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had a lighter schedule. Occasionally the
Baptists would hold rallies promoting membership drives, domestic missions, Christian education, religious literature, prayer in the home, Christian citizenship, and one outside issue, laws to promote temperance. Until the late 19th century, the preachers continued to focus on the need for revivals, and Sabbath observance, on the evils of Catholicism, card playing, dancing and personal sin in general. Every few weeks the churches held trials of their own members for sins such as drunkenness, dancing, or adultery; the usual participant punishment was humiliation or expulsion from the congregation. The theology was traditional, with no trace of modernist readings of the Bible. Unlike the Methodists and Presbyterians, few Baptist pastors were educated. Instead, the local congregation selected and ordained ministers on the basis of their religiosity and ability to articulate God's word. By 1900, the range of sermons and editorials had been enlarged to cover new social themes. Baptists still opposed Catholicism, but now they talked of cooperation with other Protestant churches. There was less emphasis on card playing and dancing, and more interest in issues of underpaid laborers, coal miners, and workers in sweatshops. This indicated a newfound interest in the
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turnover of sharecroppers. Landowners also worked some of the land directly, using black labor paid in cash. The white landowners held all the political power, and fought vigorously against cash-dispensing government welfare programs that would undermine the cashless system. Economic historians Lee Alston and Joseph Ferrie (1999) describe the system as essentially an informal contract that bound employer and worker through the provision of housing, medical care, and other in-kind services along with cash wages. At its heart, it guaranteed a stable and adequate labor supply to the planter. Though restricted by the directives of the planter, workers in return received some measure of economic stability, including a social safety net, access to financial capital, and some physical protection in an often violent society.
20:
2151:, a beetle that feeds on cotton buds and flowers, had migrated into the United States from Mexico in the late 19th century and had infested all U.S. cotton-growing areas by the 1920s, devastating the industry and the people working in the American South. The price of cotton plunged from 37 cents per pound in early 1920 to 10 cents in mid-1921. Land prices plunged 80% and tax rates went up. Tenants could not repay the storekeepers. Land owners were squeezed, for many had used credit to buy land during the World War bubble; and many farms were foreclosed—all this before the
2611:. The men learned how to fly and navigate a plane, combat weather, and climate issues, and engineer the plans. When the U.S. had entered World War II, the airmen began to report for duty. Now termed the "Tuskegee Experiment", 992 pilots and 10,000 people of staff had more to fight against than the white airmen who were trained to fight the enemy overseas. The black airmen who had parallel trading to the white airmen had to suffer through the racist climate in the South and the segregation in the U.S. surrounding them.
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popularity when activists marched pridefully from Selma to
Montgomery in opposition to discrimination against African Americans. Law enforcement came in and forcefully handled the protesters, with tear gas and physically assaulting the protesters. This showed the injustice and discrimination that the African Americans faced when they were just trying to fight for their rights. These events are now on TV for everyone to witness, and are termed "Bloody Sunday".
1904:. The geology emphasizes the highly fertile black soil. Historically, the black belt economy was based on cotton plantations – along with some tobacco plantation areas along the Virginia-North Carolina border. The valuable land was largely controlled by rich whites, and worked by very poor, primarily black slaves who in many counties constituted a majority of the population. Generally the term is applied to a larger region than that defined by its geology.
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to the farmers. The farmers felt like they were being pushed to the margin with the empty promises the FHA and
Georgia government was giving them. This shows that the FHA, local, and national governments had racist motivation behind reforming the slave system and their efforts were not satisfactory. The USDA was only focusing on large and industrial farms. In turn, this would lead the small farmers (part of the Black Belt) off and out of their lands.
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like the
Salters could no longer depend on crops like cotton and seasonal crops to support their families, or sell enough to support their families. Even farmers who had more money saved before the government took over their farmlands were still in a parallel position to the lower class farmers. The family farmers and their lands were being replaced by industrial means, and their families stood no chance physically nor did their farms.
