{DS}}}}} 2278:. According to this equation, a key design parameter, the MOSFET transconductance is: 8226: 8147: 8038: 7990: 7819: 7746: 7708: 7137: 7109: 7067: 6818: 6762: 6732: 6646: 6617: 6588: 6561: 6482: 6424: 6414: 6394: 6331: 6304: 6283: 6058: 5914: 5887: 5860: 5833: 5806: 5779: 5752: 5721: 5692: 5665: 5638: 5611: 5571: 5544: 5488: 5351:

To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology

5329: 5304: 5217: 5209:

To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology

5155: 5130: 5099: 5095: 4979: 4675: 4362: 4342: 4192: 3689: 3681: 3612:

is alloyed with the top layers of the polysilicon. Such a blended material is called

3546: 3516: 3129: 3042: 3002: 2450: 1042: 526: 508: 438: 291: 105: 6968: 6451: 6047:

the intrinsic mobile carrier density per unit volume in the bulk. See, for example,

4235:

To make devices smaller, junction design has become more complex, leading to higher

3940:, and finally, the component of stand-by power dissipation due to junction leakage. 744:

When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is applied, it creates a

8284: 7942: 7889: 7716: 7355: 6795: 6512: 5458: 5296: 5188: 5091: 5060: 5029: 4971: 4853: 4461: 4358: 3974: 3964: 3637: 3633: 3274: 3258:

The MOSFET's advantages in digital circuits do not translate into supremacy in all

3157: 2719:

The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the

1538:

In a long-channel device, there is no drain voltage dependence of the current once

720: 712:

The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the

359: 310:

The first MOS transistor at Bell Labs was about 100 times slower than contemporary

229: 35: 7751: 6254: 2686: 1704:

to fabricational variations complicates optimization for leakage and performance.

1589:

for this mode is defined as the gate voltage at which a selected value of current

663: 286: 8219: 8152: 8005: 7736: 7646: 7490: 5482: 4687: 4614: 4610: 4589: 4583: 4525: 4391: 4386:

methods are now required for many integrated circuits including microprocessors.

4216: 4187: 4044: 3644:. An alternative is to use fully silicided polysilicon gates, a process known as 3291: 3225: 3137: 486: 422: 269: 169: 7377: 6924: 6082: 4609:

The gate dielectric insulator in a MISFET is a substrate oxide (hence typically

4008: 700:

region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and drain are

649: 8194: 7975: 7965: 7731: 7534: 5466: 5300: 5237: 4997: 4930: 4618: 4314:. The gate voltage required to form the channel is then lowered, and thus, the 4124: 4090: 4062: 3697: 3625: 3582: 3259: 3242: 3161: 3109: 2674: 299: 245: 5462: 4905: 1791: 282:

1957, Diagram of one of the SiO2 transistor devices made by Frosch and Derrick

240:

attempted to build a field-effect device, which led to their discovery of the

8273: 8256: 8079: 7995: 7814: 7641: 7609: 5742: 5288: 5103: 4983: 4856: – Simulation of physical processes taking place in an electronic device 4671: 4651: 4529: 4472: 4186:

occurs between the gate and channel, leading to increased power consumption.

3560: 3550: 3397:

This analog switch uses a four-terminal simple MOSFET of either P or N type.

2969:

Comparison of enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with

1699: 500:

is high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms in an

365:

To overcome the increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a

335: 6584:

Design for Manufacturability And Statistical Design: A Constructive Approach

3943: 2734:

positions the conduction-band energy levels, while the source-to-body bias V

8137: 8125: 8013: 7980: 7809: 7794: 7361: 7127:

Wintrich, Arendt; Nicolai, Ulrich; Tursky, Werner; Reimann, Tobias (2011).

4850: – Variation of threshold voltage in polycrystalline silicon materials 4712: 4707: 4552: 4536: 4387: 4224: 4220: 4120: 4057: 3925: 3660:(HKMG). The disadvantages of metal gates are overcome by a few techniques: 3117: 2690: 2271: 655: 381: 380:. Some companies use a high-κ dielectric and metal gate combination in the 248:: traps on the semiconductor surface that hold electrons immobile. With no 233: 6516: 6166:"1955 – Photolithography Techniques Are Used to Make Silicon Devices" 4629:

is historically used for the gate material, even though now it is usually

4049: 3668:

High-κ dielectrics are now well studied, and their defects are understood.

3578:, charging, or other phenomena that ultimately degrade device performance. 3056: 3035: 3028: 3016: 2995: 2988: 2934:

and therefore demands a larger gate voltage before the channel populates.

180: 8179: 7921: 7870: 7776: 7761: 7544: 7506: 5908: 5881: 5854: 5827: 5800: 5241: 4787: 4783: 4762: 4633: 4374: 4094: 3937: 3596:

improve conductivity further, sometimes a high-temperature metal such as

3282: 3156:

to reduce contamination to levels never before thought necessary, and of

713: 692:

If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are

619: 303: 264: 162: 77: 7219: 7102:

Nicolai, Ulrich; Reimann, Tobias; Petzoldt, Jürgen; Lutz, Josef (1998).

6327:

Predictive Simulation of Semiconductor Processing: Status and Challenges

5688:

Field-programmable Logic and Applications: 12th International Conference

5422: 4832: – Family of MOSFET transistor models for integrated circuit design 4698: 8251: 8241: 8174: 8048: 8018: 7985: 7960: 7955: 7932: 7804: 7784: 7662: 7524: 7501: 7387: 7289: 7284: 7279: 6799: 4975: 4683: 4567: 4136: 4086: 3652:

Present high performance CPUs use metal gate technology, together with

3229: 3216:

The MOSFET is used in digital complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (

3193: 3189: 3153: 3113: 1711:

MOSFET drain current vs. drain-to-source voltage for several values of

446: 241: 218: 174: 69: 6370:"1965 – "Moore's Law" Predicts the Future of Integrated Circuits" 5564:

van der Meer, P. R.; van Staveren, A.; van Roermund, A. H. M. (2004).

5538: 5328:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. 5192: 5177:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon" 5064: 5049:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon" 5033: 5018:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon" 4503:

and those with a thin oxide on top as well as on the sides are called

3959:

curves are reduced by using shallow junction extensions. In addition,

946: 8214: 8058: 8053: 8043: 7970: 7850: 7684: 7679: 7604: 7529: 4795: 4758: 4717: 4679: 4637: 4211: 4171: 3549:(and consequently the drain to source on-current) is modified by the 934: 450: 257: 225: 7191: 5933:

For a uniformly doped p-type substrate with bulk acceptor doping of

5567:

Low-Power Deep Sub-Micron CMOS Logic: Subthreshold Current Reduction

5563: 3327: 3049: 3009: 1779: 545: 8236: 8184: 8164: 8142: 8028: 8023: 7911: 7900: 7829: 7599: 7208: 7059:

A Flash slide showing the fabricating process of a MOSFET in detail

6935:

external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into

6202:"2-1/2-generation μP's-$ 10 parts that perform like low-end mini's" 5716:. In Toumazou, Chris; Battersby, Nicholas C.; Porta, Sonia (eds.). 5537:

Gray, P. R.; Hurst, P. J.; Lewis, S. H. & Meyer, R. G. (2001).

4809: 4728: 4658: 4606:(IGFET). All MOSFETs are MISFETs, but not all MISFETs are MOSFETs. 4395: 4128: 3629: 3617: 3613: 3601: 3597: 158: 154:

transistors, voltage applied at the gate reduces the conductivity.

56:

state, and can conduct a continuous current of 30

6610:"Figure 12: Simplified cross section of FinFET double-gate MOSFET" 4528:(on) switch, while the enhancement-mode device is equivalent to a 8096: 8033: 7855: 7840: 7694: 7651: 7299: 5832:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 315–316. 5244:(1960). "Silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface devices". 4779: 4571: 4563: 4524:

device. In essence, the depletion-mode device is equivalent to a

4476: 4467: 4338: 4246: 4207: 4195:

current through the dielectric between the gate and the channel.

3555: 3532:

The primary criterion for the gate material is that it is a good

3302:

Some ICs combine analog and digital MOSFET circuitry on a single

339: 109: 57: 6255:"Computer History Museum – Exhibits – Microprocessors" 5913:(5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 552. 5775:

Statistical Analysis and Optimization For VLSI: Timing and Power

5260:"1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" 4449: 4119:

chip. This doubling of transistor density was first observed by

3951:

The drain induced barrier lowering of the threshold voltage and

2558:{\displaystyle r_{\text{out}}={\frac {1}{\lambda I_{\text{D}}}}} 1771: 965: 408: 8169: 7860: 7824: 7789: 7321: 7294: 4835: 4775: 4519:

MOSFET devices, which are less commonly used than the standard

4488: 4454: 4328:. This effect is called drain induced barrier lowering (DIBL). 3609: 3605: 3455:) and the body of the N-MOS is connected to the low potential ( 3311: 2954:). Another line is drawn parallel to the channel for the gate. 1687:{\displaystyle g_{m}/I_{\text{D}}=1/\left(nV_{\text{T}}\right)} 113: 7025:"Criteria for Successful Selection of IGBT and MOSFET Modules" 5880:

Gray, P. R.; Hurst, P. J.; Lewis, S. H.; Meyer, R. G. (2001).

4826: – Type of MOSFET where the gate is electrically isolated 4686:

which uses n-channel MOSFETs exclusively. However, neglecting

4590:

Metal–insulator–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MISFET)

4361:

of the MOSFET decides its gain and is proportional to hole or

1707: 8246: 8157: 7916: 7689: 7482: 7344: 7339: 6393:. McGraw-Hill Professional. Fig. 2.1, p. 44, Fig. 1.1, p. 4. 5772:

Srivastava, Ashish; Sylvester, Dennis; Blaauw, David (2005).

4791: 4741: 4613:) in a MOSFET, but other materials can also be employed. The 4116: 4112: 3912: 3685: 2504:

Another key design parameter is the MOSFET output resistance

370: 347: 49: 39: 7126: 6637:

Lee, J.-H.; Lee, J.-W.; Jung, H.-A.-R.; Choi, B.-K. (2009).

