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nutrients, the plants invest heavily in defences against herbivores such as chemical (toxic secondary compounds) and physical defences (tough leathery leaves, spines and thorns). It is these defences that prevent the leaves from decaying and so they build up as peat. Although the cellular contents quickly leach out of the leaves when they fall, the physical structure is resistant to both bacterial and fungal decomposition and so remains intact, slowly breaking down to form peat (Yule and Gomez 2008). This is in stark contrast to the lowland dipterocarp forests where leaf decomposition is extremely rapid, resulting in very fast nutrient cycling on the forest floor. If non-endemic leaf species are placed in the peat swamp forests, they break down quite quickly, but even after one year submerged in the swamp, endemic species remain virtually unchanged (Yule and Gomez 2008). The only nutrients available for the trees are thus the ones that leach from the leaves when they fall, and these nutrients are rapidly absorbed by the thick root mat. It was previously assumed that the low pH and anaerobic conditions of the tropical peat swamps meant that bacteria and fungi could not survive, but recent studies have shown diverse and abundant communities (albeit not nearly as diverse as dry land tropical rainforests, or freshwater swamps) (Voglmayr and Yule 2006; Jackson, Liew and Yule 2008).
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332:, 2002) that of the 790,000 hectares (2,000,000 acres) that had burned 91.5% was peatland 730,000 hectares (1,800,000 acres). Using ground measurements of the burn depth of peat, they estimated that 0.19–0.23 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon were released into the atmosphere through peat combustion, with a further 0.05 Gt released from burning of the overlying vegetation. Extrapolating these estimates to Indonesia as a whole, they estimated that between 0.81 and 2.57 Gt of carbon were released to the atmosphere in 1997 as a result of burning peat and vegetation in Indonesia. This is equivalent to 13–40% of the mean annual global
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the peat lands of the north temperate and boreal zones (which are dominated by
Sphagnum mosses, grasses, sedges and shrubs). The spongy, unstable, waterlogged, anaerobic beds of peat can be up to 20 m deep with low pH (pH 2.9 – 4) and low nutrients, and the forest floor is seasonally flooded. The water is stained dark brown by the tannins that leach from the fallen leaves and peat – hence the name 'blackwater swamps'. During the dry season, the peat remains waterlogged and pools remain among the trees.
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trees have now been removed from the areas covered by the MRP. What happened was not what had been expected: the channels drained the peat forests rather than irrigating them. Where the forests had often flooded up to 2m deep in the rainy season, now their surface is dry at all times of the year. The
Indonesian government has now abandoned the MRP.
299:. The dried-out peat ignites easily and also burns underground, travelling unseen beneath the surface to break out in unexpected locations. Therefore, after drainage, fires ravaged the area, destroying remaining forest and large numbers of birds, animals, reptiles and other wildlife along with new agriculture, even damaging nature reserves such as
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Latiff A (2005) An overview of the significant findings of the biodiversity expedition to the peat swamp forest of Sungai Bebar, Pahang. In: Latiff A, Hamzah KA, Ahmad N, Said MNM, Toh AN, Gill SK (eds) Biodiversity
Expedition Sungai Bebar, Pekan, Pahang, Summary Findings. Peat Swamp Forest Project,
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One reason for the low nutrient conditions is that streams and rivers do not flow into these forests (if they did, nutrient rich freshwater swamps would result), water only flows out of them, so the only input of nutrients is from rainfall, marine aerosols and dust. In order to cope with the lack of
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About 62% of the world's tropical peat lands occur in the Indo-Malayan region (80% in
Indonesia, 11% in Malaysia, 6% in Papua New Guinea, with small pockets and remnants in Brunei, Vietnam, the Philippines and Thailand). They are unusual ecosystems, with trees up to 70 m high - vastly different from
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and in part through burning. The water channels, and the roads and railways built for legal forestry, opened up the region to illegal forestry. In the MRP area, forest cover dropped from 64.8% in 1991 to 45.7% in 2000, and clearance has continued since then. It appears that almost all the marketable
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forests although many species are only found here . Many trees have buttresses and stilt roots for support in the unstable substrate, and pneumatophores and hoop roots and knee roots to facilitate gas exchange. The trees have thick, root mats in the upper 50 cm of the peat to enable oxygen and
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Despite the extreme conditions the Borneo peat swamp forests have as many as 927 species of flowering plants and ferns recorded (In comparison, a biodiversity study in the Pekan peat swamp forest in
Peninsular Malaysia reported 260 plant species). Patterns of forest type can be seen in circles from
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Rieley JO, Ahmad-Shah AA Brady MA (1996) The extent and nature of tropical peat swamps. In: Maltby E, Immirzi CP, Safford RJ (eds) Tropical lowland peatlands of
Southeast Asia, proceedings of a workshop on integrated planning and management of tropical lowland peatlands held at Cisarua, Indonesia,
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for the planet, and that the fires of 1997-8 may have released up to 2.5 billion tonnes, and the 2002-3 fires between 200 million to 1 billion tonnes, of carbon into the atmosphere. Using satellite images from before and after the 1997 fires, scientists calculated (Page
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The lowland peat swamps of Borneo are mostly geologically recent (<5,000 years old), low-lying coastal formations above marine muds and sands but some of the lakeside peat forests of
Kalimantan are up to 11,000 years old.
