714:
146:
122:
3480:
604:. This does not mean that brown algae completely lack specialized structures. But, because some botanists define "true" stems, leaves, and roots by the presence of these tissues, their absence in the brown algae means that the stem-like and leaf-like structures found in some groups of brown algae must be described using different terminology. Although not all brown algae are structurally complex, those that are typically possess one or more characteristic parts.
3353:
539:
3345:
812:
651:), the tissues within the stipe are divided into three distinct layers or regions. These regions include a central pith, a surrounding cortex, and an outer epidermis, each of which has an analog in the stem of a vascular plant. In some brown algae, the pith region includes a core of elongated cells that resemble the
943:). Although some heterokont relatives of the brown algae lack plastids in their cells, scientists believe this is a result of evolutionary loss of that organelle in those groups rather than independent acquisition by the several photosynthetic members. Thus, all heterokonts are believed to descend from a single
906:
being its main ingredients, up to 40% each of them. Cellulose, a major component from most plant cell walls, is present in a very small percentage, up to 8%. Cellulose and alginate biosynthesis pathways seem to have been acquired from other organisms through endosymbiotic and horizontal gene transfer
838:
or in a row of such cells. They are single cellular organisms. As this apical cell divides, the new cells that it produces develop into all the tissues of the alga. Branchings and other lateral structures appear when the apical cell divides to produce two new apical cells. However, a few groups (such
617:
where it grows, and thus prevents the alga from being carried away by the current. Unlike a root system, the holdfast generally does not serve as the primary organ for water uptake, nor does it take in nutrients from the substrate. The overall physical appearance of the holdfast differs among various
3471:
that occur scattered on both surfaces of the receptacle, the outer portion of the blades of the parent plant. Egg cells and motile sperm are released from separate sacs within the conceptacles of the parent algae, combining in the water to complete fertilization. The fertilized zygote settles onto a
731:
In some brown algae, there is a single lamina or blade, while in others there may be many separate blades. Even in those species that initially produce a single blade, the structure may tear with rough currents or as part of maturation to form additional blades. These blades may be attached directly
3497:
Brown algae have adapted to a wide variety of marine ecological niches including the tidal splash zone, rock pools, the whole intertidal zone and relatively deep near shore waters. They are an important constituent of some brackish water ecosystems, and have colonized freshwater on a minimum of six
529:
that does not include such forms. However, this may be the result of classification rather than a consequence of evolution, as all the groups hypothesized to be the closest relatives of the browns include single-celled or colonial forms. They can change color depending on salinity, ranging from
907:
respectively, while the sulphated polysaccharides are of ancestral origin. Specifically, the cellulose synthases seem to come from the red alga endosymbiont of the photosynthetic stramenopiles ancestor, and the ancestor of brown algae acquired the key enzymes for alginates biosynthesis from an
3456:. The spores are then released from the sporangia and grow to form male and female gametophytes. The female gametophyte produces an egg in the oogonium, and the male gametophyte releases motile sperm that fertilize the egg. The fertilized zygote then grows into the mature diploid sporophyte.
1004:
of morphologies between many brown and red algae. Most fossils of soft-tissue algae preserve only a flattened outline, without the microscopic features that permit the major groups of multicellular algae to be reliably distinguished. Among the brown algae, only species of the genus
6366:
Yoon, Weon-Jong; Heo, Soo-Jin; Han, Sang-Chul; Lee, Hye-Ja; Kang, Gyeoung-Jin; Kang, Hee-Kyoung; Hyun, Jin-Won; Koh, Young-Sang; Yoo, Eun-Sook (1 August 2012). "Anti-inflammatory effect of sargachromanol G isolated from
Sargassum siliquastrum in RAW 264.7 cells".
4646:
732:
to the stipe, to a holdfast with no stipe present, or there may be an air bladder between the stipe and blade. The surface of the lamina or blade may be smooth or wrinkled; its tissues may be thin and flexible or thick and leathery. In species like
911:. The presence and fine control of alginate structure in combination with the cellulose which existed before it, gave potentially the brown algae the ability to develop complex structurally multicellular organisms like the kelps.
618:
brown algae and among various substrates. It may be heavily branched, or it may be cup-like in appearance. A single alga typically has just one holdfast, although some species have more than one stipe growing from their holdfast.
954:
The closest relatives of the brown algae include unicellular and filamentous species, but no unicellular species of brown algae are known. However, most scientists assume that the
Phaeophyceae evolved from unicellular ancestors.
467:
no more than a few centimeters (a few inches) long. Some species have a stage in their life cycle that consists of only a few cells, making the entire alga microscopic. Other groups of brown algae grow to much larger sizes. The
987:
sequences reveals much smaller evolutionary distances among genera of the brown algae than among genera of red or green algae, which suggests that the brown algae have diversified much more recently than the other two groups.
3498:
known occasions. A large number of
Phaeophyceae are intertidal or upper littoral, and they are predominantly cool and cold water organisms that benefit from nutrients in up welling cold water currents and inflows from land;
4325:
6295:
Vásquez, Julio A.; Zuñiga, Sergio; Tala, Fadia; Piaget, Nicole; Rodríguez, Deni C.; Vega, J. M. Alonso (1 April 2014). "Economic valuation of kelp forests in northern Chile: values of goods and services of the ecosystem".
1046:, they are typically preserved as flattened outlines or fragments measuring only millimeters long. Because these fossils lack features diagnostic for identification at even the highest level, they are assigned to fossil
3689:
beds also fix a significant portion of the earth's carbon dioxide yearly through photosynthesis. Additionally, they can store a great amount of carbon dioxide which can help us in the fight against climate change.
6233:
Gioacchini, Giorgia; Lombardo, Francesco; Avella, Matteo
Alessandro; Olivotto, Ike; Carnevali, Oliana (1 April 2010). "Welfare improvement using alginic acid in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles".
5585:
3393:) phases. The sporophyte stage is often the more visible of the two, though some species of brown algae have similar diploid and haploid phases. Free floating forms of brown algae often do not undergo
488:, which grows to over 50 m (150 ft) long and is the largest of all the algae. In form, the brown algae range from small crusts or cushions to leafy free-floating mats formed by species of
1070:, which consists of masses of filaments grouped into trunk-like axes, has been considered a possible brown alga. However, modern research favors reinterpretation of this fossil as a terrestrial
853:
The simplest brown algae are filamentous—that is, their cells are elongate and have septa cutting across their width. They branch by getting wider at their tip, and then dividing the widening.
738:, this characteristic may change depending upon the turbulence of the waters in which it grows. In other species, the surface of the blade is coated with slime to discourage the attachment of
803:, the pneumatocysts develop within the lamina itself, either as discrete spherical bladders or as elongated gas-filled regions that take the outline of the lamina in which they develop.
702:
refers to that portion of a structurally differentiated alga that is flattened. It may be a single or a divided structure, and may be spread over a substantial portion of the alga. In
433:, which is responsible for the distinctive greenish-brown color that gives them their name. Brown algae are unique among Stramenopiles in developing into multicellular forms with
509:
Regardless of size or form, two visible features set the
Phaeophyceae apart from all other algae. First, members of the group possess a characteristic color that ranges from an
4065:
2824:
661:), the center of the stipe is hollow and filled with gas that serves to keep that part of the alga buoyant. The stipe may be relatively flexible and elastic in species like
1023:
members. Because of this, they are more likely to leave evidence in the fossil record than the soft bodies of most brown algae and more often can be precisely classified.
1000:
is rare due to their generally soft-bodied nature, and scientists continue to debate the identification of some finds. Part of the problem with identification lies in the
710:. The midrib and lamina together constitute almost all of a rockweed, so that the lamina is spread throughout the alga rather than existing as a localized portion of it.
3663:(alginate) in their cell walls, which is extracted commercially and used as an industrial thickening agent in food and for other uses. One of these products is used in
5622:
4735:"The cell wall polysaccharide metabolism of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus. Insights into the evolution of extracellular matrix polysaccharides in Eukaryotes"
4361:
4505:
4194:
3871:
5929:
1109:
at its base, and the stipes appear to have been hollow and inflated as well. This combination of characteristics is similar to certain modern genera in the order
899:, and is gummy when wet but becomes hard and brittle when it dries out. Specifically, the brown algal cell wall consists of several components with alginates and
7346:
4708:
7798:
7793:
7761:
7756:
7318:
3907:
3174:
2081:
1093:
7788:
7555:
7494:
3814:
3165:
2976:
7773:
7703:
7528:
3900:
2608:
1259:
7821:
7808:
7418:
7354:
7184:
6767:
3893:
3886:
3581:
value in the range of −30.0‰ to −10.5‰, in contrast with red algae and greens. This reflects their different metabolic pathways.
2847:
2769:
2751:
1472:
7778:
7600:
7285:
7179:
7146:
7018:
2947:
2882:
2742:
2665:
2652:
2351:
1450:
1368:
1331:
353:, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as a potential
3682:. For example, alginic acid enhances the immune system of rainbow trout. Younger fish are more likely to survive when given a diet with alginic acid.
398:, have become subjects of extensive research in their own right due to their commercial importance. They also have environmental significance through
7783:
7766:
7698:
7563:
7504:
7207:
6962:
6957:
6814:
6798:
6668:
3320:
3302:
3080:
2855:
2103:
7605:
7595:
7536:
7464:
7360:
7042:
7000:
6972:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6725:
5875:
4586:
3241:
3203:
3098:
3048:
2920:
2843:
2778:
2300:
2275:
1619:
1494:
8173:
8045:
7489:
6429:
3993:
Medlin, L. K.; et al. (1997). "Phylogenetic relationships of the 'golden algae' (Haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids".
3194:
7816:
7610:
7569:
2635:
1193:
8071:
6990:
6793:
6165:
4084:
613:
is a rootlike structure present at the base of the alga. Like a root system in plants, a holdfast serves to anchor the alga in place on the
6697:
1097:
possesses numerous elongate, inflated blades attached to a stipe. It is the most abundant of algal fossils found in a collection made from
797:
also bear many blades and pneumatocysts, but both kinds of structures are attached separately to the stipe by short stalks. In species of
7294:
6640:
5737:
Silberfeld, Thomas; Rousseau, Florence; de
Reviers, Bruno (2014). "An Updated Classification of Brown Algae (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae)".
4776:"Chemical and enzymatic fractionation of cell walls from Fucales: Insights into the structure of the extracellular matrix of brown algae"
3071:
2202:
1147:
771:, so that it is held nearer the water surface and thus receives more light for photosynthesis. Pneumatocysts are most often spherical or
5446:
6655:
1115:
236:
6934:
6420:
8019:
463:
Brown algae exist in a wide range of sizes and forms. The smallest members of the group grow as tiny, feathery tufts of threadlike
6091:
Berkaloff, Claire (1990). "Subunit organization of PSI particles from brown algae and diatoms: polypeptide and pigment analysis".
8058:
4930:
4861:
1091:
fossils have been tentatively classified with the brown algae, although most have also been compared to known red algae species.
791:
bears many blades along its stipe, with a pneumatocyst at the base of each blade where it attaches to the main stipe. Species of
525:. There are no known species that exist as single cells or as colonies of cells, and the brown algae are the only major group of
476:
are often the most conspicuous algae in their habitats. Kelps can range in size from the 60-centimeter-tall (2 ft) sea palm
6465:
6438:
5058:
Ariztia, E. V.; Andersen, R. A.; Sogin, M. L. (1991). "A new phylogeny of chromophyte algae using 16S-like rRNA sequences from
6164:
Kovalenko, Igor; Zdyrko, Bogdan; Magasinski, Alexandre; Hertzberg, Benjamin; Milicev, Zoran; Burtovyy, Ruslan; Luzinov, Igor;
5891:"Transitions between marine and freshwater environments provide new clues about the origins of multicellular plants and algae"
5697:
5549:
5406:
5361:
5230:
5149:
5116:
5042:
5000:
4971:
4545:
4499:
4466:
4437:
4400:
4303:
4274:
4234:
4023:
5820:
698:
may be applied to all or most of an algal body that is flattened, but this distinction is not universally applied. The name
8168:
8063:
6142:
5995:; Chaloner, W. G. (2004). "Stable carbon isotopes and the metabolism of the terrestrial Devonian organism Spongiophyton".