6536:. IBM Journal of Research and Development. 9 February 2021. 1345:{\displaystyle n=1+{\frac {C_{\text{dep}}}{C_{\text{ox}}}},} 8189: 7572: 7518: 7419: 7372: 7310: 6728:

Semiconducting polymers: chemistry, physics and engineering

5859:(5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 250, Eq. 4.14. 5634:

Neuromorphic Systems: Engineering Silicon from Neurobiology

5500: 4829: 4175: 4135:

Producing MOSFETs with channel lengths much smaller than a

4002:

personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay

3217: 3120:. Discrete devices are widely used in applications such as 2970: 1792:

Triode mode or linear region (also known as the ohmic mode)

355: 65: 7101: 6612:. In Park, Yoon-Soo; Shur, Michael; Tang, William (eds.). 5411: 5080:"The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen" 4594:

Metal–insulator–semiconductor field-effect-transistor, or

4349:, for example a circuit like that in the adjacent figure. 4279:) a function of the length of the channel. This is called 3973:

These various features of junction design are shown (with

3495:, the N-MOS conducts alone; and for voltages greater than 3164:

to allow circuits to be made in very few steps, the Si–SiO

2866:

is the threshold voltage with substrate bias present, and

2125:

by the gate-source voltage, and modeled approximately as:

453:, with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor. 326: 5771: 3133: 343: 184:

A cross-section through an nMOSFET when the gate voltage

6581:

Orshansky, Michael; Nassif, Sani; Boning, Duane (2007).

6501: 6055:

Mosfet modeling for VLSI simulation: theory and practice

5685:

Glesner, Manfred; Zipf, Peter; Renovell, Michel (2002).

4786:

magnetic energy dissipation in Earth's space, energetic

4745:(lateral double-diffused metal oxide semiconductor) and 30: 5610:. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. p. 370. 4882:"Top 17+ MOSFET Interview Questions and Answers (2024)" 4862: – MOSFET that can handle significant power levels 4838: – Electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection device 4556: 4540: 3484:, both FETs conduct the signal; for voltages less than 3401:

conduct. An N-MOS switch passes all voltages less than

626:

When the gate voltage is increased in a positive sense

511:. When the voltage between transistor gate and source ( 445:(the latter is commonly used). As silicon dioxide is a 6639:"Comparison of SOI FinFETs and bulk FinFETs: Figure 2" 6355: 5798: 5507:"BSIM-CMG 106.1.0beta Multi-Gate MOSFET Compact Model" 5154:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 322. 4752: 3269:

can modulate the output (drain) current. The JFET and

1614:-value used in the equations for the following modes. 416: 6758:

Organic Molecular Solids: Properties and Applications

6724: 6608:

Zeitzoff, P. M.; Hutchby, J. A.; Huff, H. R. (2002).

6580: 6352:"International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors" 5948: 5829:

Electronic circuits: analysis, simulation, and design

3769: 3709: 2886: 2750: 2587: 2519: 2480: 2286: 2133: 2059: 2039: 2019: 1992: 1843: 1717: 1624: 1544: 1416: 1387: 1360: 1302: 1252: 1212: 1185: 1091: 1062: 1020: 993: 412:

Metal–oxide–semiconductor structure on p-type silicon

118:

metal–insulator–semiconductor field-effect transistor

6725:

Hadziioannou, Georges; Malliaras, George G. (2007).

5119:"Highlights Of Silicon Thermal Oxidation Technology" 4805: 4562:

Depletion-mode MOSFET families include the BF960 by

3439:

is negative in the case of enhancement-mode P-MOS).