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into the atmosphere. The destruction had a major negative impact on the livelihoods of people in the area. It caused major smog-related health problems amongst half a million people, who suffered from respiratory problems.
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Page SE, Rieley JO, Wüst R (2006) Lowland tropical peatlands of
Southeast Asia In: Martini IP, Martínez Cortizas A, Chesworth W (eds) Peatlands: Evolution and Records of Environmental and Climate Changes. Elsevier BV pp
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Attempts at conservation have been minimal in comparison to recent devastation while commercial logging of peat swamp forest in
Sarawak is ongoing and planned to intensify in Brunei. One plan by the environmental NGO
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Eric
Dinerstein, David Olson, et al. (2017). An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm, BioScience, Volume 67, Issue 6, June 2017, Pages 534–545; Supplemental material 2 table S1b.
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Anderson JAR (1963) The flora of the peat swamp forests of Sarawak and Brunei. Including a catalogue of all recorded species of flowering plants, ferns and fern allies. Garden's Bull. Singapore 29: 131–228
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Jackson, C.R., Liew, K.C. and Yule, C.M (2008) Structural and functional changes with depth in microbial communities in tropical peat swamp forest sediments. Microbial Ecology
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Rieley JO, Sieffermann RG, Page SE (1992) The origin, development, present status and importance of the lowland peat swamp forests of Borneo. Suo 43: 241–244
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Yule, C.M. and Gomez, L. (2008). Leaf litter decomposition in a tropical peat swamp forest in Peninsular Malaysia. Wetlands Ecology and Management.
558:. Peatland conservation and rehabilitation are more efficient undertakings than reducing deforestation (in terms of claiming carbon credits through
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The lowlands to the north-west and south-east are shrouded with thick, grey smoke from dozens of fires in this satellite image from 2009.
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on better-drained soils. There are also areas of inland river-fed peat forest at higher elevations in central Kalimantan around the
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occur where waterlogged soils prevent dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing, which over time creates thick layer of acidic
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Yule CM (2008) Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in Indo-Malayan peat swamp forests. Biodiversity and Conservation
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initiatives) due to the much larger reduced emissions achievable per unit area and the much lower opportunity costs involved.
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the centre of the swamps to their outer fringes which are made up of most of the tree families recorded in lowland
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has drained over 1 million hectares of the Borneo peat swamp forests for conversion to agricultural land under the
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gen. et sp. nov., an aeroaquatic fungus from Malaysian peat swamp forests. Mycological Research. 110:1242-1252.
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Fires were used in an attempt to create agricultural lands, including large palm tree plantations to supply
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Satellite image of the island of Borneo on 19 August 2002, showing smoke from burning peat swamp forests.
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UNDP/GEF Funded, in collaboration with the Pahang Forestry Department and University Kebangsaan Malaysia
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739:"UNDERLYING CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION IN INDONESIA; A CASE STUDY ON FOREST FIRES"
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which are also extremely endangered. The parosphromenus species are small fish of extreme beauty.