5639:
Leary, R. L. (1986). "Three new genera of fossil noncalcareous algae from
Valmeyeran (Mississippian) strata of Illinois".
6434:
5890:
4834:
3476:
and a finger-like holdfast. Light regulates differentiation of the zygote into blade and holdfast.(by samay the great )
627:
is a stalk or stemlike structure present in an alga. It may grow as a short structure near the base of the alga (as in
4669:
831:
may grow as much as 50 cm (20 in) per day, and the stipes can grow 6 cm (2.4 in) in a single day.
787:
bear a single large pneumatocyst between the top of the stipe and the base of the blades. In contrast, the giant kelp
5851:
5814:
4570:
4180:
4029:
8163:
8130:
6506:
6339:
Krause-Jensen, D.; Duarte, C. (21 February 2020). "Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration".
451:
that closely resemble cells of single-celled
Stramenopiles. Genetic studies show their closest relatives to be the
385:
that serve as the habitats for many species. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.
5524:
Hofmann, H. J. (1994). "Proterozoic carbonaceous compressions ("metaphytes" and "worms")". In
Bengtson, S. (ed.).
8076:
6501:
5171:
4895:
4774:
Deniaud-Bouët, Estelle; Kervarec, Nelly; Michel, Gurvan; Tonon, Thierry; Kloareg, Bernard; Hervé, Cécile (2014).
5777:
4491:
3348:
The life cycle of a representative species
Laminaria. Most Brown Algae follow this form of sexual reproduction.
713:
5284:
6585:
6575:
6558:
5404:
Fry, W. L. (1983). "An algal flora from the Upper Ordovician of the Lake Winnipeg region, Manitoba, Canada".
971:
between 150 and 200 million years ago. In many ways, the evolution of the brown algae parallels that of the
3609:
In addition to alginates, fucoidan and cellulose, the carbohydrate composition of brown algae consists of
1011:
deposit significant quantities of minerals in or around their cell walls. Other algal groups, such as the
706:, for example, the lamina is a broad wing of tissue that runs continuously along both sides of a branched
5954:
Maberly, S. C.; Raven, J. A.; Johnston, A. M. (1992). "Discrimination between C and C by marine plants".
5247:
4992:
145:
6040:
Li, Y.; Zheng, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, Y.; Wang, P.; Imre, B.; Wong, A. C.; Hsieh, Y. S.; Wang, D. (2021).
4599:
Fritsch, F. E. 1945. The Structure And Reproduction Of The Algae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
1133:
consist of an elliptical blade attached to a branching filamentous holdfast, not unlike some species of
6458:
5781:
5641:
5597:
5034:
4963:
4458:
4392:
2558:
980:
17:
5505:
Hofmann, H. J. (1985). "Precambrian Carbonaceous Megafossils". In D. F. Toomey; M. H. Nitecki (eds.).
8086:
5713:
Parker, B. C.; Dawson, E. Y. (1965). "Non-calcareous marine algae from California Miocene deposits".
5529:
4425:
4295:
295:
4909:
3356:
A closeup of a Fucus's conceptacle, showing the gametes coming together to form a fertilized zygote.
5349:
434:
8135:
5311:
Fry, W. L.; Banks, H. P. (1955). "Three new genera of algae from the Upper Devonian of New York".
4060:
7962:
6590:
5313:
4262:
3467:, and the mature diploid is the only form for each generation. Gametes are formed in specialized
2870:
845:) grow by a diffuse, unlocalized production of new cells that can occur anywhere on the thallus.
834:
Growth in most brown algae occurs at the tips of structures as a result of divisions in a single
251:
8112:
5141:
4266:
7948:
7910:
7382:
5689:
5678:
5222:
4904:
4429:
3949:
3823:
3778:
3695:
2874:
2581:
856:
These filaments may be haplostichous or polystichous, multiaxial or monoaxial forming or not a
669:
522:
426:
4531:
3397:
until they attach themselves to substrate. The haploid generation consists of male and female
633:), or it may develop into a large, complex structure running throughout the algal body (as in
8107:
6553:
6451:
5442:
5386:
4827:"The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists"
4611:"Plant Proteus: brown algal morphological plasticity and underlying developmental mechanisms"
4483:
4353:
4226:
3852:
3786:
3741:
3664:
8122:
5390:
4170:
8158:
8099:
8050:
7993:
6650:
6243:
6181:
6042:"Brown Algae Carbohydrates: Structures, Pharmaceutical Properties, and Research Challenges"
6006:
5997:
5558:
5415:
5353:
5259:
5068:
4733:
Michel, Gurvan; Tonon, Thierry; Scornet, Delphine; Cock, J. Mark; Kloareg, Bernard (2010).
3926:
3795:
3484:
3421:
1001:
663:
544:
484:
131:
6425:
5185:
5166:
1026:
Fossils comparable in morphology to brown algae are known from strata as old as the Upper
8:
7305:
7113:
6903:
6780:
6661:
5272:
3760:
3394:
3370:
1121:
1047:
960:
394:
338:
6247:
6185:
6010:
5562:
5419:
865:
429:
between a basal eukaryote and a red or green alga. Most brown algae contain the pigment
7680:
7225:
6570:
6548:
6536:
6511:
6400:
6321:
6277:
6215:
6199:
6116:
6068:
6041:
6022:
5973:
5921:
5869:
5754:
5658:
5614:
5487:
5322:
5276:
5134:
5085:
4802:
4775:
4700:
4580:
4255:
3769:
3413:. Fertilization may take place in the water with eggs and motile sperm, or within the
2798:
1184:
1176:
The earliest known fossils that can be assigned reliably to the Phaeophyceae come from
1031:
817:
609:
569:
452:
275:
140:
5570:
5212:
4887:
4826:
4418:
4106:
Kjellman, F. R. (1891). "Phaeophyceae (Fucoideae)". In Engler, A.; Prantl, K. (eds.).
8094:
7980:
7826:
7441:
7390:
7328:
7133:
6580:
6543:
6531:
6521:
6392:
6384:
6313:
6269:
6207:
6108:
6073:
6018:
5913:
5857:
5847:
5810:
5693:
5427:
5357:
5226:
5190:
5145:
5112:
5081:
5038:
4996:
4967:
4922:
4853:
4848:
4807:
4756:
4751:
4734:
4692:
4638:
4630:
4566:
4541:
4495:
4462:
4433:
4396:
4299:
4270:
4230:
4186:
4176:
4151:
4111:
4019:
3843:
3265:
2789:
2599:
2590:
1425:
1244:
1231:
746:. Blades are also often the parts of the alga that bear the reproductive structures.
734:
719:
6404:
6325:
6281:
6026:
5925:
5758:
5280:
5089:
4704:
959:
sequence comparison also suggests that the brown algae evolved from the filamentous
425:
surrounded by four membranes, suggesting that they were acquired secondarily from a
7985:
7657:
6808:
6495:
6376:
6348:
6305:
6259:
6251:
6219:
6189:
6120:
6100:
6063:
6053:
6014:
5965:
5905:
5750:
5746:
5650:
5606:
5566:
5479:
5423:
5379:
5268:
5180:
5077:
4914:
4843:
4797:
4787:
4746:
4684:
4622:
4610:
4537:
4334:
4141:
4074:
4011:
4003:
3732:
3401:. The fertilization of egg cells varies between species of brown algae, and may be
3232:
3134:
2956:
2911:
2406:
2329:
2118:
2009:
1126:
884:
smaller than kelps but still parenchymatic with the same kind of distinct tissues.
857:
676:
Many algae have a flattened portion that may resemble a leaf, and this is termed a
437:
349:
of the temperate and polar regions. Many brown algae, such as members of the order
286:
5342:
4688:
4626:
500:, or of 30-centimeter-long (1 ft) flattened branches resembling a fan, as in
7665:
7400:
7336:
7313:
6911:
5804:
5510:
5470:
5468:
Loeblich, A. R. (1974). "Protistan Phylogeny as Indicated by the Fossil Record".
4007:
3971:
3329:
3250:
3154:
3003:
2891:
2760:
2733:
2621:
2564:
2024:
1901:
1777:
1531:
1516:
908:
869:
399:
331:
6443:
6134:
1064:, have proven to be inorganic rather than true fossils. The Devonian megafossil
873:
7514:
7469:
7436:
7246:
7217:
7023:
6980:
6803:
6526:
6478:
5992:
4918:
3917:
3691:
3672:
3656:
3445:
generation and smaller haploid generations. Meiosis takes place within several
3374:
3284:
3223:
3145:
3039:
2985:
2866:
2721:
1996:
1879:
1832:
1742:
1641:
1437:
924:
864:
tic kelps with three-dimensional development and growth and different tissues (
825:
The brown algae include the largest and fastest growing of seaweeds. Fronds of
682:
623:
601:
577:
573:
464:
183:
170:
6380:
6309:
6255:
6170:"A Major Constituent of Brown Algae for Use in High-Capacity Li-Ion Batteries"
5167:"Origin and evolution of organisms as deduced from 5S ribosomal RNS sequences"
5027:
4146:
4129:
1034:
affinity of these impression fossils is far from certain. Claims that earlier
381:, which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the
8152:
7933:
7730:
7690:
7582:
7164:
7156:
7141:
7122:
6388:
6317:
6273:
5861:
5715:
5685:
5108:
4634:
4190:
3749:
3633:
3629:
3598:
3311:
3273:
3116:
3063:
3012:
2938:
2929:
2832:
2725:
2421:
2366:
2217:
1792:
1098:
1080:
was once considered a possible brown alga, but is now thought to be an early
1076:
1050:
according to their shape and other gross morphological features. A number of
1007:
984:
968:
964:
948:
944:
502:
418:
371:, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater
324:
79:
41:
6194:
6169:
4015:
3479:
891:
consists of two layers; the inner layer bears the strength, and consists of
7892:
7675:
7670:
7542:
7509:
7484:
7474:
7459:
7451:
7373:
7259:
7254:
7202:
7169:
7013:
6854:
6788:
6735:
6707:
6482:
6396:
6211:
6112:
6077:
5917:
4926:
4857:
4811:
4760:
4696:
4642:
4155:
3940:
3660:
3644:
3589:
3293:
3261:
3125:
3059:
3030:
2902:
2820:
2811:
2710:
2690:
2287:
2061:
1857:
1755:
1685:
1670:
1606:
1110:
1106:
1066:
783:
751:
581:
406:
382:
368:
196:
5194:
8032:
7972:
7942:
7879:
7590:
7431:
7426:
7008:
6892:
6867:
6702:
6632:
5218:
4792:
4169:
Hoek, Christiaan; den Hoeck, Hoeck Van; Mann, David; Jahns, H.M. (1995).
3994:
3679:
3637:
3563:
3468:
3398:
3386:
3212:
3021:
2701:
2674:
2643:
1403:
1381:
1316:
1043:
1016:
972:
881:
827:
777:
657:
641:
518:
510:
469:
430:
422:
372:
359:
54:
6203:
5543:
Hueber, F. M. (2001). "Rotted wood-alga-fungus: the history and life of
3452:
along the algae's blade, each one forming either haploid male or female
3352:
8024:
7646:
7499:
7408:
7194:
7174:
7078:
6679:
6264:
6104:
6058:
5977:
5969:
5662:
5618:
5491:
5326:
4079:
3449:
3429:
3378:
3344:
3185:
3107:
3089:
2630:
2180:
2158:
1723:
1303:
1188:
1081:
1027:
1020:
920:
861:
841:
538:
496:
216:
121:
99:
64:
5909:
4338:
3675:
is a major component of brown algae, and is not found in land plants.