1767:) modes is indicated by the upward curving parabola. 6607: 5879: 5684: 5536: 741:current can flow between the source and the drain. 535: 221:independently patented a similar device in Europe. 168:The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in 6553: 6297:Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Colinge, Cynthia A. (2002). 6030: 5805:. London/Singapore: World Scientific. p. 83. 3865: 3737: 2892: 2848: 2715:to populate the conduction band in an nMOS MOSFET. 2637: 2557: 2493: 2418: 2260: 2072: 2045: 2025: 2005: 1976: 1743: 1686: 1570: 1528: 1400: 1373: 1344: 1282: 1238: 1198: 1169: 1075: 1033: 1006: 638: 449:material, its structure is equivalent to a planar 6969:How Semiconductors and Transistors Work (MOSFETs) 6919:may not follow Knowledge's policies or guidelines 6554:Soudris, D.; Pirsch, P.; Barke, E., eds. (2000). 6413: 6303:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 233, Figure 7.46. 5883:Analysis and design of analog integrated circuits 5799:Galup-Montoro, C. & Schneider, M. C. (2007). 5543:(4th ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 66–67. 5540:Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits 4960:"Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)" 4293:also becomes function of drain to source voltage 4146: 3905: 716:relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges. 82:metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor 8271: 7105:Application Manual IGBT and MOSFET Power Modules 6324:Weber, Eicke R.; Dabrowski, Jarek, eds. (2004). 5504: 4407:length, width, junction depths, oxide thickness 831: 5886:(4th ed.). New York: Wiley. §1.5.2 p. 45. 5802:MOSFET modeling for circuit analysis and design 5246:IRE-AIEE Solid State Device Research Conference 4164: 938:Source tied to the body to ensure no body bias: 623:semiconductor type will be of n-type (p-type). 7159:"MIT Open Courseware 6.002 – Spring 2007" 6782:Xu, Wentao; Guo, Chang; Rhee, Shi-Woo (2013). 6636: 6330:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 5, Figure 1.2. 6323: 6296: 5714:"The Fundamentals of Analog Micropower Design" 5624: 5436: 5077: 940:top left: Subthreshold, top right: Ohmic mode, 161:, because the gate material can be a layer of 157:The "metal" in the name MOSFET is sometimes a 68:and controlling a load of over 2000 W. A 7235: 5630: 5078:Ligenza, J. R.; Spitzer, W. G. (1960-07-01). 4996: 4958:Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (2007-09-01). 4230: 4115:technology can well be twice as many as in a 2727:Using an nMOS example, the gate-to-body bias 1571:{\displaystyle V_{\text{DS}}\gg V_{\text{T}}} 966:Cutoff, subthreshold, and weak-inversion mode 437:) on top of a silicon substrate, commonly by 7167:"MIT Open Courseware 6.012 – Fall 2009" 6645:. The Electrochemical Society. p. 102. 5631:Smith, Leslie S.; Hamilton, Alister (1998). 5174: 5046: 5015: 4765:. One of the design approaches for making a 3890:= voltage at channel side of insulator, and 3752:= charge density, κ = dielectric constant, ε 3241:The growth of digital technologies like the 2083: 6994:"An introduction to depletion-mode MOSFETs" 6643:Silicon-on-Insulator Technology and Devices 6187:"1964 – First Commercial MOS IC Introduced" 5873: 5740: 5557: 5236: 4957: 4729:Double-diffused metal–oxide–semiconductor ( 4368: 3356:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1744:{\displaystyle V_{\text{GS}}-V_{\text{th}}} 1239:{\displaystyle V_{\text{GS}}=V_{\text{th}}} 574:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 485:, from gate to body (see figure) creates a 7242: 7228: 5906: 5852: 5678: 5530: 5084:Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 4331: 4206:), such as group IVb metal silicates e.g. 3688:). For nano-scaled devices, at some point 3147: 2013:is the charge-carrier effective mobility, 654:Channel formation in nMOS MOSFET shown as 7249: 7206: 7189: 7183:"CircuitDesign: MOS Diffusion Parasitics" 6955:Learn how and when to remove this message 6781: 6137: 5927: 5792: 5720:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 365–372. 5437:Shichman, H. & Hodges, D. A. (1968). 5293:Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories 5199: 4352: 4053:Trend of Intel CPU transistor gate length 4031:Learn how and when to remove this message 3799: 3376:Learn how and when to remove this message 3171:Institution of Engineering and Technology 2950:and a solid line for depletion mode (see 1381:= capacitance of the depletion layer and 594:Learn how and when to remove this message 6750: 6748: 6407: 6200:Cushman, Robert H. (20 September 1975). 5907:Sedra, A. S. & Smith, K. C. (2004). 5853:Sedra, A. S. & Smith, K. C. (2004). 5765: 5484:MOSFET modeling & BSIM3 user's guide 5289:"Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device" 5123:Silicon materials science and technology 4898: 4697: 4650:Organic insulators (e.g., undoped trans- 4475:, replacing two separate transistors in 4448: 4056: 4048: 3942: 3738:{\displaystyle Q=\kappa \epsilon _{0}E,} 3076: 3070: 2927:causes an increase in threshold voltage 2685: 2652:is the expression in saturation region. 1778: 1770: 1706: 945: 933: 662: 648: 407: 342:. Some chip manufacturers, most notably 325: 294:for this device lies around 0.45 V. 285: 277: 179: 64:state, dissipating up to about 100 29: 6547: 6290: 6199: 6193: 5751:. Springer. p. 10 and Fig. 1.4, p. 11. 5480: 5205: 4844: – Type of field-effect transistor 4578:), whose derivatives are still used in 4547:, these devices are often preferred to 4123:in 1965 and is commonly referred to as 3228:is consumed, except when the inputs to 1694:, almost that of a bipolar transistor. 104:(FET), most commonly fabricated by the 14: 8272: 6812: 6574: 6423:. Morgan & Claypool. p. 103. 6390:Low Voltage, Low Power VLSI Subsystems 6386: 5846: 5734: 5711: 5430: 5375: 5181:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 5053:Journal of the Electrochemical Society 5022:Journal of The Electrochemical Society 4879: 4604:insulated-gate field-effect transistor 4430: 3640:are used, usually in conjunction with 3144:and home and automobile sound systems 3083: 2474:accounts for a small discontinuity in 478:in neutral bulk), a positive voltage, 130:insulated-gate field-effect transistor 7223: 7136:(2nd ed.). Nuremberg: Semikron. 6754: 6745: 6387:Roy, Kaushik; Yeo, Kiat Seng (2004). 6317: 6048: 5900: 5825: 5819: 5748:Nano, Quantum and Molecular Computing 5661:Neural Networks: A Classroom Approach 5657: 5651: 5392:. Intel. pp. 2–1. Archived from 5323: 5286: 5149: 4964:The Electrochemical Society Interface 4401: 4202:than silicon dioxide (referred to as 3924:The source-to-body and drain-to-body 929: 7674:Three-dimensional integrated circuit 6899: 6474: 6468: 5691:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 425. 5637:. World Scientific. pp. 52–56. 5605: 5443:IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits 5365:"Intel 45nm Hi-k Silicon Technology" 5348: 5326:History of Semiconductor Engineering 5152:History of Semiconductor Engineering 5116: 5110: 4953: 4951: 4240: 3984: 3354:adding citations to reliable sources 3321: 758:Comparison of n- and p-type MOSFETs 572:adding citations to reliable sources 539: 7455:Programmable unijunction transistor 6601: 6380: 5570:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 78. 5481:Cheng, Yuhua; Hu, Chenming (1999). 4753:Radiation-hardened-by-design (RHBD) 4678:than do n-channel charge carriers ( 4647:Silicon dioxide, in silicon MOSFETs 4247:Drain-induced barrier lowering and 3684:or localised oxidation of silicon ( 3442: 2900:is the body effect parameter, and 2 1578:, but as channel length is reduced 962:, the three operational modes are: 635:Fermi and Intrinsic energy levels. 441:and depositing a layer of metal or 417:Metal–oxide–semiconductor structure 252:, they were only able to build the 200:-doped terminals; the switch is on. 24: 7356:Multi-gate field-effect transistor 6817:. Boston: PWS publishing Company. 5590: 5473: 4380: 3919: 3756:= permittivity of empty space and 3317: 2940: 2619: 2604: 2318: 2303: 1919: 1916: 960:enhancement-mode, n-channel MOSFET 25: 8296: 7334:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor 7175:"Georgia Tech BJT and FET Slides" 6895: 6673:. 29 January 2010. Archived from 6481:. CRC Press. Fig. 2.28, p. 2–22. 6110:. 9 November 2011. Archived from 6057:. World Scientific. p. 173. 5664:. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 688. 5175:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). 5047:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). 5016:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). 4948: 4922: 4842:High-electron-mobility transistor 4510: 4345:, or by feedback circuitry using 3188:; i.e., fabricated entirely from 1283:{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}=kT/q} 518:) exceeds the threshold voltage ( 7578:Heterostructure barrier varactor 7305:Chemical field-effect transistor 7194:Physics of Nanoscale Transistors 6988:from the original on 2022-10-09. 6904: 6788:Journal of Materials Chemistry C 6616:. World Scientific. p. 82. 6543:from the original on 2022-10-09. 6300:Physics of Semiconductor Devices 6154:from the original on 2022-10-09. 4918:from the original on 2022-10-22. 4906:"D-MOSFET OPERATION AND BIASING" 4808: 4570:, and the BF980 in the 1980s by 3989: 3527: 3326: 3211: 3055: 3048: 3041: 3034: 3027: 3015: 3008: 3001: 2994: 2987: 544: 536:MOS capacitors and band diagrams 7626:Mixed-signal integrated circuit 6861: 6831: 6806: 6775: 6718: 6689: 6659: 6630: 6523: 6495: 6437: 6362: 6344: 6268: 6247: 6226: 6179: 6158: 6131: 6118: 6096: 6071: 5705: 5599: 5584: 5499:The most recent version of the 5357: 5342: 5317: 5280: 5252: 5230: 5168: 5143: 4693: 4661:, CEP), for organic-based FETs. 4061:MOSFET version of gain-boosted 3522: 3304:mixed-signal integrated circuit 3099: 2952:depletion and enhancement modes 639:Structure and channel formation 27:Type of field-effect transistor 6445:"Frontier Semiconductor Paper" 6141:Microelectronic Circuit Design 5718:Circuits and systems tutorials 5608:Analog VLSI and Neural Systems 5214:Johns Hopkins University Press 5071: 5040: 5009: 4990: 4936: 4873: 4598:, is a more general term than 4439: 4321:decreases with an increase in 4259:Drain-induced barrier lowering 4198:Insulators that have a larger 4147:Higher subthreshold conduction 3392: 2681: 1607:μA, which may not be the same 1580:drain-induced barrier lowering 1374:{\displaystyle C_{\text{dep}}} 525:), the difference is known as 321: 13: 1: 7108:(1st ed.). ISLE Verlag. 7044:"MOSFET Process Step by Step" 5427:090507 brunningsoftware.co.uk 5383:"memory components data book" 4880:Marnur, Sachin (2024-09-19). 4866: 4665: 4174:(which in silicon is ~5 4161:high-performance VLSI chips. 