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from fossil fuels, and contributed greatly to the largest annual increase in atmospheric CO
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Pearce F (2007) Bog barons: Indonesia's carbon catastrophe. New Scientist 1 December 2007.
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9.317% of the ecoregion is within protected areas, the largest of which are
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National Park in Kalimantan. Rivers of the peat swamps are home to the rare
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Page SE, Siegert F, Rieley JO, Boehm H-DV, Jaya A and Limin S (2002)
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and filling the air above Borneo and beyond with dense smoke and
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Mathai, J.(5 October 2009) Seeing REDD over deforestation.
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and crocodiles. Another small species of fish are the
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concentration detected since records began in 1957.
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found that the peat swamp forests are a significant
235:of Brunei on coastal lowlands, built up behind the
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343:Indonesia is currently the world's third largest
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768:"Borneo fires may intensify 'Asian brown haze'"
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676:Social and environmental impact of palm oil
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546:is to preserve the peat swamp forest of
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315:The dry years of 1997-8 and 2002-3 (see
270:Over the past decade, the government of
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914:, DOPA Explorer. Accessed 18 March 2023
818:3–8 July 1992. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
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671:Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests
307:and releasing enormous quantities of CO
122:66,976 km (25,860 sq mi)
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995:BBC report (accessed 12 February 2007)
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792:Harding, Andrew (16 November 2006).
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47:Ecoregion territory (in purple)
35:Peat swamp forest in Kalimantan
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993:Smoking out the world's lungs
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1248:1997 Indonesian forest fires
1200:Geological history of Borneo
945:420, 61-65 (7 November 2002)
794:"Borneo fires 'catastrophe'"
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1309:Gunung Berau Nature Reserve
1137:Borneo montane rain forests
1132:Borneo lowland rain forests
977:"Borneo peat swamp forests"
720:"Borneo peat swamp forests"
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244:Borneo lowland rain forests
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912:Borneo peat swamp forests
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544:Borneo Orangutan Survival
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1441:Languages of Kalimantan
1354:Usun Apau National Park
1334:Lamandau Nature Reserve
1223:Deforestation in Borneo
1157:Sundaland heath forests
661:Deforestation in Borneo
571:Sabangau National Parks
550:using a combination of
525:), otters, waterbirds,
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105:Sundaland heath forests
1540:Indomalayan ecoregions
1510:Ecoregions of Malaysia
983:. World Wildlife Fund.
981:Terrestrial Ecoregions
746:enviroscope.iges.or.jp
726:. World Wildlife Fund.
724:Terrestrial Ecoregions
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1515:Ecoregions of Malesia
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437:Nepenthes bicalcarata
430:Peat swamp forest in
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321:European Space Agency
99:Sunda Shelf mangroves
1500:Ecoregions of Brunei
573:. They also include
556:debt-for-nature-swap
523:Scleropages formosus
491:Borneo roundleaf bat
172:9,144 km² (14%)
1530:Flora of Kalimantan
495:Hipposideros doriae
471:Macaca fascicularis
467:crab-eating macaque
242:and bounded by the
164:critical/endangered
160:Conservation status
16:Ecoregion in Borneo
1384:History of Sarawak
1063:Central Kalimantan
963:Polyancora globosa
893:on 13 January 2012
687:The Burning Season
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479:Presbytis cristata
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1171:environment
1125:eco-regions
607:Ulu Sebuyau
420:dipterocarp
325:carbon sink
301:Muara Kaman
231:and in the
64:Indomalayan
1484:Categories
1047:Kalimantan
694:References
505:) and the
473:) and the
463:orangutans
225:Kalimantan
1419:languages
1205:Sundaland
1078:Nusantara
1052:Indonesia
1039:divisions
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272:Indonesia
202:Indonesia
183:ecoregion
169:Protected
139:Indonesia
127:Countries
114:Geography
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798:BBC news
777:11 April
625:See also
297:palm oil
237:brackish
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1367:history
1193:Mammals
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317:El Niño
254:on the
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569:and
560:REDD
554:and
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