947:
ancestor that became photosynthetic when it acquired plastids through
919:
Genetic and ultrastructural evidence place the Phaeophyceae among the
811:
655:
of vascular plants both in structure and function. In others (such as
8037:
8006:
7957:
7748:
7264:
7095:
6985:
6862:
6753:
6717:
6474:
6352:
5956:
4609:
Charrier, Bénédicte; Le Bail, Aude; de Reviers, Bruno (August 2012).
3879:
3614:
3603:
3585:
3531:
3500:
3437:
3410:
1180:
1135:
1088:
1035:
1012:
976:
936:
900:
892:
888:
793:
772:
743:
635:
629:
490:
478:
441:
414:
377:
226:
157:
104:
48:
29:
Large group of multicellular algae, comprising the class Phaeophyceae
7904:
5654:
5610:
5483:
4128:
Cock, J. Mark; Peters, Akira F.; Coelho, Susana M. (9 August 2011).
979:, as all three groups possess complex multicellular species with an
923:(Stramenopiles), a large assemblage of organisms that includes both
8011:
7927:
7738:
7719:
7049:
6921:
6873:
6730:
6688:
6645:
6623:
6565:
4002:. Plant Systematics and Evolution. Vol. 11. pp. 187–219.
3610:
3593:
3464:
3453:
3425:
3414:
2994:
1916:
1169:
1157:
1141:
1102:
1051:
940:
876:) which could be consider the trees of the sea. There are also the
756:
739:
667:
that grow in strong currents, or may be more rigid in species like
346:
94:
89:
74:
69:
59:
6163:
4061:"Molecular evolution of 5S ribosomal RNA from red and brown algae"
3507:
Brown algae growing in brackish waters are almost solely asexual.
7479:
6843:
6761:
3834:
3596:
in the amorphous sections of their cell walls. A few species (of
3473:
3460:
3442:
3402:
3390:
3382:
3366:
2967:
1844:
1210:
Based on the work of Silberfeld, Rousseau & de Reviers 2014.
1177:
928:
877:
775:, but can vary in shape among different species. Species such as
764:
588:
565:
526:
494:. They may consist of delicate felt-like strands of cells, as in
389:
354:
350:
206:
109:
84:
6232:
4773:
3575:
1129:
have also been compared to both brown and red algae. Fossils of
645:). In the most structurally differentiated brown algae (such as
6612:
3859:
3802:
3618:
3446:
3406:
1071:
1039:
997:
932:
903:
652:
597:
448:
4668:
Charrier, Bénédicte; Rabillé, Hervé; Billoud, Bernard (2019).
1038:
fossils are brown algae have since been dismissed. While many
375:
that contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is
7998:
5803:
Bold, Harold Charles; Wynne, Michael James (1 January 1985).
3755:
3720:
3668:
1163:
1060:
896:
799:
703:
694:
is most often applied to a single undivided structure, while
647:
593:
586:
Whatever their form, the body of all brown algae is termed a
514:
444:
410:
342:
337:. They include many seaweeds located in colder waters of the
327:
5773:
5736:
3992:
1155:
branches dichotomously into lobes and resembles genera like
1058:, from their resemblance in outline to species in the genus
5252:
spp. (Phaeophyta) as determined by ITS1 and ITS2 sequences"
3712:
3686:
3625:
760:
473:
364:
4888:"The eukaryotic tree of life: Endosymbiosis takes its TOL"
3667:. Alginic acid is used as a stable component of a battery
392:
of brown algae are known worldwide. Some species, such as
5844:
Plant Reproductive Ecology : Patterns and Strategies
4608:
4386:
956:
5990:
5888:
4387:
Bold, H. C.; Alexopoulos, C. J.; Delevoryas, T. (1987).
3432:, and can mature into the sporophyte phase immediately.
6294:
3227:
Peters & Clayton 1998 emend. Silberfeld et al. 2011
821:
occurs at each frond tip, where new cells are produced.
4732:
4667:
4560:
4168:
3624:
The photosynthetic system of brown algae is made of a
5889:
Dittami, SM; Heesch, S; Olsen, JL; Collén, J (2017).
5806:
Introduction to the algae: structure and reproduction
5507:
Paleoalgology: Contemporary Research and Applications
4957:
3643:
Brown algae produce a specific type of tannin called
3377:. Between generations, the algae go through separate
767:. These bladder-like structures occur in or near the
5953:
5246:
Coyer, J. A.; Smith, G. J.; Andersen, R. A. (2001).
5057:
4958:
van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. M. (1995).
4670:"Gazing at Cell Wall Expansion under a Golden Light"
4525:
4523:
4416:
Raven, P. H.; Evert, R. F.; Eichhorn, S. E. (2005).
4326:
Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
3698:, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects.
3636:
and carotenoids (the most widespread of those being
3504:
being a prominent exception to this generalisation.
935:) as well as non-photosynthetic groups (such as the
6338:
5140:. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company. pp.
4059:Lim, B.-L.; Kawai, H.; Hori, H.; Osawa, S. (1986).
6779:
5677:
5378:
5341:
5245:
5133:
5026:
4417:
4415:
4254:
2924:Rousseau et al. 2000 emend. Silberfeld et al. 2011
517:. The particular shade depends upon the amount of
6473:
5842:Lesley., Lovett-Doust, Jon and (1 January 1990).
5381:Life of the Past: An Introduction to Paleontology
4520:
4058:
521:present in the alga. Second, all brown algae are
8150:
7807:
6039:
4289:
4127:
3420:Certain species of brown algae can also perform
1191:. Several soft-bodied brown macroalgae, such as
860:. Besides fronds, there are the large in size
673:that are exposed to the atmosphere at low tide.
6430:University of California Museum of Paleontology
2906:Bessey 1907 emend. Rousseau & Reviers 1999a
2933:Greville 1830 emend. Peters & Ramírez 2001
1074:or fungal-like organism. Likewise, the fossil
7245:
6459:
6365:
5440:
5206:
5204:
4885:
4354:"A key to the genera of the British seaweeds"
4248:
4246:
3472:surface and then differentiates into a leafy
5984:
5874:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5712:
5583:
5461:
5333:
5102:
4818:
4585:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4220:
4216:
4214:
4212:
3988:
3986:
3365:Most brown algae, with the exception of the
6889:
6853:
5947:
5577:
5528:. Nobel Symposium. Vol. 84. New York:
5517:
5498:
5370:
5051:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4175:. Cambridge University Press. p. 166.
4123:
4121:
7075:
6466:
6452:
5771:
5536:
5306:
5304:
5302:
5201:
5105:The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
5096:
5020:
5018:
5016:
5014:
5012:
4243:
3558:−20.8‰ to −10.5‰
3548:−34.5‰ to −29.9‰
120:
7092:
6263:
6193:
6090:
6067:
6057:
5802:
5732:
5730:
5675:
5632:
5184:
5164:
4908:
4847:
4801:
4791:
4750:
4488:Phaeophyta: Morphology and Classification
4486:. In Lobban, C. S.; Wynne, M. J. (eds.).
4446:
4409:
4290:Abbott, I. A.; Hollenberg, G. J. (1976).
4209:
4145:
4078:
4054:
4052:
4050:
3983:
3568:−20.3‰ to −8.8‰
3424:through the production of motile diploid
2942:Agardh 1828 emend. Silberfeld et al. 2011
5669:
5467:
5339:
5310:
4879:
4373:
4312:
4283:
4118:
4105:
3536:−22.5‰ to −9.6‰
3478:
3351:
3343:
810:
712:
537:
6840:
5841:
5523:
5504:
5397:
5376:
5299:
5136:Phylogeny and Form in the Plant Kingdom
5131:
5125:
5009:
4953:
4951:
4345:
4257:Phylogeny and Form in the Plant Kingdom
4252:
3428:. These zoospores form in plurilocular
3288:Bessey 1907 emend. Phillips et al. 2008
3169:Silberfeld, Rousseau & Reviers 2014
2714:Draisma & Prud’homme van Reine 2001
2705:Draisma & Prud’homme van Reine 2008
2669:Silberfeld, Rousseau & Reviers 2014
2656:Silberfeld, Rousseau & Reviers 2014
2625:Silberfeld, Rousseau & Reviers 2014
2585:Silberfeld, Rousseau & Reviers 2014
914:
592:, indicating that it lacks the complex
14:
8174:Extant Late Jurassic first appearances
8151:
6609:
6439:National University of Ireland, Galway
5727:
5542:
5441:Speer, B. R.; Waggoner, B. M. (2000).
5210:
4986:
4886:Lane, C. E.; Archibald, J. M. (2008).
4529:
4490:. Botanical Monographs. Vol. 17.
4047:
3711:
3650:
1105:. Each hollow blade bears up to eight
848:
417:organisms that are distinguished from
7909:
7908:
6447:
5935:from the original on 26 February 2020
5638:
5584:Taylor, W. A.; Taylor, T. N. (1987).
5550:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
5407:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
5186:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040455
5103:Taylor, T. N.; Taylor, E. L. (1993).
4481:
4452:
4351:
4318:
3701:
3647:in higher amounts than red algae do.
2594:Schmidt 1937 emend. Kawai et al. 2007
1042:fossils have been described from the
560:connecting the blade to the holdfast.
533:
316:
8087:08628438-7c0c-4563-a032-0c5f9c78b5d4
6426:The Monterey Formation of California
5823:from the original on 16 October 2023
5784:from the original on 12 October 2009
5287:from the original on 16 October 2023
5273:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037001574.x
4948:
4649:from the original on 16 October 2023
4508:from the original on 16 October 2023
4197:from the original on 16 October 2023
4087:from the original on 10 January 2015
3706:
3592:and also contain the polysaccharide
2773:Draisma, Prud’homme & Kawai 2010
727:(air bladders) to increase buoyancy.
5772:Guiry, M. D.; Guiry, G. M. (2009).
5403:
5024:
4960:Algae: An Introduction to Phycology
4824:
4714:from the original on 8 January 2022
4172:Algae: an introduction to phycology
4035:from the original on 5 October 2013
3996:Origins of Algae and their Plastids
267:
24:
6145:from the original on 20 April 2017
5676:Bold, H. C.; Wynne, M. J. (1978).
4989:The Evolutionary Biology of Plants
4835:Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
996:The occurrence of Phaeophyceae as
951:of another unicellular eukaryote.
25:
8185:
6414:
4936:from the original on 20 June 2013
3678:Alginic acid can also be used in
1200:
895:; the outer wall layer is mainly
440:, but they reproduce by means of
6019:10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00026.x
5449:from the original on 9 June 2007
5082:10.1111/j.0022-3646.1991.00428.x
4867:from the original on 29 May 2013
4849:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x
4825:Adl, S. M.; et al. (2005).
4752:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03374.x
4108:Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien
3655:Brown algae include a number of
3189:Nakamura ex Lim & Kawai 2007
2960:Ardissone & Straforello 1877
2827:1964 emend. Moe & Henry 1982
144:
52:
6359:
6332:
6288:
6226:
6157:
6127:
6084:
6033:
5882:
5835:
5796:
5765:
5706:
5434:
5239:
5172:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5158:
4980:
4896:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
4767:
4726:
4661:
4602:
4593:
4561:Graham; Wilcox; Graham (2009).
4554:
4475:
4323:(L.) Ag. in Tasmanian waters".
4221:Connor, J.; Baxter, C. (1989).
3939:
1151:. The single known specimen of
556:at upper right, and a stemlike
6369:Archives of Pharmacal Research
5778:National University of Ireland
5751:10.7872/crya.v35.iss2.2014.117
5586:"Spore wall ultrastructure of
5214:An Introduction to Paleobotany
4492:University of California Press
4389:Morphology of Plants and Fungi
4162:
4099:
3632:. Their plastids also contain
13:
1:
5571:10.1016/S0034-6667(01)00058-6
4689:10.1016/j.tplants.2018.10.013
4627:10.1016/j.tplants.2012.03.003
4395:. pp. 112–131, 174–186.