3700:connects field to charge as: 3152:Following the development of 2073:{\displaystyle C_{\text{ox}}} 1401:{\displaystyle C_{\text{ox}}} 1199:{\displaystyle I_{\text{D0}}} 1076:{\displaystyle V_{\text{GS}}} 1034:{\displaystyle V_{\text{th}}} 1007:{\displaystyle V_{\text{GS}}} 7657:Silicon controlled rectifier 7519:Organic light-emitting diode 7409:Diffused junction transistor 7209:"Notes on Ballistic MOSFETs" 6417:; Goodnick, Stephen (2006). 6104:"Electronic Circuit Symbols" 6081:. Equars.com. Archived from 5419:"Using a MOSFET as a Switch" 5353:. JHU Press. pp. 12–28. 5096:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5 4848:Polysilicon depletion effect 4767:radiation-hardened-by-design 4444: 4417:design for manufacturability 4165:Increased gate-oxide leakage 4156:case and low current in the 3675: 3509:, the P-MOS conducts alone. 3206:bipolar bit-slice processors 3192:or fabricated entirely from 2880:value of threshold voltage, 2708:for holes, requiring larger 2494:{\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}} 645:Field effect (semiconductor) 403: 144:bipolar junction transistors 124:) is almost synonymous with 7: 7461:Static induction transistor 7398:Bipolar junction transistor 7350:MOS field-effect transistor 7322:Fin field-effect transistor 6815:Power Semiconductor Devices 5390:memory components data book 5206:Bassett, Ross Knox (2007). 5127:The Electrochemical Society 4801: 4466:The dual-gate MOSFET has a 4425:statistical process control 4073:are in active mode, while M 3271:bipolar junction transistor 3200:were often contrasted with 1083:as given approximately by: 1014:is gate-to-source bias and 217:in 1925. In 1934, inventor 209:The basic principle of the 10: 8301: 7668:Static induction thyristor 6813:Baliga, B. Jayant (1996). 5826:Malik, Norbert R. (1995). 5301:10.1142/9789814503464_0076 4705: 4459: 4231:Increased junction leakage 4042: 3980: 3236: 3184:starting in 1970 were all 3122:switch mode power supplies 718: 704:regions and the body is a 696:regions and the body is a 642: 354:of silicon and germanium ( 204: 128:. Another near-synonym is 8205: 8105: 8072: 8004: 7941: 7869: 7837:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode) 7775: 7707: 7589:Hybrid integrated circuit 7553: 7481: 7432:Light-emitting transistor 7386: 7268: 7257: 6531:"VLSI wiring capacitance" 6420:Computational Electronics 6276:"ReVera's FinFET Control" 6168:. Computer History Museum 5778:. Springer. p. 135. 5463:10.1109/JSSC.1968.1049902 4268:roll off: Because of the 3953:channel length modulation 3656:, a combination known as 3253: 3126:variable-frequency drives 3074: 2978:flowing "down" the page: 2276:channel length modulation 2084:Saturation or active mode 916: 906:Inversion layer carriers 905: 894: 859: 848: 804: 784: 773: 762: 298:Following this research, 7884:Backward-wave oscillator 7594:Light emitting capacitor 7450:Point-contact transistor 7420:Junction Gate FET (JFET) 7207:Lundstrom, Mark (2005). 7190:Lundstrom, Mark (2008). 7083:"Advanced MOSFET issues" 6560:. Springer. p. 38. 5910:Microelectronic circuits 5856:Microelectronic Circuits 5712:Vittoz, Eric A. (1996). 4725:switching applications. 4643:Insulator types may be: 4625:of the MISFET. The term 4617:lies directly below the 4375:interconnect capacitance 4369:Interconnect capacitance 3620:, self-aligned silicide. 3182:earliest microprocessors 2006:{\displaystyle \mu _{n}} 1050:Fermi–Dirac distribution 628:(for the given example), 7895:Crossed-field amplifier 7414:Field-effect transistor 6755:Jones, William (1997). 6374:Computer History Museum 5593:"Knowledge fails subvt" 5367:. Intel. Archived from 5268:Computer History Museum 5117:Deal, Bruce E. (1998). 4421:reliability engineering 4332:Lower output resistance 3538:polycrystalline silicon 3148:MOS integrated circuits 2893:{\displaystyle \gamma } 2053:is the gate length and 1751:; the boundary between 443:polycrystalline silicon 215:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld 211:field-effect transistor 102:field-effect transistor 8064:Voltage-regulator tube 7631:MOS integrated circuit 7496:Constant-current diode 7472:Unijunction transistor 6971:WeCanFigureThisOut.org 6701:Semiconductor Glossary 6587:. New York: Springer. 6475:Chen, Wai-Kai (2006). 6049:Arora, Narain (2007). 6032: 5658:Kumar, Satish (2004). 5503:model is described in 5349:Ross, Bassett (2002). 4703: 4457: 4353:Lower transconductance 4347:operational amplifiers 4082: 4054: 4011:by rewriting it in an 3948: 3867: 3739: 3565:low threshold voltages 2894: 2850: 2716: 2639: 2559: 2495: 2428:where the combination 2420: 2262: 2074: 2047: 2027: 2007: 1978: 1788: 1776: 1768: 1745: 1688: 1572: 1530: 1402: 1375: 1346: 1284: 1246:, the thermal voltage 1240: 1200: 1171: 1077: 1035: 1008: 951: 943: 884:Negative (enhancement) 872:Positive (enhancement) 669: 660: 471:the density of holes; 413: 331: 295: 283: 238:Walter Houser Brattain 213:was first patented by 201: 73: 72:is pictured for scale. 43:surface-mount packages 8133:Electrolytic detector 7906:Inductive output tube 7722:Low-dropout regulator 7637:Organic semiconductor 7568:Printed circuit board 7404:Darlington transistor 7251:Electronic components 7000:on 28 September 2008. 6517:10.1557/PROC-765-D7.4 6286:on 19 September 2010. 6257:. Computerhistory.org 6236:. Computerhistory.org 6207:. EDN. Archived from 6033: 5606:Mead, Carver (1989). 4701: 4452: 4300:. As we increase the 4060: 4052: 4043:Further information: 3946: 3868: 3740: 2895: 2851: 2700:splits Fermi levels F 2693:showing body effect. 2689: 2640: 2560: 2496: 2421: 2263: 2075: 2048: 2028: 2008: 1979: 1782: 1774: 1746: 1710: 1689: 1596:occurs, for example, 1573: 1531: 1403: 1376: 1347: 1290:and the slope factor 1285: 1241: 1201: 1172: 1078: 1036: 1009: 949: 937: 837:~ Si conduction band 666: 652: 411: 329: 289: 281: 183: 33: 7951:Beam deflection tube 7620:Metal-oxide varistor 7513:Light-emitting diode 7367:Thin-film transistor 7328:Floating-gate MOSFET 7153:on 3 September 2013. 6925:improve this article 6457:on February 27, 2012 5946: 5741:Shukla, Sandeep K.; 4931:U.S. patent 1745175A 4824:Floating-gate MOSFET 4493:silicon-on-insulator 4270:short-channel effect 3767: 3707: 3608:, and more recently 3350:improve this section 3308:silicon on insulator 3202:CMOS microprocessors 2976:conventional current 2884: 2748: 2585: 2517: 2478: 2284: 2131: 2057: 2037: 2017: 1990: 1841: 1715: 1622: 1542: 1414: 1385: 1358: 1300: 1250: 1210: 1183: 1089: 1060: 1018: 991: 887:Positive (depletion) 875:Negative (depletion) 751:silicon on insulator 739:subthreshold leakage 568:improve this section 106:controlled oxidation 7927:Traveling-wave tube 7727:Switching regulator 7563:Printed electronics 7540:Step recovery diode 7317:Depletion-load NMOS 7185:. 14 December 2008. 7089:. 27 November 2010. 7064:"MOSFET Calculator" 6937:footnote references 6114:on 13 October 2014. 5455:1968IJSSC...3..285S 4543:region, and better 4431:Modeling challenges 4200:dielectric constant 4170:of around 1.2 4108:semiconductor wafer 3576:Fermi level pinning 3517:Tri-state circuitry 3432:(threshold voltage 3222:integrated circuits 3198:MOS microprocessors 3186:MOS microprocessors 3142:sound reinforcement 3106:integrated circuits 2704:for electrons and F 2671:ballistic transport 2660:velocity saturation 2033:is the gate width, 860:Threshold voltage, 759: 316:integrated circuits 312:bipolar transistors 250:surface passivation 8232:Crystal oscillator 8092:Variable capacitor 7767:Switched capacitor 7709:Voltage regulators 7583:Integrated circuit 7467:Tetrode transistor 7445:Pentode transistor 7438:Organic LET (OLET) 7425:Organic FET (OFET) 6800:10.1039/C3TC30134F 6677:on 31 October 2010 6415:Vasileska, Dragica 6028: 5324:Lojek, Bo (2007). 5287:KAHNG, D. (1961). 5264:The Silicon Engine 5216:. pp. 22–23. 5150:Lojek, Bo (2007). 4976:10.1149/2.F02073IF 4816:Electronics portal 4761:environments like 4704: 4576:NXP Semiconductors 4458: 4402:Process variations 4343:cascade amplifiers 4204:high-κ dielectrics 4184:electron tunneling 4180:quantum mechanical 4083: 4055: 4013:encyclopedic style 4000:is written like a 3949: 3906:gate-oxide leakage 3863: 3735: 3658:high-κ, metal gate 3654:high-κ dielectrics 3642:high-κ dielectrics 3297:inductive kickback 3287:switched capacitor 2890: 2846: 2717: 2635: 2574:is the inverse of 2555: 2491: 2416: 2258: 2070: 2043: 2023: 2003: 1974: 1789: 1777: 1769: 1741: 1684: 1568: 1526: 1398: 1371: 1342: 1280: 1236: 1196: 1167: 1073: 1031: 1004: 952: 944: 930:Modes of operation 844:~ Si valence band 774:Source/drain type 757: 670: 661: 414: 378:silicon oxynitride 332: 296: 284: 202: 74: 8267: 8266: 8227:Ceramic resonator 8039:Mercury-arc valve 7991:Video camera tube 7943:Cathode-ray tubes 7703: 7702: 7311:Complementary MOS 7143:978-3-938843-66-6 7115:978-3-932633-24-9 7087:ecee.colorado.edu 6965: 6964: 6957: 6824:978-0-534-94098-0 6768:978-0-8493-9428-7 6738:978-3-527-31271-9 6652:978-1-56677-712-4 6623:978-981-238-222-1 6567:978-3-540-41068-3 6488:978-0-8493-4199-1 6478:The VLSI Handbook 6430:978-1-59829-056-1 6400:978-0-07-143786-8 6337:978-3-540-20481-7 6310:978-1-4020-7018-1 6108:circuitstoday.com 6024: 6016: 5982: 5940:per unit volume, 5920:978-0-19-514251-8 5893:978-0-471-32168-2 5866:978-0-19-514251-8 5839:978-0-02-374910-0 5812:978-981-256-810-6 5785:978-0-387-25738-9 5758:978-1-4020-8067-8 5727:978-0-7803-1170-1 5698:978-3-540-44108-3 5671:978-0-07-048292-0 5644:978-981-02-3377-8 5577:978-1-4020-2848-9 5550:978-0-471-32168-2 5494:978-0-7923-8575-2 5479:For example, see 5469:on June 10, 2013. 5335:978-3-540-34258-8 5310:978-981-02-0209-5 5223:978-0-8018-8639-3 5193:10.1149/1.2428650 5065:10.1149/1.2428650 5034:10.1149/1.2428650 4602:and a synonym to 4574:(later to become 4535:Due to their low 4491:is a double-gate 4413:process variation 4363:electron mobility 4193:quantum tunneling 4041: 4040: 4033: 3977:) in the figure. 3965:depletion regions 3934:) characteristics 3930:current-voltage ( 3858: 3839: 3820: 3807: 3790: 3777: 3682:thermal oxidation 3547:threshold voltage 3386: 3385: 3378: 3130:power electronics 3089: 3088: 2836: 2816: 2797: 2758: 2633: 2629: 2614: 2595: 2553: 2549: 2527: 2488: 2451:overdrive voltage 2411: 2408: 2397: 2379: 2375: 2362: 2350: 2332: 2328: 2247: 2212: 2199: 2184: 2174: 2167: 2141: 2067: 2046:{\displaystyle L} 2026:{\displaystyle W} 1967: 1954: 1937: 1904: 1885: 1874: 1851: 1738: 1725: 1697:The subthreshold 1676: 1647: 1565: 1552: 1519: 1516: 1506: 1486: 1482: 1467: 1454: 1437: 1424: 1395: 1368: 1337: 1334: 1324: 1260: 1233: 1220: 1193: 1161: 1157: 1142: 1129: 1112: 1099: 1070: 1043:threshold voltage 1028: 1001: 927: 926: 604: 603: 596: 527:overdrive voltage 509:threshold voltage 439:thermal oxidation 367:high-κ dielectric 292:Threshold voltage 16:(Redirected from 8292: 8280:Transistor types 8121:electrical power 8006:Gas-filled tubes 7890:Cavity magnetron 7717:Linear regulator 7266: 7265: 7244: 7237: 7230: 7221: 7220: 7216: 7203: 7186: 7178: 7170: 7162: 7154: 7152: 7146:. Archived from 7135: 7123: 7122:on 2 March 2012. 