3977:
3360:
458:
6298:Journal of Applied Phycology
5428:10.1016/0034-6667(83)90018-0
5165:Hori, H.; Osawa, S. (1987).
4066:Japanese Journal of Genetics
4008:10.1007/978-3-7091-6542-3_11
3510:
3435:In a representative species
3254:Mitchell & Whitting 1892
1205:
1113:(kelps). Several fossils of
723:produce numerous gas-filled
548:, each showing the rootlike
7:
8169:Tithonian first appearances
5846:. Oxford University Press.
5443:"Phaeophyta: Fossil Record"
4993:University of Chicago Press
4393:Harper & Row Publishers
3965:
3297:Griffith & Henfrey 1856
3129:Setchell & Gardner 1925
3093:Setchell & Gardner 1925
3075:Postels & Ruprecht 1840
2694:Lamouroux ex Dumortier 1822
2678:Bory de Saint-Vincent 1828
2567:in the class Phaeophyceae:
2552:
1125:from the Upper Devonian of
10:
8190:
5642:American Journal of Botany
5598:American Journal of Botany
5035:Cambridge University Press
4964:Cambridge University Press
4919:10.1016/j.tree.2008.02.004
4459:Cambridge University Press
4424:(7th ed.). New York:
4391:(5th ed.). New York:
4292:Marine Algae of California
3833:
3659:. All brown algae contain
3492:
3120:Bory de Saint-Vincent 1827
2971:Bory de Saint-Vincent 1827
2559:List of brown algal genera
2556:
991:
981:alternation of generations
563:
405:Brown algae belong to the
7917:
7887:
7871:
7747:
7729:
7716:
7712:
7689:
7656:
7643:
7639:
7581:
7554:
7527:
7450:
7417:
7399:
7381:
7372:
7345:
7327:
7304:
7284:
7277:
7273:
7238:
7216:
7193:
7155:
7132:
7112:
7105:
7088:
7071:
7032:
6999:
6971:
6933:
6920:
6902:
6885:
6836:
6752:
6716:
6687:
6678:
6631:
6622:
6605:
6489:
6381:10.1007/s12272-012-0812-5
6310:10.1007/s10811-013-0173-6
6256:10.1080/02757541003627738
5680:Introduction to the Algae
5530:Columbia University Press
4484:"The Biology of seaweeds"
4426:W. H. Freeman and Company
4296:Stanford University Press
4147:10.1016/j.cub.2011.05.006
3463:, sexual reproduction is
3441:, there is a conspicuous
3198:Tanaka & Chihara 1982
2419:
2404:
2397:
2364:
2349:
2342:
2327:
2320:
2313:
2298:
2291:
2273:
2266:
2215:
2200:
2193:
2178:
2171:
2156:
2149:
2116:
2101:
2094:
2079:
2072:
2065:
2055:
2022:
2007:
2000:
1990:
1983:
1914:
1899:
1892:
1877:
1870:
1855:
1848:
1830:
1823:
1790:
1775:
1768:
1753:
1746:
1736:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1683:
1668:
1661:
1654:
1639:
1632:
1617:
1610:
1529:
1514:
1507:
1492:
1485:
1470:
1463:
1448:
1441:
1423:
1416:
1401:
1394:
1379:
1372:
1362:
1329:
1314:
1307:
1297:
1290:
1257:
1242:
1235:
1225:
1218:
1119:and a single specimen of
806:
749:Gas-filled floats called
552:at lower left, a divided
281:
274:
264:
259:
141:Scientific classification
139:
128:
119:
36:
5723:: 273–295, plates 76–96.
5350:Houghton Mifflin Company
5340:Prescott, G. W. (1968).
5107:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
4110:. Vol. 1. Leipzig:
3158:Kuckuck ex Feldmann 1937
3102:Kawai & Ridgway 2013
388:Between 1,500 and 2,000
8164:Biological oceanography
6195:10.1126/science.1209150
6093:Photosynthesis Research
5377:Simpson, G. G. (1953).
5314:Journal of Paleontology
5132:Dittmer, H. J. (1964).
4677:Trends in Plant Science
4615:Trends in Plant Science
4263:D. Van Nostrand Company
4253:Dittmer, H. J. (1964).
3306:Kawai & Sasaki 2000
3138:Kawai & Kurogi 1985
3084:Kawai & Sasaki 2000
3007:(Kjellman) De Toni 1891
2989:(Oltmanns) De Toni 1891
323:) are a large group of
7383:Discosporangiophycidae
5739:Cryptogamie, Algologie
5211:Arnold, C. A. (1947).
4987:Niklas, K. J. (1997).
4319:Cribb, A. B. (1953). "
3950:Cladosiphon okamuranus
3872:Sargassum echinocarpum
3824:Mastocarpus papillatus
3779:Postelsia palmaeformis
3696:Sargassum siliquastrum
3685:Brown algae including
3489:
3357:
3349:
3245:Silberfeld et al. 2011
3236:Silberfeld et al. 2011
2915:Hamel ex Feldmann 1937
2895:(Thuret) Kjellman 1880
2859:Silberfeld et al. 2011
2582:Discosporangiophycidae
2563:This is a list of the
822:
728:
670:Postelsia palmaeformis
561:
427:symbiotic relationship
8108:Paleobiology Database
7347:Chrysoparadoxophyceae
6236:Chemistry and Ecology
5387:Yale University Press
4530:Sharma, O. P (1986).
4482:Wynne, M. J. (1981).
4453:Round, F. E. (1981).
4352:Jones, W. E. (1962).
4227:Monterey Bay Aquarium
3853:Pelvetia canaliculata
3787:Nereocystis luetkeana
3742:Durvillaea antarctica
3665:lithium-ion batteries
3482:
3355:
3347:
2557:Further information:
814:
778:Nereocystis luetkeana
716:
564:Further information:
541:
513:to various shades of
7799:Arachnoidiscophytina
7794:Rhizosloleniophytina
7762:Leptocylindrophyceae
7757:Leptocylindrophytina
7319:Pleurochloridellales
6651:Pseudodendromonadida
5260:Journal of Phycology
5217:. New York; London:
5111:. pp. 128–131.
5069:Journal of Phycology
5062:(Synurophyceae) and
5060:Mallomonas papillosa
4966:. pp. 165–218.
4455:The Ecology of Algae
4321:Macrocystis pyrifera
3927:Himanthalia elongata
3908:Sargassum myriocysum
3796:Saccharina latissima
3485:Saccharina latissima
3422:asexual reproduction
3207:Lim & Kawai 2007
3178:Phillips et al. 2008
3175:Phaeosiphoniellaceae
2082:Phaeosiphoniellaceae
1094:Phascolophyllaphycus
1002:convergent evolution
915:Evolutionary history
789:Macrocystis pyrifera
664:Macrocystis pyrifera
545:Laminaria hyperborea
485:Macrocystis pyrifera
132:Macrocystis pyrifera
7789:Coscinodiscophytina
7556:Schizocladiophyceae
7495:Phaeosiphoniellales
7306:Phaeothamniophyceae
7114:Olisthodiscophyceae
6904:Hyphochytriomycetes
6781:Labyrinthulomycetes
6248:2010ChEco..26..111G
6186:2011Sci...334...75K
6011:2004Gbio....2..107F
5563:2001RPaPa.116..123H
5532:. pp. 342–357.
5420:1983RPaPa..39..313F
5344:The Algae: A Review
5025:Lee, R. E. (2008).
4114:. pp. 176–192.
3864:Sargassum fusiforme
3815:Undaria undarioides
3807:Undaria pinnatifida
3761:Saccharina japonica
3651:Importance and uses
3628:complex containing
3574:Brown algae have a
3395:sexual reproduction
3371:sexual reproduction
3166:Phaeosiphoniellales
3149:Parente et al. 2008
2977:Bifurcariopsidaceae
2951:Racault et al. 2009
2815:Cavalier-Smith 1986
1197:, have been found.
1019:, have a number of
961:Phaeothamniophyceae
849:Tissue organization
763:and members of the
395:Ascophyllum nodosum
339:Northern Hemisphere
7774:Ellerbeckiophytina
7722:
7718:
7704:Sarcinochrysidales
7681:Rhizochromulinales
7649:
7645:
7529:Phaeosacciophyceae
7226:Pinguiochrysidales
7098:
7094:
7081:
7077:
6922:Peronosporomycetes
6895:
6891:
6846:
6842:
6615:
6611:
6421:Monterey Bay Flora
6168:(1 January 2011).
6105:10.1007/BF00035009
6059:10.3390/md19110620
5970:10.1007/BF00650320
5066:(Xanthophyceae)".
4793:10.1093/aob/mcu096
4563:Algae, 2nd Edition
4080:10.1266/jjg.61.169
3901:Sargassum swartzii
3850:Channelled wrack (
3770:Laminaria digitata
3702:Edible brown algae
3490:
3358:
3350:
2799:Syringodermataceae
2609:Discosporangiaceae
1260:Discosporangiaceae
1185:Monterey Formation
823:
818:Dictyota dichotoma
784:Pelagophycus porra
729:
570:Holdfast (biology)
562:
534:Visible structures
530:reddish to brown.
482:to the giant kelp
453:yellow-green algae
8146:
8145:
8095:Open Tree of Life
7911:Taxon identifiers
7902:
7901:
7867:
7866:
7863:
7862:
7859:
7858:
7855:
7854:
7851:
7850:
7847:
7846:
7843:
7842:
7839:
7838:
7835:
7834:
7827:Bacillariophyceae
7822:Biddulphiophyceae
7809:Bacillariophytina
7635:
7634:
7631:
7630:
7627:
7626:
7623:
7622:
7619:
7618:
7523:
7522:
7442:Syringodermatales
7419:Dictyochophycidae
7391:Discosporangiales
7355:Chrysoparadoxales
7329:Chrysomerophyceae
7234:
7233:
7185:Thallochrysidales
7134:Eustigmatophyceae
7067:
7066:
7063:
7062:
7059:
7058:
6832:
6831:
6828:
6827:
6824:
6823:
6768:Pseudophyllomitus
6748:
6747:
6744:
6743:
6341:Nature Geoscience
5991:Fletcher, B. J.;
5910:10.1111/jpy.12547
5809:. Prentice-Hall.
5699:978-0-13-477786-3
5513:. pp. 20–33.
5363:978-3-87429-244-3
5232:978-1-4067-1861-4
5151:978-0-88275-167-2
5118:978-0-13-651589-0
5064:Tribonema aequale
5044:978-0-521-63883-8
5002:978-0-226-58082-1
4973:978-0-521-31687-3
4547:978-0-07-451928-8
4533:Textbook of Algae
4501:978-0-520-04585-9
4468:978-0-521-26906-3
4439:978-0-7167-1007-3
4420:Biology of Plants
4402:978-0-06-040839-8
4339:10.1071/MF9540001
4305:978-0-8047-0867-8
4276:978-0-88275-167-2
4261:. Princeton, NJ:
4236:978-1-878244-01-7
4140:(15): R573–R575.
4112:Wilhelm Engelmann
4025:978-3-211-83035-2
3962:
3961:
3894:Sargassum vulgare
3887:Sargassum cinetum
3844:Fucus vesiculosus
3572:
3571:
3545:-using red algae
3334:
3325:
3316:
3307:
3298:
3289:
3278:
3269:
3255:
3246:
3237:
3228:
3217:
3208:
3199:
3190:
3179:
3170:
3159:
3150:
3139:
3130:
3121:
3112:
3103:
3094:
3085:
3076:
3067:
3053:
3044:
3035:
3026:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2990:
2981:
2972:
2961:
2952:
2943:
2934:
2925:
2916:
2907:
2896:
2887:
2878:
2860:
2851:
2837:
2828:
2816:
2803:
2794:
2790:Syringodermatales
2783:
2774:
2770:Sphacelodermaceae
2765:
2756:
2755:Kawai et al. 2005
2752:Phaeostrophiaceae
2747:
2738:
2729:
2715:
2706:
2695:
2686:
2670:
2657:
2648:
2639:
2626:
2613:
2604:
2600:Choristocarpaceae
2595:
2591:Discosporangiales
2586:
2577:
2549:
2548:
2540:
2539:
2531:
2530:
2522:
2521:
2513:
2512:
2504:
2503:
2495:
2494:
2486:
2485:
2477:
2476:
2468:
2467:
2459:
2458:
2450:
2449:
2441:
2440:
2432:
2431:
2386:
2385:
2377:
2376:
2255:
2254:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2236:
2228:
2227:
2138:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2044:
2043:
2035:
2034:
1972:
1971:
1963:
1962:
1954:
1953:
1945:
1944:
1936:
1935:
1927:
1926:
1812:
1811:
1803:
1802:
1696:
1695:
1596:
1595:
1587:
1586:
1578:
1577:
1569:
1568:
1560:
1559:
1551:
1550:
1542:
1541:
1473:Phaeostrophiaceae
1426:Syringodermatales
1351:
1350:
1342:
1341:
1279:
1278:
1270:
1269:
1245:Choristocarpaceae
1232:Discosporangiales
983:. Analysis of 5S
735:Egregia menziesii
720:Fucus vesiculosus
542:Two specimens of
310:
309:
304:
299:
290:
255:
16:(Redirected from
8181:
8139:
8138:
8126:
8125:
8116:
8115:
8103:
8102:
8090:
8089:
8080:
8079:
8067:
8066:
8054:
8053:
8041:
8040:
8028:
8027:
8015:
8014:
8002:
8001:
7989:
7988:
7976:
7975:
7966:
7965:
7953:
7952:
7951:
7938:
7937:
7936:
7906:
7905:
7805:
7804:
7779:Probosciophytina
7727:
7726:
7723:
7714:
7713:
7658:Dictyochophyceae
7654:
7653:
7650:
7641:
7640:
7601:Rhizochloridales
7379:
7378:
7286:Aurearenophyceae
7282:
7281:
7275:
7274:
7243:
7242:
7180:Rhizochrysidales
7147:Goniochloridales
7110:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7099:
7090:
7089:
7086:
7085:
7082:
7073:
7072:
7019:Salilagenidiales
6931:
6930:
6927:
6900:
6899:
6896:
6887:
6886:
6851:
6850:
6847:
6838:
6837:
6809:Thraustochytrida
6777:
6776:
6685:
6684:
6629:
6628:
6620:
6619:
6616:
6607:
6606:
6518:
6498:
6468:
6461:
6454:
6445:
6444:
6409:
6408:
6375:(8): 1421–1430.
6363:
6357:
6356:
6353:10.1038/ngeo2790
6336:
6330:
6329:
6304:(2): 1081–1088.
6292:
6286:
6285:
6267:
6230:
6224:
6223:
6197:
6161:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6150:
6131:
6125:
6124:
6088:
6082:
6081:
6071:
6061:
6037:
6031:
6030:
5988:
5982:
5981:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5940:
5934:
5895:
5886:
5880:
5879:
5873:
5865:
5839:
5833:
5832:
5830:
5828:
5800:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5789:
5769:
5763:
5762:
5734:
5725:
5724:
5710:
5704:
5703:
5684:(2nd ed.).
5683:
5673:
5667:
5666:
5636:
5630:
5629:
5628:on 17 June 2010.
5627:
5621:. Archived from
5594:
5581:
5575:
5574:
5540:
5534:
5533:
5521:
5515:
5514:
5502:
5496:
5495:
5478:(2/3): 277–290.
5465:
5459:
5458:
5456:
5454:
5438:
5432:
5431:
5414:(3–4): 313–341.
5401:
5395:
5394:
5384:
5374:
5368:
5367:
5347:
5337:
5331:
5330:
5308:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5256:
5243:
5237:
5236:
5208:
5199:
5198:
5188:
5162:
5156:
5155:
5139:
5129:
5123:
5122:
5100:
5094:
5093:
5055:
5049:
5048:
5033:(4th ed.).
5032:
5022:
5007:
5006:
4984:
4978:
4977:
4955:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4935:
4912:
4892:
4883:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4866:
4851:
4831:
4822:
4816:
4815:
4805:
4795:
4786:(6): 1203–1216.
4780:Annals of Botany
4771:
4765:
4764:
4754:
4730:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4719:
4713:
4674:
4665:
4659:
4658:
4656:
4654:
4606:
4600:
4597:
4591:
4590:
4584:
4576:
4558:
4552:
4551:
4538:Tata McGraw-Hill
4527:
4518:
4517:
4515:
4513:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4450:
4444:
4443:
4423:
4413:
4407:
4406:
4384:
4371:
4370:
4358:
4349:
4343:
4342:
4316:
4310:
4309:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4260:
4250:
4241:
4240:
4218:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4166:
4160:
4159:
4149:
4125:
4116:
4115:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4082:
4056:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4040:
4034:
4016:10013/epic.12690
4001:
3990:
3733:Alaria esculenta
3725:Eisenia bicyclis
3707:
3694:, an extract of
3692:Sargachromanol G
3578:
3515:
3514:
3332:
3323:
3314:
3305:
3296:
3287:
3276:
3264:
3253:
3244:
3235:
3233:Asteronemataceae
3226:
3215:
3206:
3197:
3188:
3177:
3168:
3157:
3148:
3137:
3135:Pseudochordaceae
3128:
3119:
3110:
3101:
3092:
3083:
3074:
3062:
3051:
3042:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2988:
2979:
2970:
2959:
2957:Scytosiphonaceae
2950:
2948:Petrospongiaceae
2941:
2932:
2923:
2914:
2912:Acinetosporaceae
2905:
2894:
2885:
2883:Arthrocladiaceae
2869:
2858:
2846:
2835:
2823:
2814:
2801:
2792:
2781:
2772:
2763:
2754:
2745:
2743:Lithodermataceae
2736:
2724:
2713:
2704:
2693:
2677:
2668:
2666:Dictyotophycidae
2655:
2653:Petrodermataceae
2646:
2633:
2624:
2611:
2602:
2593:
2584:
2575:
2407:Acinetosporaceae
2400:
2399:
2352:Petrospongiaceae
2345:
2344:
2330:Scytosiphonaceae
2323:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2294:
2293:
2269:
2268:
2196:
2195:
2174:
2173:
2152:
2151:
2119:Pseudochordaceae
2097:
2096:
2075:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2058:
2057:
2010:Asteronemataceae
2003:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1895:
1894:
1873:
1872:
1851:
1850:
1826:
1825:
1771:
1770:
1749:
1748:
1739:
1738:
1717:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1664:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1635:
1634:
1613:
1612:
1510:
1509:
1488:
1487:
1466:
1465:
1451:Lithodermataceae
1444:
1443:
1419:
1418:
1397:
1396:
1375:
1374:
1369:Dictyotophycidae
1365:
1364:
1332:Petrodermataceae
1310:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1238:
1237:
1228:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1214:
1213:
1183:deposits of the
858:pseudoparenchyma
357:. For instance,
318:
303:
294:
285:
250:
149:
148:
124:
114:
51:
40:Temporal range:
34:
33:
21:
8189:
8188:
8184:
8183:
8182:
8180:
8179:
8178:
8149:
8148:
8147:
8142:
8134:
8129:
8121:
8119:
8111:
8106:
8098:
8093:
8085:
8083:
8075:
8070:
8062:
8057:
8049:
8044:
8036:
8031:
8023:
8018:
8010:
8005:
7997:
7992:
7984:
7979:
7971:
7969:
7961:
7956:
7947:
7946:
7941:
7932:
7931:
7926:
7913:
7903:
7898:
7883:
7831:
7803:
7784:Melosirophytina
7767:Corethrophyceae
7743:
7717:
7708:
7699:Pelagomonadales
7685:
7666:Florenciellales
7644:
7615:
7577:
7564:Schizocladiales
7550:
7519:
7505:Scytothamniales
7446:
7413:
7401:Ishigeophycidae
7395:
7368:
7341:
7337:Chrysomeridales
7323:
7314:Phaeothamniales
7300:
7269:
7230:
7212:
7208:Chlamydomyxales
7189:
7151:
7128:
7093:
7076:
7055:
7028:
6995:
6967:
6963:Rozellopsidales
6958:Olpidiopsidales
6925:
6924:
6916:
6912:Hyphochytriales
6890:
6881:
6841:
6820:
6815:Stellarchytrium
6799:Oblongichytrida
6775:
6740:
6712:
6674:
6610:
6601:
6600:
6516:
6494:
6485:
6472:
6417:
6412:
6364:
6360:
6347:(10): 737–742.
6337:
6333:
6293:
6289:
6231:
6227:
6180:(6052): 75–79.
6162:
6158:
6148:
6146:
6133:
6132:
6128:
6089:
6085:
6038:
6034:
5993:Beerling, D. J.
5989:
5985:
5952:
5948:
5938:
5936:
5932:
5893:
5887:
5883:
5867:
5866:
5854:
5840:
5836:
5826:
5824:
5817:
5801:
5797:
5787:
5785:
5770:
5766:
5735:
5728:
5711:
5707:
5700:
5674:
5670:
5655:10.2307/2444080
5637:
5633:
5625:
5611:10.2307/2443819
5592:
5582:
5578:
5541:
5537:
5522:
5518:
5511:Springer-Verlag
5503:
5499:
5484:10.2307/1218707
5466:
5462:
5452:
5450:
5439:
5435:
5402:
5398:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5356:–231, 371–372.
5338:
5334:
5309:
5300:
5290:
5288:
5254:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5209:
5202:
5163:
5159:
5152:
5130:
5126:
5119:
5101:
5097:
5056:
5052:
5045:
5023:
5010:
5003:
4995:. p. 156.
4985:
4981:
4974:
4956:
4949:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4910:10.1.1.555.2930
4890:
4884:
4880:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4829:
4823:
4819:
4772:
4768:
4739:New Phytologist
4731:
4727:
4717:
4715:
4711:
4672:
4666:
4662:
4652:
4650:
4607:
4603:
4598:
4594:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4559:
4555:
4548:
4540:. p. 298.
4528:
4521:
4511:
4509:
4502:
4480:
4476:
4469:
4461:. p. 103.