7118:. Archived from 7098: 7090: 7078: 7076: 7075: 7066:. Archived from 7058: 7056: 7055: 7046:. Archived from 7039: 7037: 7036: 7027:. Archived from 7020: 7018: 7017: 7008:. Archived from 7001: 6996:. Archived from 6989: 6987: 6980: 6960: 6953: 6949: 6946: 6940: 6908: 6907: 6900: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6884: 6875:. Archived from 6865: 6859: 6858: 6856: 6854: 6845:. Archived from 6835: 6829: 6828: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6779: 6773: 6772: 6752: 6743: 6742: 6722: 6716: 6715: 6713: 6712: 6703:. Archived from 6693: 6687: 6686: 6684: 6682: 6667:"Depletion Mode" 6663: 6657: 6656: 6634: 6628: 6627: 6605: 6599: 6598: 6578: 6572: 6571: 6551: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6535: 6527: 6521: 6520: 6499: 6493: 6492: 6472: 6466: 6465: 6463: 6462: 6456: 6450:. Archived from 6449: 6441: 6435: 6434: 6411: 6405: 6404: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6366: 6360: 6359: 6354:. Archived from 6348: 6342: 6341: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6282:. Archived from 6272: 6266: 6265: 6263: 6262: 6251: 6245: 6244: 6242: 6241: 6230: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6214:on 24 April 2016 6213: 6206: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6183: 6177: 6176: 6174: 6173: 6162: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6146: 6135: 6129: 6128: 6122: 6116: 6115: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6090: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6037: 6035: 6034: 6029: 6022: 6021: 6017: 6015: 6014: 6005: 6004: 5995: 5983: 5978: 5974: 5973: 5963: 5958: 5957: 5931: 5925: 5924: 5904: 5898: 5897: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5823: 5817: 5816: 5796: 5790: 5789: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5709: 5703: 5702: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5588: 5582: 5581: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5534: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5524: 5518: 5511: 5498: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5465:. Archived from 5434: 5428: 5426: 5421:. Archived from 5415: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5398: 5387: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5371:on July 5, 2007. 5361: 5355: 5354: 5346: 5340: 5339: 5321: 5315: 5314: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5274: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5044: 5038: 5037: 5013: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5001: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4955: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4926: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4910: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4892: 4877: 4854:Transistor model 4818: 4813: 4812: 4734: 4733: 4521:enhancement-mode 4462:Multigate device 4359:transconductance 4036: 4029: 4025: 4022: 4016: 3993: 3992: 3985: 3975:artistic license 3883:= gate voltage, 3872: 3870: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3857: 3856: 3855: 3842: 3841: 3840: 3837: 3827: 3822: 3821: 3818: 3809: 3808: 3805: 3792: 3791: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3775: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3728: 3727: 3638:titanium nitride 3634:tantalum nitride 3443:Dual-type (CMOS) 3381: 3374: 3370: 3367: 3361: 3330: 3322: 3275:transconductance 3196:. In the 1970s, 3158:photolithography 3085: 3078: 3072: 3059: 3052: 3045: 3038: 3031: 3019: 3012: 3005: 2998: 2991: 2981: 2980: 2948:enhancement mode 2926: 2916: 2899: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2834: 2822: 2817: 2815: 2814: 2799: 2798: 2795: 2789: 2776: 2775: 2760: 2759: 2756: 2644: 2642: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2631: 2630: 2627: 2617: 2616: 2615: 2612: 2602: 2597: 2596: 2593: 2564: 2562: 2561: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2547: 2534: 2529: 2528: 2525: 2500: 2498: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2489: 2486: 2425: 2423: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2409: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2395: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2377: 2376: 2373: 2364: 2363: 2360: 2353: 2352: 2351: 2348: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2326: 2316: 2315: 2314: 2301: 2296: 2295: 2267: 2265: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2249: 2248: 2245: 2225: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2210: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2185: 2177: 2175: 2170: 2169: 2168: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2139: 2079: 2077: 2076: 2071: 2069: 2068: 2065: 2052: 2050: 2049: 2044: 2032: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2012: 2010: 2009: 2004: 2002: 2001: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1973: 1969: 1968: 1963: 1962: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1952: 1944: 1939: 1938: 1935: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1922: 1906: 1905: 1902: 1886: 1878: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1785:channel pinching 1750: 1748: 1747: 1742: 1740: 1739: 1736: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1678: 1677: 1674: 1660: 1649: 1648: 1645: 1639: 1634: 1633: 1606: 1577: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1567: 1566: 1563: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1535: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1521: 1520: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1504: 1498: 1488: 1487: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1465: 1456: 1455: 1452: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1426: 1425: 1422: 1407: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1396: 1393: 1380: 1378: 1377: 1372: 1370: 1369: 1366: 1351: 1349: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1336: 1335: 1332: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1316: 1289: 1287: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1245: 1243: 1242: 1237: 1235: 1234: 1231: 1222: 1221: 1218: 1205: 1203: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1194: 1191: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1162: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1082: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1071: 1068: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1013: 1011: 1010: 1005: 1003: 1002: 999: 941: 836: 760: 756: 721:Depletion region 676:electrode and a 629: 599: 592: 588: 585: 579: 548: 540: 436: 435: 434: 360:gallium arsenide 230:William Shockley 148:enhancement mode 48: 21: 8300: 8299: 8295: 8294: 8293: 8291: 8290: 8289: 8270: 8269: 8268: 8263: 8201: 8116:audio and video 8101: 8068: 8000: 7937: 7865: 7846:Photomultiplier 7771: 7699: 7647:Quantum circuit 7555: 7549: 7491:Avalanche diode 7477: 7389: 7382: 7271: 7260: 7253: 7248: 7181: 7173: 7165: 7157: 7150: 7144: 7133: 7116: 7095:"MOSFET applet" 7093: 7081: 7073: 7071: 7062: 7053: 7051: 7042: 7034: 7032: 7023: 7015: 7013: 7006:"Power MOSFETs" 7004: 6992: 6985: 6978: 6974: 6961: 6950: 6944: 6941: 6922: 6913:This article's 6909: 6905: 6898: 6893: 6892: 6882: 6880: 6879:on 30 June 2014 6867: 6866: 6862: 6852: 6850: 6849:on 5 April 2015 6837: 6836: 6832: 6825: 6811: 6807: 6780: 6776: 6769: 6753: 6746: 6739: 6723: 6719: 6710: 6708: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6680: 6678: 6665: 6664: 6660: 6653: 6635: 6631: 6624: 6606: 6602: 6595: 6579: 6575: 6568: 6552: 6548: 6540: 6533: 6529: 6528: 6524: 6505:MRS Proceedings 6500: 6496: 6489: 6473: 6469: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6447: 6443: 6442: 6438: 6431: 6412: 6408: 6401: 6385: 6381: 6368: 6367: 6363: 6350: 6349: 6345: 6338: 6322: 6318: 6311: 6295: 6291: 6274: 6273: 6269: 6260: 6258: 6253: 6252: 6248: 6239: 6237: 6232: 6231: 6227: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6204: 6198: 6194: 6185: 6184: 6180: 6171: 6169: 6164: 6163: 6159: 6151: 6144: 6136: 6132: 6124: 6123: 6119: 6102: 6101: 6097: 6088: 6086: 6077: 6076: 6072: 6065: 6051:"Equation 5.12" 6045: 6010: 6006: 6000: 5996: 5994: 5990: 5969: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5953: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5932: 5928: 5921: 5905: 5901: 5894: 5878: 5874: 5867: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5824: 5820: 5813: 5797: 5793: 5786: 5770: 5766: 5759: 5739: 5735: 5728: 5710: 5706: 5699: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5629: 5625: 5618: 5604: 5600: 5591:Degnan, Brian. 5589: 5585: 5578: 5562: 5558: 5551: 5535: 5531: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5495: 5478: 5474: 5435: 5431: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5402: 5400: 5399:on 4 March 2016 5396: 5385: 5381: 5380: 5376: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5347: 5343: 5336: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5285: 5281: 5272: 5270: 5258: 5257: 5253: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5204: 5200: 5173: 5169: 5162: 5148: 5144: 5137: 5129:. p. 183. 