4451:
4447:
4440:
4414:
4410:
4403:
4385:
4374:
4356:
4350:
4346:
4317:
4313:
4306:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4251:
4244:
4237:
4219:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4183:
4167:
4163:
4134:Current Biology
4126:
4119:
4104:
4100:
4090:
4088:
4057:
4048:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4026:
3999:
3991:
3984:
3980:
3972:Wrack (seaweed)
3968:
3963:
3944:
3934:
3838:
3717:
3704:
3657:edible seaweeds
3653:
3602:) calcify with
3576:
3544:
3529:
3513:
3495:
3363:
3330:Tilopteridaceae
3321:Stschapoviaceae
3303:Halosiphonaceae
3251:Splachnidiaceae
3155:Nemodermataceae
3081:Akkesiphycaceae
3052:Cho et al. 2006
3043:Nizamuddin 1987
3004:Himanthaliaceae
2980:Cho et al. 2006
2892:Desmarestiaceae
2856:Asterocladaceae
2836:Skottsberg 1907
2761:Sphacelariaceae
2734:Cladostephaceae
2622:Ishigeophycidae
2561:
2555:
2550:
2541:
2532:
2523:
2514:
2505:
2496:
2487:
2478:
2469:
2460:
2451:
2442:
2433:
2387:
2378:
2256:
2247:
2238:
2229:
2139:
2130:
2104:Akkesiphycaceae
2045:
2036:
2025:Splachnidiaceae
1973:
1964:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1902:Himanthaliaceae
1813:
1804:
1778:Tilopteridaceae
1697:
1597:
1588:
1579:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1543:
1532:Sphacelariaceae
1517:Cladostephaceae
1352:
1343:
1280:
1271:
1208:
1203:
1054:fossils termed
994:
917:
909:actinobacterium
851:
809:
602:vascular plants
584:
536:
461:
400:carbon fixation
330:comprising the
249:
143:
115:
113:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
46:
45:
38:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8187:
8177:
8176:
8171:
8166:
8161:
8144:
8143:
8141:
8140:
8127:
8117:
8104:
8091:
8081:
8068:
8055:
8042:
8029:
8016:
8003:
7990:
7977:
7967:
7954:
7939:
7923:
7921:
7915:
7914:
7900:
7899:
7897:
7896:
7888:
7885:
7884:
7877:
7875:
7873:Incertae sedis
7869:
7868:
7865:
7864:
7861:
7860:
7857:
7856:
7853:
7852:
7849:
7848:
7845:
7844:
7841:
7840:
7837:
7836:
7833:
7832:
7830:
7829:
7824:
7819:
7813:
7811:
7802:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7781:
7776:
7771:
7770:
7769:
7764:
7753:
7751:
7745:
7744:
7742:
7741:
7735:
7733:
7724:
7710:
7709:
7707:
7706:
7701:
7695:
7693:
7687:
7686:
7684:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7662:
7660:
7651:
7637:
7636:
7633:
7632:
7629:
7628:
7625:
7624:
7621:
7620:
7617:
7616:
7614:
7613:
7608:
7606:Tribonematales
7603:
7598:
7596:Mischococcales
7593:
7587:
7585:
7579:
7578:
7576:
7575:
7574:
7573:
7560:
7558:
7552:
7551:
7549:
7548:
7547:
7546:
7537:Phaeosacciales
7533:
7531:
7525:
7524:
7521:
7520:
7518:
7517:
7515:Tilopteridales
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7470:Desmarestiales
7467:
7465:Asterocladales
7462:
7456:
7454:
7448:
7447:
7445:
7444:
7439:
7437:Sphacelariales
7434:
7429:
7423:
7421:
7415:
7414:
7412:
7411:
7405:
7403:
7397:
7396:
7394:
7393:
7387:
7385:
7376:
7370:
7369:
7367:
7366:
7365:
7364:
7361:Chrysoparadoxa
7351:
7349:
7343:
7342:
7340:
7339:
7333:
7331:
7325:
7324:
7322:
7321:
7316:
7310:
7308:
7302:
7301:
7299:
7298:
7290:
7288:
7279:
7271:
7270:
7268:
7267:
7262:
7257:
7255:Chattonellales
7251:
7249:
7247:Raphidomonadea
7240:
7236:
7235:
7232:
7231:
7229:
7228:
7222:
7220:
7218:Pinguiophyceae
7214:
7213:
7211:
7210:
7205:
7199:
7197:
7191:
7190:
7188:
7187:
7182:
7177:
7172:
7167:
7161:
7159:
7153:
7152:
7150:
7149:
7144:
7138:
7136:
7130:
7129:
7127:
7126:
7118:
7116:
7107:
7100:
7083:
7069:
7068:
7065:
7064:
7061:
7060:
7057:
7056:
7054:
7053:
7046:
7043:Diatomophthora
7038:
7036:
7034:incertae sedis
7030:
7029:
7027:
7026:
7024:Saprolegniales
7021:
7016:
7011:
7005:
7003:
7001:Saprolegniidae
6997:
6996:
6994:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6981:Peronosporales
6977:
6975:
6973:Peronosporidae
6969:
6968:
6966:
6965:
6960:
6955:
6953:Lagenismatales
6950:
6948:Haptoglossales
6945:
6943:Anisolpidiales
6939:
6937:
6928:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6914:
6908:
6906:
6897:
6883:
6882:
6880:
6879:
6878:
6877:
6865:
6859:
6857:
6848:
6834:
6833:
6830:
6829:
6826:
6825:
6822:
6821:
6819:
6818:
6811:
6806:
6804:Labyrinthulida
6801:
6796:
6791:
6785:
6783:
6774:
6773:
6772:
6771:
6758:
6756:
6750:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6739:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6726:Proteromonadea
6722:
6720:
6714:
6713:
6711:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6694:
6692:
6682:
6676:
6675:
6673:
6672:
6665:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6637:
6635:
6626:
6617:
6603:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6597:
6596:
6595:
6594:
6591:Mesomycetozoea
6588:
6583:
6573:
6563:
6562:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6540:
6539:
6527:Diaphoretickes
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6491:
6490:
6487:
6486:
6471:
6470:
6463:
6456:
6448:
6442:
6441:
6432:
6423:
6416:
6415:External links
6413:
6411:
6410:
6358:
6331:
6287:
6242:(2): 111–121.
6225:
6156:
6135:"Alginic acid"
6126:
6099:(2): 181–193.
6083:
6032:
6005:(2): 107–119.
5983:
5946:
5904:(4): 731–745.
5881:
5852:
5834:
5815:
5795:
5764:
5745:(2): 117–156.
5726:
5705:
5698:
5668:
5649:(3): 369–375.
5631:
5605:(3): 437–443.
5576:
5557:(1): 123–158.
5547:Dawson 1859".
5535:
5516:
5497:
5460:
5433:
5396:
5369:
5362:
5332:
5298:
5267:(4): 574–585.
5248:"Evolution of
5238:
5231:
5200:
5179:(5): 445–472.
5157:
5150:
5124:
5117:
5095:
5076:(3): 428–436.
5050:
5043:
5008:
5001:
4979:
4972:
4947:
4903:(5): 268–275.
4878:
4842:(5): 399–451.
4817:
4766:
4725:
4683:(2): 130–141.
4660:
4621:(8): 468–477.
4601:
4592:
4571:
4553:
4546:
4519:
4500:
4494:. p. 52.
4474:
4467:
4445:
4438:
4408:
4401:
4372:
4344:
4311:
4304:
4294:. California:
4282:
4275:
4242:
4235:
4208:
4181:
4161:
4117:
4098:
4073:(2): 169–176.
4046:
4024:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3974:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3954:
3943:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3931:
3922:
3918:Fucus spiralis
3915:Spiral wrack (
3913:
3912:
3911:
3904:
3897:
3890:
3876:
3867:
3857:
3848:
3841:Bladderwrack (
3837:
3832:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3819:
3810:
3800:
3791:
3782:
3774:
3765:
3753:
3746:
3737:
3728:
3716:
3715:(Laminariales)
3710:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3673:polysaccharide
3652:
3649:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3521:δC range
3519:
3512:
3509:
3494:
3491:
3375:sporic meiosis
3362:
3359:
3342:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3326:
3317:
3308:
3299:
3285:Tilopteridales
3281:
3280:
3279:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3247:
3242:Bachelotiaceae
3238:
3224:Scytothamnales
3220:
3219:
3218:
3209:
3204:Neoralfsiaceae
3200:
3182:
3181:
3180:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3146:Nemodermatales
3142:
3141:
3140:
3131:
3122:
3113:
3111:Dumortier 1822
3104:
3099:Aureophycaceae
3095:
3086:
3077:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3049:Xiphophoraceae
3045:
3040:Seirococcaceae
3036:
3027:
3018:
3009:
3000:
2991:
2986:Durvillaeaceae
2982:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2953:
2944:
2935:
2926:
2921:Adenocystaceae
2917:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2888:
2867:Desmarestiales
2863:
2862:
2861:
2844:Asterocladales
2840:
2839:
2838:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2779:Stypocaulaceae
2775:
2766:
2757:
2748:
2739:
2722:Sphacelariales
2718:
2717:
2716:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2649:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2605:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2403:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2326:
2321:
2319:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2301:Adenocystaceae
2297:
2292:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2280:
2279:
2276:Asterocladales
2272:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2199:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2155:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2006:
2001:
1999:
1997:Scytothamnales
1991:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1898:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1880:Durvillaeaceae
1876:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1854:
1849:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1833:Nemodermatales
1829:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1789:
1786:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1752:
1747:
1745:
1743:Tilopteridales
1737:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1667:
1662:
1660:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1642:Desmarestiales
1638:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1620:Bachelotiaceae
1616:
1611:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1498:
1495:Stypocaulaceae
1491:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1447:
1442:
1440:
1438:Sphacelariales
1434:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1313:
1308:
1306:
1298:
1296:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1226:
1224:
1219:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1201:Classification
1199:
993:
990:
925:photosynthetic
916:
913:
850:
847:
808:
805:
578:Lamina (algae)
574:Stipe (botany)
535:
532:
460:
457:
435:differentiated
345:are the major
308:
307:
306:
305:
300:
293:Melanophyceae
291:
279:
278:
272:
271:
268:classification
262:
261:
257:
256:
244:
240:
239:
234:
230:
229:
224:
220:
219:
214:
210:
209:
204:
200:
199:
194:
187:
186:
181:
174:
173:
171:Diaphoretickes
168:
161:
160:
155:
151:
150:
137:
136:
126:
125:
117:
116:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
39:
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8186:
8175:
8172:
8170:
8167:
8165:
8162:
8160:
8157:
8156:
8154:
8137:
8132:
8128:
8124:
8118:
8114:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8096:
8092:
8088:
8082:
8078:
8073:
8069:
8065:
8060:
8056:
8052:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8034:
8030:
8026:
8021:
8017:
8013:
8008:
8004:
8000:
7995:
7991:
7987:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7968:
7964:
7959:
7955:
7950:
7944:
7940:
7935:
7929:
7925:
7924:
7922:
7920:
7916:
7912:
7907:
7894:
7890:
7889:
7886:
7882:
7881:
7876:
7874:
7870:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7814:
7812:
7810:
7806:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7775:
7772:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7759:
7758:
7755:
7754:
7752:
7750:
7746:
7740:
7737:
7736:
7734:
7732:
7731:Bolidophyceae
7728:
7725:
7721:
7715:
7711:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7696:
7694:
7692:
7691:Pelagophyceae
7688:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7672:
7669:
7667:
7664:
7663:
7661:
7659:
7655:
7652:
7648:
7642:
7638:
7612:
7609:
7607:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7589:
7588:
7586:
7584:
7583:Xanthophyceae
7580:
7572:
7571:
7567:
7566:
7565:
7562:
7561:
7559:
7557:
7553:
7545:
7544:
7540:
7539:
7538:
7535:
7534:
7532:
7530:
7526:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7490:Neodermatales
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7457:
7455:
7453:
7449:
7443:
7440:
7438:
7435:
7433:
7430:
7428:
7425:
7424:
7422:
7420:
7416:
7410:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7402:
7398:
7392:
7389:
7388:
7386:
7384:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7371:
7363:
7362:
7358:
7357:
7356:
7353:
7352:
7350:
7348:
7344:
7338:
7335:
7334:
7332:
7330:
7326:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7311:
7309:
7307:
7303:
7297:
7296:
7292:
7291:
7289:
7287:
7283:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7266:
7263:
7261:
7260:Actinophryida
7258:
7256:
7253:
7252:
7250:
7248:
7244:
7241:
7237:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7221:
7219:
7215:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7200:
7198:
7196:
7192:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7168:
7166:
7165:Chromulinales
7163:
7162:
7160:
7158:
7157:Chrysophyceae
7154:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7142:Eustigmatales
7140:
7139:
7137:
7135:
7131:
7125:
7124:
7123:Olisthodiscus
7120:
7119:
7117:
7115:
7111:
7108:
7104:
7101:
7097:
7091:
7087:
7084:
7080:
7074:
7070:
7052:
7051:
7047:
7045:
7044:
7040:
7039:
7037:
7035:
7031:
7025:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7002:
6998:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6978:
6976:
6974:
6970:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6940:
6938:
6936:
6932:
6929:
6923:
6919:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6901:
6898:
6894:
6888:
6884:
6876:
6875:
6871:
6870:
6869:
6866:
6864:
6861:
6860:
6858:
6856:
6852:
6849:
6845:
6839:
6835:
6817:
6816:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6790:
6787:
6786:
6784:
6782:
6778:
6770:
6769:
6765:
6764:
6763:
6760:
6759:
6757:
6755:
6751:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6723:
6721:
6719:
6715:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6677:
6671:
6670:
6666:
6664:
6663:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6638:
6636:
6634:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6621:
6618:
6614:
6608:
6604:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6578:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6568:
6567:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6554:Stramenopiles
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6538:
6535:
6534:
6533:
6530:
6529:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6517:(major groups
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6497:
6493:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6483:Stramenopiles
6480:
6476:
6469:
6464:
6462:
6457:
6455:
6450:
6449:
6446:
6440:
6436:
6433:
6431:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6418:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6362:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6335:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6291:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6229:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6160:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6130:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6087:
6079:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6036:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5999:
5994:
5987:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5958:
5950:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5892:
5885:
5877:
5871:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5853:9780198021926
5849:
5845:
5838:
5822:
5818:
5816:9780134777467
5812:
5808:
5807:
5799:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5768:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5733:
5731:
5722:
5718:
5717:
5716:Nova Hedwigia
5709:
5701:
5695:
5691:
5687:
5686:Prentice-Hall
5682:
5681:
5672:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5643:
5635:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5599:
5591:
5589:
5588:Protosalvinia
5580:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5539:
5531:
5527:
5526:Life on Earth
5520:
5512:
5508:
5501:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5472:
5464:
5448:
5444:
5437:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5408:
5400:
5392:
5388:
5385:. New Haven:
5383:
5382:
5373:
5365:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5346:
5345:
5336:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5315:
5307:
5305:
5303:
5286:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5261:
5253:
5251:
5242:
5234:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5216:
5215:
5207:
5205:
5196:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5173:
5168:
5161:
5153:
5147:
5143:
5138:
5137:
5128:
5120:
5114:
5110:
5109:Prentice Hall
5106:
5099:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5070:
5065:
5061:
5054:
5046:
5040:
5036:
5031:
5030:
5021:
5019:
5017:
5015:
5013:
5004:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4983:
4975:
4969:
4965:
4962:. Cambridge:
4961:
4954:
4952:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4897:
4889:
4882:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4836:
4828:
4821:
4813:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4770:
4762:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4729:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4671:
4664:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4605:
4596:
4588:
4582:
4574:
4572:9780321603128
4568:
4564:
4557:
4549:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4534:
4526:
4524:
4507:
4503:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4478:
4470:
4464:
4460:
4457:. Cambridge:
4456:
4449:
4441:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4422:
4421:
4412:
4404:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4362:Field Studies
4355:
4348:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4322:
4315:
4307:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4278:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4259:
4258:
4249:
4247:
4238:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4215:
4213:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4182:9780521316873
4178:
4174:
4173:
4165:
4157:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4130:"Brown algae"
4124:
4122:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4067:
4062:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4031:
4027:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
3998:
3997:
3989:
3987:
3982:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3946:
3945:
3942:
3937:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3923:
3920:
3919:
3914:
3910:
3909:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3891:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3783:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3750:Ecklonia cava
3747:
3744:
3743:
3738:
3735:
3734:
3730:Badderlocks (
3729:
3726:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3714:
3709:
3708:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3681:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3648:
3646:
3645:phlorotannins
3641:
3639:
3635:
3634:chlorophyll c
3631:
3630:chlorophyll a
3627:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3580:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3533:
3525:
3524:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3487:
3486:
3481:
3477:
3475:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3459:In the order
3457:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3439:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3354:
3346:
3333:Kjellman 1890
3331:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3313:
3312:Phyllariaceae
3309:
3304:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3277:Greville 1830
3275:
3274:Sporochnaceae
3271:
3270:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3214:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3195:Mesosporaceae
3192:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3172:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3117:Laminariaceae
3114:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3091:
3087:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3068:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3013:Hormosiraceae
3010:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2940:
2939:Ectocarpaceae
2936:
2931:
2930:Chordariaceae
2927:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2893:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2833:Ascoseiraceae
2830:
2829:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2800:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2782:Oltmanns 1922
2780:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2764:Decaisne 1842
2762:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2737:Oltmanns 1922
2735:
2731:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2610:
2606:
2603:Kjellman 1891
2601:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2576:Hansgirg 1886
2574:
2570:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2560:
2545:
2544:
2536:
2535:
2527:
2526:
2518:
2517:
2509:
2508:
2500:
2499:
2491:
2490:
2482:
2481:
2473:
2472:
2464:
2463:
2455:
2454:
2446:
2445:
2437:
2436:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:Chordariaceae
2417:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2367:Ectocarpaceae
2362:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2251:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2233:
2232:
2224:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2218:Laminariaceae
2213:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2134:
2133:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2040:
2039:
2031:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1968:
1967:
1959:
1958:
1950:
1949:
1941:
1940:
1932:
1931:
1923:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1808:
1807:
1799:
1798:
1795:
1794:
1793:Phyllariaceae
1788:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1592:
1591:
1583:
1582:
1574:
1573:
1565:
1564:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1546:
1538:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1388:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1347:
1346:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1275:
1274:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1198:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1123:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1108:
1107:pneumatocysts
1104:
1100:
1099:Carboniferous
1096:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1077:Protosalvinia
1073:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1003:
999:
989:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
969:Chrysophyceae
966:
965:Xanthophyceae
962:
958:
952:
950:
949:endosymbiosis
946:
945:heterotrophic
942:
938:
934:
931:(such as the
930:
927:members with
926:
922:
912:
910:
905:
902:
898:
894:
890:
885:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
854:
846:
844:
843:
837:
832:
830:
829:
820:
819:
813:
804:
802:
801:
796:
795:
790:
786:
785:
780:
779:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:
752:pneumatocysts
747:
745:
741:
737:
736:
726:
725:pneumatocysts
722:
721:
717:Species like
715:
711:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
684:
679:
674:
672:
671:
666:
665:
660:
659:
654:
650:
649:
644:
643:
638:
637:
632:
631:
626:
625:
619:
616:
612:
611:
605:
603:
599:
595:
591:
590:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
559:
555:
551:
547:
546:
540:
531:
528:
524:
523:multicellular
520:
516:
512:
507:
505:
504:
499:
498:
493:
492:
487:
486:
481:
480:
475:
472:and leathery
471:
466:
456:
454:
450:
446:
443:
439:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
407:Stramenopiles
403:
401:
397:
396:
391:
386:
384:
380:
379:
374:
370:
367:of the order
366:
362:
361:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
333:
329:
326:
325:multicellular
322:
314:
301:
297:
292:
288:
283:
282:
280:
277:
273:
270:
269:
263:
258:
253:
248:
245:
242:
241:
238:
235:
232:
231:
228:
225:
223:Infraphylum:
222:
221:
218:
215:
212:
211:
208:
205:
202:
201:
198:
197:Stramenopiles
195:
192:
189:
188:
185:
182:
179:
176:
175:
172:
169:
166:
163:
162:
159:
156:
153:
152:
147:
142:
138:
134:
133:
127:
123:
118:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
50:
43:
42:Late Jurassic
35:
32:
27:
19:
7949:Phaeophyceae
7919:Phaeophyceae
7918:
7893:paraphyletic
7878:
7872:
7817:Mediophyceae
7676:Pedinellales
7671:Dictyochales
7611:Vaucheriales
7570:Schizocladia
7568:
7543:Phaeosaccion
7541:
7510:Sporochnales
7485:Laminariales
7475:Ectocarpales
7460:Ascoseirales
7452:Fucophycidae
7374:Phaeophyceae
7359:
7293:
7203:Synchromales
7170:Hibberdiales
7121:
7048:
7041:
7033:
7014:Leptomitales
6872:
6855:Bigyromonada
6813:
6789:Amphitremida
6766:
6736:Blastocystea
6708:Opalomonadea
6667:
6660:
6576:Opisthokonta
6435:Phaeophyceae
6372:
6368:
6361:
6344:
6340:
6334:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6239:
6235:
6228:
6177:
6173:
6166:Yushin, Gleb
6159:
6147:. Retrieved
6138:
6129:
6096:
6092:
6086:
6049:
6046:Marine Drugs
6045:
6035:
6002:
5996:
5986:
5961:
5955:
5949:
5937:. Retrieved
5901:
5897:
5884:
5843:
5837:
5825:. Retrieved
5805:
5798:
5786:. Retrieved
5767:
5742:
5738:
5720:
5714:
5708:
5679:
5671:
5646:
5640:
5634:
5623:the original
5602:
5596:
5587:
5579:
5554:
5548:
5545:Prototaxites
5544:
5538:
5525:
5519:
5506:
5500:
5475:
5469:
5463:
5451:. Retrieved
5436:
5411:
5405:
5399:
5380:
5372:
5343:
5335:
5321:(1): 37–44.
5318:
5312:
5289:. Retrieved
5264:
5258:
5249:
5241:
5213:
5176:
5170:
5160:
5135:
5127:
5104:
5098:
5073:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5053:
5028:
4988:
4982:
4959:
4938:. Retrieved
4900:
4894:
4881:
4869:. Retrieved
4839:
4833:
4820:
4783:
4779:
4769:
4745:(1): 82–97.
4742:
4738:
4728:
4718:17 September
4716:. Retrieved
4680:
4676:
4663:
4651:. Retrieved
4618:
4614:
4604:
4595:
4562:
4556:
4532:
4510:. Retrieved
4487:
4477:
4454:
4448:
4419:
4411:
4388:
4366:
4360:
4347:
4330:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4291:
4285:
4256:
4223:Kelp Forests
4222:
4199:. Retrieved
4171:
4164:
4137:
4133:
4107:
4101:
4089:. Retrieved
4070:
4064:
4037:. Retrieved
3995:
3956:
3948:
3941:Ectocarpales
3933:
3925:
3916:
3906:
3899:
3892:
3885:
3878:
3870:
3863:
3851:
3842:
3822:
3821:Grapestone (
3813:
3806:
3794:
3793:Sugar kelp (
3785:
3777:
3768:
3759:
3748:
3740:
3731:
3724:
3684:
3677:
3661:alginic acid
3654:
3642:
3623:
3608:
3597:
3590:alginic acid
3583:
3573:
3553:
3518:Algal group
3506:
3499:
3496:
3483:
3469:conceptacles
3458:
3436:
3434:
3419:
3399:gametophytes
3364:
3294:Cutleriaceae
3262:Sporochnales
3126:Lessoniaceae
3060:Laminariales
3034:Kützing 1843
3031:Sargassaceae
3025:Schmidt 1938
3016:Fritsch 1945
2998:Adanson 1763
2903:Ectocarpales
2886:Chauvin 1842
2848:T.Silberfeld
2821:Ascoseirales
2812:Fucophycidae
2711:Onslowiaceae
2691:Dictyotaceae
2683:
2679:
2647:Okamura 1935
2612:Schmidt 1937
2573:Phaeophyceae
2572:
2562:
2420:
2405:
2365:
2350:
2328:
2299:
2288:Ectocarpales
2274:
2216:
2201:
2179:
2157:
2117:
2102:
2080:
2062:Laminariales
2023:
2008:
1915:
1900:
1878:
1858:Sargassaceae
1856:
1831:
1791:
1776:
1756:Cutleriaceae
1754:
1722:
1686:Ascoseirales
1684:
1671:Sporochnales
1669:
1640:
1618:
1607:Fucophycidae
1530:
1515:
1493:
1471:
1449:
1424:
1402:
1380:
1330:
1315:
1258:
1243:
1209:
1194:Julescraneia
1192:
1175:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1153:Hungerfordia
1152:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1130:
1122:Hungerfordia
1120:
1114:
1111:Laminariales
1092:
1087:A number of
1086:
1075:
1067:Prototaxites
1065:
1059:
1055:
1040:carbonaceous
1025:
1006:
995:
953:
918:
886:
855:
852:
840:
835:
833:
826:
824:
816:
798:
792:
788:
782:
776:
768:
750:
748:
742:or to deter
733:
730:
724:
718:
707:
699:
695:
691:
687:
681:
677:
675:
668:
662:
656:
646:
640:
634:
628:
622:
620:
614:
608:
606:
587:
585:
582:Pneumatocyst
557:
553:
549:
543:
508:
501:
495:
489:
483:
477:
462:
423:chloroplasts
419:green plants
404:
393:
387:
383:Sargasso Sea
376:
373:kelp forests
369:Laminariales
358:
335:Phaeophyceae
334:
320:
312:
311:
284:Fucophyceae
265:
247:Phaeophyceae
246:
233:Superclass:
217:Ochrophytina
190:
177:
164:
130:
129:Giant kelp (
31:
26:
8159:Brown algae
8033:iNaturalist
7943:Wikispecies
7880:Platysulcus
7591:Botrydiales
7432:Onslowiales
7427:Dictyotales
7009:Albuginales
6991:Rhipidiales
6926:(Oomycetes)
6893:Pseudofungi
6868:Pirsoniales
6794:Amphifilida
6703:Nanomonadea
6633:Bicosoecida
6265:11566/39838
6139:www.fao.org
6052:(11): 620.