5115: 5111: 5076: 5072: 5045: 5041: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4937: 4929: 4927: 4923: 4915: 4908: 4904: 4903: 4899: 4890: 4888: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4860:Intrinsic diode 4814: 4807: 4804: 4755: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4710: 4696: 4688:leakage current 4674:) having lower 4668: 4615:gate dielectric 4611:silicon dioxide 4592: 4526:normally closed 4513: 4464: 4447: 4442: 4433: 4404: 4392:thermal runaway 4390:are at risk of 4383: 4381:Heat production 4371: 4355: 4334: 4327: 4320: 4313: 4306: 4299: 4292: 4285: 4278: 4267: 4256: 4253: 4241:junction design 4233: 4217:conduction band 4188:Silicon dioxide 4167: 4149: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4047: 4045:Dennard scaling 4037: 4026: 4020: 4017: 4009:help improve it 4006: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3922: 3920:Junction design 3903: 3896: 3889: 3882: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3826: 3817: 3813: 3804: 3800: 3787: 3783: 3774: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3764: 3755: 3723: 3719: 3708: 3705: 3704: 3678: 3573: 3570:The silicon-SiO 3536:. Highly doped 3530: 3525: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3483: 3472: 3465: 3454: 3445: 3438: 3431: 3424: 3414: 3407: 3395: 3382: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3347: 3331: 3320: 3318:Analog switches 3292:thermal runaway 3268: 3260:analog circuits 3256: 3239: 3214: 3167: 3150: 3110:microprocessors 3102: 2943: 2941:Circuit symbols 2933: 2924: 2918: 2914: 2908: 2906: 2885: 2882: 2881: 2879: 2872: 2865: 2830: 2826: 2821: 2810: 2806: 2794: 2790: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2768: 2764: 2755: 2751: 2749: 2746: 2745: 2737: 2733: 2714: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2684: 2668: 2651: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2601: 2592: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2580: 2573: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2524: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2514: 2509: 2485: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2475: 2473: 2466: 2459: 2448: 2441: 2434: 2405: 2401: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2384: 2372: 2368: 2359: 2355: 2354: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2337: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2300: 2291: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2281: 2244: 2240: 2230: 2226: 2220: 2209: 2205: 2196: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2186: 2176: 2164: 2160: 2154: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2138: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2115: 2110: 2104: 2098: 2093: 2086: 2064: 2060: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2018: 2015: 2014: 1997: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1987: 1958: 1951: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1943: 1934: 1930: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1901: 1897: 1896: 1892: 1891: 1887: 1877: 1871: 1867: 1861: 1857: 1848: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1830: 1823: 1816: 1809: 1802: 1794: 1735: 1731: 1722: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1712: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1613: 1604: 1602: 1595: 1588: 1562: 1558: 1549: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1513: 1509: 1503: 1499: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1464: 1460: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1434: 1430: 1421: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1392: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1365: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1355: 1331: 1327: 1321: 1317: 1315: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1272: 1257: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1230: 1226: 1217: 1213: 1211: 1208: 1207: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1139: 1135: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1109: 1105: 1096: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1067: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1045:of the device. 1025: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1015: 998: 994: 992: 989: 988: 983: 976: 968: 939: 932: 917:Substrate type 890: 878: 866: 843: 835: 814: 794: 791:(MOS capacitor) 730:inversion layer 723: 647: 641: 627: 600: 589: 583: 580: 565: 549: 538: 524: 517: 502:inversion layer 499: 487:depletion layer 484: 477: 463:the density of 462: 433: 430: 429: 428: 426: 423:silicon dioxide 419: 406: 389:inversion layer 324: 275:stack in 1960. 273: 207: 190: 100:) is a type of 46: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8298: 8288: 8287: 8282: 8265: 8264: 8262: 8261: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8244: 8239: 8234: 8229: 8224: 8223: 8222: 8211: 8209: 8203: 8202: 8200: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8195:Wollaston wire 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8161: 8160: 8155: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8130: 8129: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8109: 8107: 8103: 8102: 8100: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8088: 8087: 8076: 8074: 8070: 8069: 8067: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8010: 8008: 8002: 8001: 7999: 7998: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7976:Selectron tube 7973: 7968: 7966:Magic eye tube 7963: 7958: 7953: 7947: 7945: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7935: 7930: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7903: 7898: 7892: 7887: 7880: 7878: 7867: 7866: 7864: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7781: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7770: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7713: 7711: 7705: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7671: 7665: 7660: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7628: 7623: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7591: 7586: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7559: 7557: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7535:Schottky diode 7532: 7527: 7522: 7516: 7510: 7504: 7499: 7493: 7487: 7485: 7479: 7478: 7476: 7475: 7469: 7464: 7458: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7441: 7440: 7429: 7428: 7427: 7422: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7394: 7392: 7384: 7383: 7381: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7364: 7359: 7353: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7331: 7325: 7319: 7314: 7308: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7276: 7274: 7263: 7255: 7254: 7247: 7246: 7239: 7232: 7224: 7218: 7217: 7213:nanoHUB Papers 7204: 7200:nanoHUB Papers 7187: 7179: 7171: 7163: 7155: 7142: 7124: 7114: 7099: 7091: 7079: 7060: 7040: 7021: 7002: 6990: 6972: 6963: 6962: 6945:September 2016 6917:external links 6912: 6910: 6903: 6897: 6896:External links 6894: 6891: 6890: 6860: 6830: 6823: 6805: 6774: 6767: 6744: 6737: 6717: 6688: 6658: 6651: 6629: 6622: 6600: 6593: 6573: 6566: 6546: 6522: 6494: 6487: 6467: 6436: 6429: 6406: 6399: 6379: 6361: 6358:on 2015-12-28. 6343: 6336: 6316: 6309: 6289: 6267: 6246: 6225: 6192: 6178: 6157: 6130: 6117: 6095: 6070: 6063: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6027: 6020: 6013: 6009: 6003: 5999: 5993: 5989: 5986: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5968: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5936: 5926: 5919: 5899: 5892: 5872: 5865: 5845: 5838: 5818: 5811: 5791: 5784: 5764: 5757: 5743:Bahar, R. Iris 5733: 5726: 5704: 5697: 5677: 5670: 5650: 5643: 5623: 5616: 5598: 5583: 5576: 5556: 5549: 5529: 5493: 5472: 5449:(3): 285–289. 5429: 5425:on 2018-04-11. 5410: 5374: 5356: 5341: 5334: 5316: 5309: 5279: 5251: 5229: 5222: 5198: 5167: 5161:978-3540342588 5160: 5142: 5136:978-1566771931 5135: 5109: 5070: 5039: 5008: 4989: 4947: 4935: 4921: 4897: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4863: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4833: 4827: 4820: 4819: 4803: 4800: 4754: 4751: 4736: 4727: 4706:Main article: 4695: 4692: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4648: 4636:or some other 4621:and above the 4619:gate electrode 4591: 4588: 4532:(off) switch. 4517:depletion-mode 4512: 4511:Depletion-mode 4509: 4460:Main article: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4432: 4429: 4403: 4400: 4382: 4379: 4370: 4367: 4354: 4351: 4333: 4330: 4325: 4318: 4311: 4304: 4297: 4290: 4283: 4276: 4265: 4255: 4251: 4245: 4232: 4229: 4182:phenomenon of 4166: 4163: 4148: 4145: 4095:scaling theory 4091:Robert Dennard 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4063:current mirror 4039: 4038: 4021:September 2016 3997: 3995: 3988: 3982: 3979: 3921: 3918: 3901: 3894: 3887: 3880: 3874: 3873: 3862: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3835: 3831: 3825: 3816: 3812: 3803: 3798: 3795: 3786: 3782: 3773: 3753: 3746: 3745: 3734: 3731: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3677: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3650: 3649: 3626:poly depletion 3621: 3588: 3587: 3583:IC fabrication 3581:In the MOSFET 3579: 3571: 3568: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3506: 3499: 3492: 3481: 3470: 3463: 3452: 3444: 3441: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3412: 3405: 3394: 3391: 3384: 3383: 3366:September 2016 3334: 3332: 3325: 3319: 3316: 3266: 3255: 3252: 3243:microprocessor 3238: 3235: 3213: 3210: 3165: 3162:planar process 3149: 3146: 3101: 3098: 3087: 3086: 3080: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3053: 3046: 3039: 3032: 3025: 3021: 3020: 3013: 3006: 2999: 2992: 2985: 2942: 2939: 2931: 2922: 2912: 2904: 2889: 2877: 2870: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2845: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2802: 2793: 2786: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2754: 2735: 2731: 2712: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2683: 2680: 2675:Fermi velocity 2666: 2649: 2625: 2621: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2591: 2578: 2571: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2523: 2507: 2484: 2471: 2464: 2457: 2449:is called the 2446: 2439: 2432: 2415: 2404: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2371: 2367: 2358: 2346: 2342: 2336: 2324: 2320: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2229: 2223: 2218: 2208: 2204: 2195: 2190: 2183: 2180: 2173: 2163: 2157: 2153: 2146: 2137: 2113: 2108: 2102: 2096: 2091: 2085: 2082: 2063: 2042: 2022: 2000: 1996: 1972: 1966: 1961: 1950: 1942: 1933: 1928: 1921: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1900: 1895: 1890: 1884: 1881: 1870: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1847: 1828: 1821: 1814: 1807: 1800: 1793: 1790: 1734: 1730: 1721: 1682: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1652: 1643: 1638: 1632: 1628: 1611: 1600: 1593: 1586: 1561: 1557: 1548: 1525: 1512: 1502: 1496: 1492: 1478: 1474: 1463: 1459: 1450: 1443: 1433: 1429: 1420: 1391: 1364: 1341: 1330: 1320: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1256: 1229: 1225: 1216: 1189: 1166: 1153: 1149: 1138: 1134: 1125: 1118: 1108: 1104: 1095: 1066: 1024: 997: 981: 974: 967: 964: 931: 928: 925: 924: 921: 918: 914: 913: 910: 907: 903: 902: 899: 896: 892: 891: 889: 888: 885: 881: 879: 877: 876: 873: 869: 867: 864: 857: 856: 853: 850: 846: 845: 841: 838: 833: 829: 825: 824: 821: 818: 815: 813: 812: 809: 805: 802: 801: 798: 795: 793: 792: 789: 785: 782: 781: 778: 775: 771: 770: 767: 764: 640: 637: 602: 601: 552: 550: 543: 537: 534: 522: 515: 497: 482: 475: 460: 431: 418: 415: 405: 402: 323: 320: 300:Mohamed Atalla 271: 260:transistors. 246:surface states 224:In the 1940s, 206: 203: 188: 152:depletion mode 146:(BJTs). In an 98:MOS transistor 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8297: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8277: 8275: 8258: 8257:mercury relay 8255: 8253: 8250: 8249: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8221: 8218: 8217: 8216: 8213: 8212: 8210: 8208: 8204: 8196: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8150: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8110: 8108: 8104: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8081: 8080:Potentiometer 8078: 8077: 8075: 8071: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8007: 8003: 7997: 7996:Williams tube 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7948: 7946: 7944: 7940: 7934: 7931: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7885: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7815:Fleming valve 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7778: 7774: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7675: 7672: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7642:Photodetector 7640: 7638: 7635: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7610:Memtransistor 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7552: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7520: 7517: 7514: 7511: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7488: 7486: 7484: 7480: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7462: 7459: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7439: 7436: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7399: 7396: 7395: 7393: 7391: 7385: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7357: 7354: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7335: 7332: 7329: 7326: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7312: 7309: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7277: 7275: 7273: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259:Semiconductor 7256: 7252: 7245: 7240: 7238: 7233: 7231: 7226: 7225: 7222: 7214: 7210: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7195: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7156: 7149: 7145: 7139: 7132: 7131: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7111: 7107: 7106: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7070:on 2008-05-27 7069: 7065: 7061: 7050:on 2009-08-22 7049: 7045: 7041: 7031:on 2012-11-12 7030: 7026: 7022: 7012:on 2012-07-06 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6984: 6977: 6973: 6970: 6967: 6966: 6959: 6956: 6948: 6938: 6934: 6933:inappropriate 6930: 6926: 6920: 6918: 6911: 6902: 6901: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6864: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6834: 6826: 6820: 6816: 6809: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6785: 6778: 6770: 6764: 6761:. CRC Press. 6760: 6759: 6751: 6749: 6740: 6734: 6731:. Wiley-VCH. 6730: 6729: 6721: 6707:on 2017-01-22 6706: 6702: 6698: 6692: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6654: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6633: 6625: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6604: 6596: 6594:9780387309286 6590: 6586: 6585: 6577: 6569: 6563: 6559: 6558: 6550: 6539: 6532: 6526: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6498: 6490: 6484: 6480: 6479: 6471: 6453: 6446: 6440: 6432: 6426: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6410: 6402: 6396: 6392: 6391: 6383: 6375: 6371: 6365: 6357: 6353: 6347: 6339: 6333: 6329: 6328: 6320: 6312: 6306: 6302: 6301: 6293: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6271: 6256: 6250: 6235: 6229: 6210: 6203: 6196: 6188: 6182: 6167: 6161: 6150: 6143: 6142: 6134: 6127: 6121: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6085:on 2014-11-10 6084: 6080: 6079:"Body effect" 6074: 6066: 6064:9789812707581 6060: 6056: 6052: 6046: 6025: 6018: 6011: 6007: 6001: 5997: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5979: 5975: 5970: 5966: 5959: 5954: 5950: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5930: 5922: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5903: 5895: 5889: 5885: 5884: 5876: 5868: 5862: 5858: 5857: 5849: 5841: 5835: 5831: 5830: 5822: 5814: 5808: 5804: 5803: 5795: 5787: 5781: 5777: 5776: 5768: 5760: 5754: 5750: 5749: 5744: 5737: 5729: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5708: 5700: 5694: 5690: 5689: 5681: 5673: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5654: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5635: 5627: 5619: 5617:9780201059922 5613: 5609: 5602: 5594: 5587: 5579: 5573: 5569: 5568: 5560: 5552: 5546: 5542: 5541: 5533: 5519:on 2014-07-27 5515: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5486: 5485: 5476: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5433: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5395: 5391: 5384: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5360: 5352: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5327: 5320: 5312: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5283: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5225: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5210: 5202: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5171: 5163: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5138: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5043: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5012: 4999: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4952: 4944: 4939: 4932: 4925: 4914: 4907: 4901: 4887: 4883: 4876: 4872: 4861: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4846: 4843: 4840: 4837: 4834: 4831: 4828: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4806: 4799: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4743: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4714: 4713:Power MOSFETs 4709: 4700: 4691: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4652:polyacetylene 4649: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4635: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4587: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4558: 4554: 4553:RF front-ends 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4531: 4530:normally open 4527: 4522: 4518: 4508: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4473:Miller effect 4469: 4463: 4456: 4451: 4437: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4399: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4388:Power MOSFETs 4378: 4376: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4350: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4329: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4282: 4275: 4271: 4264: 4260: 4250: 4244: 4242: 4238: 4228: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4196: 4194: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4162: 4159: 4155: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4132:significant. 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4109: 4103: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4064: 4059: 4051: 4046: 4035: 4032: 4024: 4014: 4010: 4004: 4003: 3998:This section 3996: 3987: 3986: 3978: 3976: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3955:effects upon 3954: 3945: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3933: 3927: 3917: 3914: 3909: 3907: 3900: 3893: 3886: 3879: 3860: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3814: 3810: 3801: 3796: 3793: 3784: 3780: 3771: 3763: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3751: 3732: 3729: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3713: 3710: 3703: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3670: 3667: 3663: 3662: 3661: 3659: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3594: 3593: 3592: 3584: 3580: 3577: 3569: 3566: 3562: 3561:work function 3557: 3552: 3551:work function 3548: 3544: 3543: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3528:Gate material 3520: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3498: 3491: 3487: 3480: 3476: 3469: 3462: 3458: 3451: 3440: 3435: 3428: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3404: 3398: 3390: 3380: 3377: 3369: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3335:This section 3333: 3329: 3324: 3323: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3244: 3234: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3212:CMOS circuits 3209: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3174: 3172: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3145: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3097: 3093: 3081: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3051: 3047: 3044: 3040: 3037: 3033: 3030: 3026: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2997: 2993: 2990: 2986: 2983: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2938: 2935: 2930: 2921: 2911: 2903: 2887: 2876: 2869: 2862: 2843: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2800: 2791: 2784: 2780: 2777: 2772: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2752: 2744: 2743: 2742: 2739: 2730: 2725: 2722: 2711: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2679: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2661: 2656: 2653: 2648: 2623: 2608: 2598: 2589: 2577: 2570: 2566: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2521: 2512: 2510: 2502: 2482: 2470: 2463: 2456: 2452: 2445: 2438: 2431: 2426: 2413: 2402: 2391: 2387: 2381: 2369: 2365: 2356: 2344: 2340: 2334: 2322: 2311: 2307: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2255: 2251: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2216: 2206: 2202: 2193: 2188: 2181: 2178: 2171: 2161: 2155: 2151: 2144: 2135: 2126: 2123: 2117: 2112: 2105: 2095: 2081: 2061: 2040: 2020: 1998: 1994: 1984: 1970: 1964: 1959: 1948: 1940: 1931: 1926: 1911: 1907: 1898: 1893: 1888: 1882: 1879: 1868: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1845: 1836: 1832: 1827: 1820: 1813: 1806: 1799: 1786: 1781: 1773: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1732: 1728: 1719: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1701: 1695: 1680: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1650: 1641: 1636: 1630: 1626: 1615: 1610: 1599: 1592: 1585: 1581: 1559: 1555: 1546: 1536: 1523: 1510: 1500: 1494: 1490: 1476: 1472: 1461: 1457: 1448: 1441: 1431: 1427: 1418: 1409: 1389: 1362: 1352: 1339: 1328: 1318: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1295: 1294:is given by: 1293: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1254: 1227: 1223: 1214: 1206:= current at 1187: 1177: 1164: 1151: 1147: 1136: 1132: 1123: 1116: 1106: 1102: 1093: 1084: 1064: 1054: 1051: 1046: 1044: 1022: 995: 985: 980: 973: 963: 961: 956: 948: 936: 922: 919: 915: 911: 908: 904: 900: 897: 895:Band-bending 893: 886: 883: 882: 880: 874: 871: 870: 868: 863: 858: 854: 851: 847: 839: 830: 827: 826: 822: 819: 816: 810: 807: 806: 803: 799: 796: 790: 787: 786: 783: 779: 776: 772: 768: 765: 761: 755: 752: 747: 742: 740: 735: 731: 726: 722: 717: 715: 710: 707: 703: 699: 695: 690: 688: 684: 679: 675: 665: 658: 657: 651: 646: 636: 632: 624: 621: 616: 614: 608: 598: 595: 587: 577: 573: 569: 563: 562: 558: 553:This section 551: 547: 542: 541: 533: 530: 528: 521: 514: 510: 505: 503: 496: 492: 488: 481: 474: 470: 466: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 424: 410: 401: 399: 394: 390: 385: 383: 379: 374: 372: 368: 363: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 338:of choice is 337: 336:semiconductor 328: 319: 317: 313: 308: 305: 301: 293: 288: 280: 276: 274: 266: 261: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 222: 220: 216: 212: 199: 195: 187: 182: 178: 176: 171: 166: 164: 160: 155: 153: 149: 145: 140: 137: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 44: 41: 37: 36:power MOSFETs 32: 19: 8014:Cold cathode 7981:Storage tube 7871:Vacuum tubes 7820:Neutron tube 7795:Beam tetrode 7777:Vacuum tubes 7362:Power MOSFET 7349: 7269: 7212: 7199: 7193: 7148:the original 7129: 7120:the original 7104: 7086: 7072:. 