5788:31 December
5774:"AlgaeBase"
5389:. pp.
5352:. pp.
5250:Macrocystis
5219:McGraw-Hill
4991:. Chicago:
4653:13 November
4565:. Pearson.
4432:–321, 347.
4428:. pp.
4333:(1): 1–34.
4265:. pp.
3924:Thongweed (
3869:Limu Kala (
3862:or Hiziki (
3739:Cochayuyo (
3680:aquaculture
3638:fucoxanthin
3588:walls with
3564:Green algae
3554:Brown algae
3488:on a beach.
3411:anisogamous
3387:gametophyte
3315:Tilden 1935
3216:Farlow 1881
3213:Ralfsiaceae
3022:Notheiaceae
2850:et al. 2011
2702:Onslowiales
2675:Dictyotales
2644:Ishigeaceae
1404:Dictyotales
1382:Onslowiales
1317:Ishigeaceae
1044:Precambrian
1017:green algae
973:green algae
941:water molds
921:heterokonts
882:Dictyotales
866:meristoderm
836:apical cell
828:Macrocystis
773:ellipsoidal
690:. The name
658:Nereocystis
642:Macrocystis
519:fucoxanthin
511:olive green
442:flagellated
431:fucoxanthin
360:Macrocystis
313:Brown algae
302:Phaeophyta
213:Subphylum:
47:150–0
44:to present
37:Brown algae
8153:Categories
7647:Diatomista
7500:Ralfsiales
7409:Ishigeales
7265:Commatiida
7195:Picophagea
7175:Hydrurales
7079:Ochrophyta
6698:Placididea
6680:Placidozoa
5998:Geobiology
5964:(4): 481.
5688:. p.
5509:. Berlin:
5348:. Boston:
5221:. p.
4369:(4): 1–32.
3978:References
3784:Sea whip (
3584:They have
3450:sporangium
3447:unilocular
3430:sporangium
3379:sporophyte
3369:, perform
3361:Life cycle
3324:Kawai 2004
3186:Ralfsiales
3108:Chordaceae
3090:Alariaceae
2802:Henry 1984
2793:Henry 1984
2746:Hauck 1883
2634:Cho &
2631:Ishigeales
2181:Alariaceae
2159:Chordaceae
1724:Ralfsiales
1304:Ishigeales
1189:California
1101:strata in
1082:land plant
1030:, but the
1028:Ordovician
1021:calcareous
937:slime nets
862:parenchyma
842:Ectocarpus
815:Growth in
744:herbivores
497:Ectocarpus
459:Morphology
421:by having
415:eukaryotic
296:Rabenhorst
18:Brown alga
7958:AlgaeBase
7749:Diatomeae
7295:Aurearena
7096:Chrysista
6986:Pythiales
6863:Developea
6754:Sagenista
6718:Opalinata
6641:Bicoecida
6571:Amoebozoa
6549:Alveolata
6537:Cryptista
6512:Eukaryota
6475:Eukaryota
6389:0253-6269
6318:0921-8971
6274:0275-7540
5957:Oecologia
5870:cite book
5862:437173314
5291:27 August
5029:Phycology
4940:27 August
4905:CiteSeerX
4871:27 August
4635:1360-1385
4581:cite book
4191:443576944
4091:27 August
4039:27 August
3880:Sargassum
3776:Sea palm
3767:Oarweed (
3615:laminarin
3606:needles.
3604:aragonite
3586:cellulose
3532:red algae
3511:Chemistry
3501:Sargassum
3454:zoospores
3438:Laminaria
3426:zoospores
3403:isogamous
3266:Sauvageau
3072:Agaraceae
2810:Subclass
2682:Phillips
2664:Subclass
2620:Subclass
2580:Subclass
2203:Agaraceae
1206:Phylogeny
1181:diatomite
1148:Gigartina
1136:Laminaria
1089:Paleozoic
1048:form taxa
1036:Ediacaran
1032:taxonomic
1013:red algae
977:red algae
967:, or the
901:sulphated
893:cellulose
889:cell wall
794:Sargassum
740:epiphytes
704:rockweeds
636:Sargassum
630:Laminaria
615:substrate
491:Sargassum
479:Postelsia
470:rockweeds
378:Sargassum
227:Chrysista
158:Eukaryota
7970:BioLib:
7928:Wikidata
7739:Parmales
7720:Khakista
7050:Miracula
6874:Pirsonia
6731:Opalinea
6689:Wobblata
6656:Borokida
6646:Anoecida
6624:Opalozoa
6566:Amorphea
6544:Rhizaria
6532:Hacrobia
6522:Excavata
6507:Bacteria
6405:39748571
6397:22941485
6326:14492051
6282:86175912
6212:21903777
6204:23059304
6149:20 April
6143:Archived
6113:24421060
6078:34822491
6027:85079041
5930:Archived
5926:43325392
5918:28509401
5898:J Phycol
5821:Archived
5782:Archived
5759:86227768
5453:24 April
5447:Archived
5285:Archived
5281:84074495
5090:84693030
4931:Archived
4927:18378040
4862:Archived
4858:16248873
4812:24875633
4761:20618907
4709:Archived
4705:53725259
4697:30472067
4647:Archived
4643:22513108
4506:Archived
4201:26 April
4195:Archived
4156:21820616
4085:Archived
4030:Archived
3966:See also
3947:Mozuku (
3812:Hirome (
3611:mannitol
3594:fucoidan
3465:oogamous
3417:itself.
3415:oogonium
3407:oogamous
3373:through
2995:Fucaceae
2871:Setchell
2553:Taxonomy
1917:Fucaceae
1170:Dictyota
1158:Chondrus
1142:Porphyra
1131:Drydenia
1127:New York
1116:Drydenia
1103:Illinois
1052:Devonian
929:plastids
759:in many
757:buoyancy
755:provide
610:holdfast
550:holdfast
527:seaweeds
347:seaweeds
341:. Brown
276:Synonyms
252:Kjellman
237:Fucistia
203:Phylum:
154:Domain:
8025:7073593
7934:Q184573
7480:Fucales
6935:Eogamia
6844:Gyrista
6762:Eogyrea
6669:Cantina
6581:Animals
6502:Archaea
6244:Bibcode
6220:6523029
6182:Bibcode
6174:Science
6121:7160955
6069:8623139
6007:Bibcode
5978:4220100
5663:2444080
5619:2443819
5559:Bibcode
5492:1218707
5416:Bibcode
5391:158–159
5327:1300127
5195:2452957
5142:115–137
4803:4195554
4267:115–137
3835:Fucales
3671:. This
3530:-using
3493:Ecology
3474:thallus
3461:Fucales
3443:diploid
3391:haploid
3383:diploid
3367:Fucales
3328:Family
3319:Family
3310:Family
3301:Family
3292:Family
3272:Family
3249:Family
3240:Family
3231:Family
3211:Family
3202:Family
3193:Family
3173:Family
3153:Family
3133:Family
3124:Family
3115:Family
3106:Family
3097:Family
3088:Family
3079:Family
3070:Family
3047:Family
3038:Family
3029:Family
3020:Family
3011:Family
3002:Family
2993:Family
2984:Family
2975:Family
2968:Fucales
2955:Family
2946:Family
2937:Family
2928:Family
2919:Family
2910:Family
2890:Family
2881:Family
2875:Gardner
2854:Family
2831:Family
2797:Family
2777:Family
2768:Family
2759:Family
2750:Family
2741:Family
2732:Family
2709:Family
2689:Family
2651:Family
2642:Family
2607:Family
2598:Family
1845:Fucales
1178:Miocene
1056:fucoids
998:fossils
992:Fossils
933:diatoms
878:Fucales
874:medulla
765:Fucales
589:thallus
566:Thallus
449:gametes
438:tissues
390:species
355:habitat
351:Fucales
287:Warming
260:Orders
243:Class:
207:Gyrista
8123:437082
8120:uBio:
8113:306705
8084:NZOR:
8012:1PHAEC
7895:groups
6662:Rictus
6613:Bigyra
6559:Plants
6496:Domain
6403:
6395:
6387:
6324:
6316:
6280:
6272:
6218:
6210:
6202:
6119:
6111:
6076:
6066:
6025:
5976:
5939:11 May
5924:
5916:
5860:
5850:
5827:11 May
5813:
5757:
5696:
5661:
5617:
5490:
5360:
5325:
5279:
5229:
5193:
5148:
5115:
5088:
5041:
4999:
4970:
4925:
4907:
4856:
4810:
4800:
4759:
4703:
4695:
4641:
4633:
4569:
4544:
4512:11 May
4498:
4465:
4436:
4399:
4302:
4273:
4233:
4189:
4179:
4154:
4022:
3957:
3860:Hijiki
3803:Wakame
3619:glucan
3599:Padina
3577:δ
3385:) and
3283:Order
3260:Order
3222:Order
3184:Order
3164:Order
3144:Order
3064:Migula
3058:Order
2966:Order
2901:Order
2873:&
2865:Order
2842:Order
2825:Petrov
2819:Order
2788:Order
2726:Migula
2720:Order
2700:Order
2684:et al.
2673:Order
2629:Order
2589:Order
2571:Class
2565:orders
1072:fungus
1008:Padina
870:cortex
807:Growth
769:lamina
708:midrib
700:lamina
683:lamina
653:phloem
598:phloem
580:, and
503:Padina
445:spores
298:, 1863
289:, 1884
254:, 1891
8131:WoRMS
8100:48614
8064:10686
8046:IRMNG
8038:48220
7986:7NF4S
7973:14858
6586:Fungi
6401:S2CID
6322:S2CID
6278:S2CID
6216:S2CID
6200:JSTOR
6117:S2CID
6023:S2CID
5974:JSTOR
5933:(PDF)
5922:S2CID
5894:(PDF)
5755:S2CID
5659:JSTOR
5626:(PDF)
5615:JSTOR
5593:(PDF)
5488:JSTOR
5471:Taxon
5323:JSTOR
5277:S2CID
5255:(PDF)
5086:S2CID
4934:(PDF)
4891:(PDF)
4865:(PDF)
4830:(PDF)
4712:(PDF)
4701:S2CID
4673:(PDF)
4357:(PDF)
4033:(PDF)
4000:(PDF)
3756:Kombu
3721:Arame
3669:anode
3409:, or
1164:Fucus
1145:, or
1061:Fucus
904:fucan
897:algin
800:Fucus
761:kelps
696:frond
692:blade
688:frond
686:, or
678:blade
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