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Retrieved 6083:the original 6073: 6054: 6041: 5934: 5929: 5909: 5902: 5882: 5875: 5855: 5848: 5828: 5821: 5801: 5794: 5774: 5767: 5747: 5736: 5717: 5707: 5687: 5680: 5660: 5653: 5633: 5626: 5607: 5601: 5586: 5566: 5559: 5539: 5532: 5521:. Retrieved 5514:the original 5487:. Springer. 5483: 5475: 5467:the original 5446: 5442: 5432: 5423:the original 5413: 5401:. Retrieved 5394:the original 5389: 5377: 5369:the original 5359: 5350: 5344: 5325: 5319: 5292: 5282: 5271:. Retrieved 5263: 5254: 5245: 5232: 5208: 5201: 5184: 5180: 5170: 5151: 5145: 5122: 5112: 5087: 5083: 5073: 5056: 5052: 5042: 5025: 5021: 5011: 4992: 4967: 4963: 4938: 4924: 4900: 4889:. Retrieved 4885: 4875: 4756: 4746: 4740: 4738: 4723: 4711: 4708:Power MOSFET 4694:Power MOSFET 4669: 4642: 4631:highly doped 4626: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4593: 4586:front-ends. 4561: 4537:noise figure 4534: 4520: 4516: 4514: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4486: 4480: 4465: 4434: 4408: 4405: 4384: 4372: 4356: 4335: 4322: 4315: 4308: 4301: 4294: 4287: 4280: 4273: 4262: 4257: 4248: 4234: 4221:valence band 4197: 4168: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4134: 4121:Gordon Moore 4104: 4084: 4027: 4018: 3999: 3972: 3969: 3960: 3956: 3950: 3938:capacitances 3931: 3923: 3910: 3898: 3891: 3884: 3877: 3875: 3757: 3749: 3747: 3679: 3657: 3651: 3632:, tungsten, 3589: 3531: 3523:Construction 3515: 3511: 3503: 3496: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3474: 3467: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3446: 3433: 3426: 3419: 3417: 3409: 3402: 3399: 3396: 3387: 3372: 3363: 3348:Please help 3336: 3301: 3279: 3263: 3257: 3240: 3215: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3185: 3179: 3175: 3151: 3118:data storage 3103: 3100:Applications 3094: 3090: 2968: 2962: 2958: 2956: 2944: 2936: 2928: 2919: 2909: 2901: 2874: 2873:is the zero- 2867: 2860: 2858: 2740: 2728: 2726: 2718: 2709: 2694: 2691:Band diagram 2663: 2657: 2654: 2646: 2575: 2568: 2567: 2513: 2505: 2503: 2468: 2461: 2454: 2453:, and where 2443: 2436: 2429: 2427: 2280: 2272:Early effect 2269: 2127: 2118: 2107: 2100: 2089: 2087: 1985: 1837: 1833: 1825: 1818: 1811: 1804: 1797: 1795: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1698: 1696: 1616: 1608: 1597: 1590: 1583: 1537: 1410: 1353: 1296: 1291: 1178: 1085: 1055: 1047: 986: 978: 971: 969: 959: 957: 953: 861: 817:Polysilicon 788:Channel type 745: 743: 733: 729: 727: 724: 711: 705: 701: 697: 693: 691: 686: 682: 677: 673: 671: 656:band diagram 653: 633: 625: 617: 612: 609: 605: 590: 584:January 2019 581: 566:Please help 554: 531: 519: 512: 506: 501: 494: 479: 472: 468: 457: 455: 420: 398:conductivity 392: 388: 386: 382:45 nanometer 375: 364: 334:Usually the 333: 309: 297: 262: 234:John Bardeen 223: 208: 197: 193: 185: 167: 156: 151: 147: 141: 138: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 75: 61: 53: 8180:Transformer 7922:Sutton tube 7762:Charge pump 7615:Memory cell 7545:Zener diode 7507:Laser diode 7390:transistors 7272:transistors 7192:"Course on 7130:PDF-Version 6883:27 November 6853:27 November 6681:27 November 5295:: 583–596. 5090:: 131–136. 4886:TechFinCast 4788:cosmic rays 4784:solar flare 4771:reliability 4763:outer space 4634:polysilicon 4555:such as in 4505:triple-gate 4501:double-gate 4440:Other types 4261:(DIBL) and 4178:thick) the 4125:Moore's law 4093:'s work on 4087:micrometres 3698:Gauss's law 3393:Single-type 3283:scaling law 3230:logic gates 3154:clean rooms 3114:logic gates 2721:Fermi level 2682:Body effect 1787:near drain. 714:Fermi level 681:terminals ( 620:Fermi level 322:Composition 304:Dawon Kahng 265:Carl Frosch 228:scientists 163:polysilicon 116:. The term 78:electronics 18:Bulk MOSFET 8274:Categories 8252:reed relay 8242:Parametron 8175:Thermistor 8153:resettable 8112:Connector 8073:Adjustable 8049:Nixie tube 8019:Crossatron 7986:Trochotron 7961:Iconoscope 7956:Charactron 7933:X-ray tube 7805:Compactron 7785:Acorn tube 7742:Buck–boost 7663:Solaristor 7525:Photodiode 7502:Gunn diode 7498:(CLD, CRD) 7280:Transistor 7074:2008-06-03 7054:2016-02-06 7035:2018-12-16 7016:2010-03-04 6711:2017-05-14 6461:2012-06-02 6280:revera.com 6261:2012-06-02 6240:2012-06-02 6172:2012-06-02 6089:2012-06-02 5523:2012-04-01 5273:2023-01-16 5238:Atalla, M. 5187:(9): 547. 5059:(9): 547. 5028:(9): 547. 4998:US2802760A 4891:2024-09-21 4867:References 4739:There are 4684:NMOS logic 4666:NMOS logic 4656:cyanoethyl 4568:Telefunken 4515:There are 4286:roll-off. 4137:micrometre 3563:to obtain 3194:NMOS logic 3190:PMOS logic 3177:switched. 3128:and other 3079:(no bulk) 3024:N-channel 2984:P-channel 2511:given by: 1761:saturation 909:Electrons 898:Downwards 849:Well type 763:Parameter 719:See also: 668:inversion. 643:See also: 447:dielectric 242:transistor 219:Oskar Heil 175:CMOS logic 70:matchstick 8215:Capacitor 8059:Trigatron 8054:Thyratron 8044:Neon lamp 7971:Monoscope 7851:Phototube 7835:Pentagrid 7800:Barretter 7685:Trancitor 7680:Thyristor 7605:Memristor 7530:PIN diode 7307:(ChemFET) 6929:excessive 6873:element14 6843:element14 5988:⁡ 5951:φ 5403:30 August 5242:Kahng, D. 5104:0022-3697 4984:1064-8208 4970:(3): 29. 4796:gamma ray 4759:radiation 4718:epitaxial 4680:electrons 4638:non-metal 4507:FinFETs. 4445:Dual-gate 4212:zirconium 3926:junctions 3849:ϵ 3845:κ 3721:ϵ 3717:κ 3690:tunneling 3676:Insulator 3534:conductor 3337:does not 2888:γ 2828:φ 2819:− 2808:φ 2781:γ 2620:∂ 2605:∂ 2540:λ 2366:− 2319:∂ 2304:∂ 2238:λ 2203:− 2152:μ 2122:pinch-off 2111: – V 1995:μ 1941:− 1908:− 1859:μ 1729:− 1700:I–V curve 1556:≫ 1495:− 1458:− 1428:≈ 1133:− 1103:≈ 746:p-channel 734:n-channel 613:inversion 555:does not 465:acceptors 451:capacitor 404:Operation 373:, 2009). 350:, use an 263:In 1955, 258:thyristor 226:Bell Labs 8237:Inductor 8207:Reactive 8185:Varistor 8165:Resistor 8143:Antifuse 8029:Ignitron 8024:Dekatron 7912:Klystron 7901:Gyrotron 7830:Nuvistor 7747:Split-pi 7633:(MOS IC) 7600:Memistor 7358:(MuGFET) 7352:(MOSFET) 7324:(FinFET) 6983:Archived 6538:Archived 6218:8 August 6149:Archived 5745:(2004). 4913:Archived 4802:See also 4676:mobility 4659:pullulan 4549:bipolars 4396:heatsink 4254:roll off 4129:RC delay 3630:tantalum 3618:salicide 3614:silicide 3602:titanium 3598:tungsten 3586:process. 3160:and the 3108:such as 3104:Digital 2467: − 2442: − 1824: − 901:Upwards 769:pMOSFET 766:nMOSFET 159:misnomer 94:MOS FET, 8285:MOSFETs 8138:Ferrite 8106:Passive 8097:Varicap 8085:digital 8034:Krytron 7856:Tetrode 7841:Pentode 7695:Varicap 7676:(3D IC) 7652:RF CMOS 7556:devices 7330:(FGMOS) 7261:devices 6923:Please 6915:use of 6671:Techweb 5451:Bibcode 4780:neutron 4623:channel 4582:and RF 4572:Philips 4564:Siemens 4539:in the 4481:tetrode 4477:cascode 4468:tetrode 4339:cascode 4208:hafnium 4007:Please 3981:Scaling 3694:leakage 3556:bandgap 3358:removed 3343:sources 3237:Digital 3173:(IET). 3082:MOSFET 3075:MOSFET 3069:MOSFET 1041:is the 958:For an 923:n-type 920:p-type 855:n-type 852:p-type 800:p-type 797:n-type 780:p-type 777:n-type 576:removed 561:sources 393:channel 340:silicon 205:History 170:digital 114:signals 110:silicon 90:MOS-FET 60:in the 52:in the 8170:Switch 7861:Triode 7825:Nonode 7790:Audion 7670:(SITh) 7554:Other 7521:(OLED) 7483:Diodes 7434:(LET) 7416:(FET) 7388:Other 7336:(IGBT) 7313:(CMOS) 7300:BioFET 7295:BiCMOS 7140: 7112: 6821: 6765: 6735: 6649: 6620: 6591: 6564: 6485: 6427: 6397: 6334: 6307: 6061: 6023: 5917: 5890: 5863: 5836: 5809: 5782: 5755: 5724: 5695: 5668: 5641: 5614: 5574: 5547: 5491: 5332: 5307: 5220: 5158: 5133: 5102: 5004: 4982: 4836:ggNMOS 4776:proton 4600:MOSFET 4596:MISFET 4559:sets. 4489:FinFET 4455:FinFET 4423:, and 4237:doping 3636:, and 3610:nickel 3606:cobalt 3312:BiCMOS 3254:Analog 3138:mixers 2925:> 0 2859:where 2581:where 2094:> V 1986:where 1765:active 1759:) and 1753:linear 1605: 1179:where 987:where 912:Holes 828:Metal 683:source 493:). If 491:doping 384:node. 126:MOSFET 122:MISFET 86:MOSFET 80:, the 47: 8247:Relay 8220:types 8158:eFUSE 7929:(TWT) 7917:Maser 7908:(IOT) 7897:(CFA) 7886:(BWO) 7810:Diode 7757:SEPIC 7737:Boost 7690:TRIAC 7659:(SCR) 7622:(MOV) 7596:(LEC) 7515:(LED) 7474:(UJT) 7463:(SIT) 7457:(PUT) 7400:(BJT) 7369:(TFT) 7345:LDMOS 7340:ISFET 7151:(PDF) 7134:(PDF) 6986:(PDF) 6979:(PDF) 6697:"MIS" 6541:(PDF) 6534:(PDF) 6455:(PDF) 6448:(PDF) 6212:(PDF) 6205:(PDF) 6152:(PDF) 6145:(PDF) 6040:with 5517:(PDF) 5510:(PDF) 5397:(PDF) 5386:(PDF) 4916:(PDF) 4909:(PDF) 4792:X-ray 4790:like 4747:VDMOS 4742:LDMOS 4672:holes 4627:metal 4584:mixer 4176:atoms 4117:65 nm 4113:45 nm 4077:and M 4069:and M 3913:LOCOS 3876:with 3748:with 3686:LOCOS 3226:power 3066:JFET 2458:DSsat 2274:, or 2088:When 1817:< 1803:> 1796:When 1757:Ohmic 1354:with 977:< 970:When 687:drain 473:p = N 371:Intel 352:alloy 348:Intel 134:IGFET 40:D2PAK 8190:Wire 8148:Fuse 7732:Buck 7585:(IC) 7573:DIAC 7509:(LD) 7378:UMOS 7373:VMOS 7290:PMOS 7285:NMOS 7270:MOS 7138:ISBN 7110:ISBN 6885:2010 6855:2010 6819:ISBN 6763:ISBN 6733:ISBN 6683:2010 6647:ISBN 6618:ISBN 6589:ISBN 6562:ISBN 6483:ISBN 6425:ISBN 6395:ISBN 6332:ISBN 6305:ISBN 6220:2013 6059:ISBN 5915:ISBN 5888:ISBN 5861:ISBN 5834:ISBN 5807:ISBN 5780:ISBN 5753:ISBN 5722:ISBN 5693:ISBN 5666:ISBN 5639:ISBN 5612:ISBN 5572:ISBN 5545:ISBN 5501:BSIM 5489:ISBN 5447:SC-3 5405:2015 5330:ISBN 5305:ISBN 5218:ISBN 5156:ISBN 5131:ISBN 5100:ISSN 4980:ISSN 4830:BSIM 4778:and 4732:DMOS 4566:and 4545:gain 4487:The 4409:etc. 4357:The 4341:and 4210:and 4100:ITRS 3961:halo 3646:FUSI 3545:The 3473:and 3423:gate 3406:gate 3341:any 3339:cite 3218:CMOS 3204:and 3180:The 3116:and 3084:dep. 3077:enh. 3071:enh. 2971:JFET 2963:body 2959:bulk 2957:The 2106:≥ (V 2099:and 1810:and 811:type 808:Gate 685:and 678:gate 674:body 559:any 557:cite 356:SiGe 346:and 302:and 256:and 236:and 34:Two 7752:Ćuk 6931:or 6796:doi 6513:doi 6509:765 5459:doi 5297:doi 5189:doi 5185:104 5092:doi 5061:doi 5057:104 5030:doi 5026:104 4972:doi 4580:AGC 4551:in 4497:fin 4158:off 4141:ALD 4065:; 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