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produce a higher quantity of food. Now, the plots have been transformed into the Black Belt
Research and Experimentation Center. Auburn University used the lands that were filled with toxins to study how to manage fungus-infected pesticides and helped contribute to her beef production in the US. This area is used by students at Auburn for research but also is open for visitors to see the progression of farming in the Black Belt.
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undermined landlord or merchant hegemony, diversified agriculture and transformed it from a labor- to a capital-intensive industry, and ended the legal and extralegal support for racism. The discontinuity that war, invasion, military occupation, the confiscation of slave property, and state and national legislation failed to bring in the mid nineteenth century finally arrived in the second third of the twentieth century.
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2477:. They trained and supplied black organizers, set up and funded local clubs, and gave farm and home demonstrations. They focused on the integral domestic work of cooking, hygiene, sewing, garden cultivation and food processing, and poultry raising. Not only did they teach new skills, they helped isolated
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Industrialization in small farming production was a mark of the history of the Black Belt. In Auburn, there were 1116 acres of land that were contaminated with fescue toxicity and were fed to cattle. This was just one of the 5 stations that were poisoned with toxic pesticides and fed cattle toxins to
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Economic historians of the South generally emphasize the continuity of the system of white supremacy and cotton plantations in the Black Belt from the late colonial era into the mid-20th century, when it collapsed. Harold D. Woodman summarizes the external forces that caused this disintegration from
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The study of women's history and gender roles in the Black Belt has been a recent development. Chrissy Lutz and Dawn Herd-Clark in 2019 explored the situation of black housewives in
Georgia's black belt in the 1920s and 1930s. They worked with outside agencies to improve their own work efficiency and
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and chemical herbicides finally became available to cotton planters and many landowners began farming the land themselves. Their reduced need for resident farm labor forced many tenant farmers and sharecroppers off the land resulting in an even greater black emigration to the North and West. This is
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There were few alternative jobs in the Black Belt region. When factories opened or retooled to supply the war effort in World War II, and the military draft was introduced, large numbers of
African American farmers left for the army or cash-paying jobs in nearby or distant cities, particularly on the
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At harvest time, the tenants picked and sold their cotton, paid the merchant, and gave the landowner his one-third. There seldom was much cash left over. For sharecroppers, the landlord supplied all their needs during the year and then took the crop. The annual cycle started again, often with a large
2012:
In 1964, King met with black leaders in to find a target locale to publicize the civil rights movement in
Alabama. Large cities were eliminated, so according to historian Charles S. Aiken, "King had only the state's small nonmetropolitan cities from which to select the place to focus the campaign for
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The
Tuskegee Institution National Historic Site: Carver Museum pays homage to Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver. Each of these men worked to reform the agriculture system that was negatively transformed by discrimination and racism. When the African Americans were pushed out of their
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In the white community, Baptist church services were typically held
Sundays at 11 AM and 6 PM, with an earlier Sunday school for children. During the week, there were prayer meetings and meetings of the ladies' society and missionary organizations. Smaller rural churches shared a rotating pastor and
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Peter Daniels investigated how the government pushed back on supporting small farms and farmers and pushed more towards a climate of capitalism. Hierarchical systems were a proponent in this climate of capitalism that eroded the agricultural business. In 1913, the USDA planned to distribute payments
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For the next few years the Democrats seemed in control of the South, but even then deep challenges were building beneath the surface. Behind their show of unity, the Democratic Redeemers suffered deep divisions. Conflicts between upcountry and Black Belt, between town and country, and between former
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Salter, who worked at Tougaloo College, studied how industrialization affected black farmers. They talked about the fact that the chemical herbicides that the government had used to produce crops more quickly and of lesser quality, started to deteriorate the physical integrity of the lands. Farmers
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Slave houses are artifacts. Their attributes can be recorded, analyzed, and broad patterns about their historical context, their builders, and inhabitants revealed. The methods of construction, for instance, often indicate climate, economy, and available technology. Ethnographic and archaeological
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The strength of African-American activism and, to a lesser extent, the moderation of elite planters meant that in the black belt Reconstruction essentially worked. Sharecropping developed as a compromise that allowed white planters to make money while black workers preferred its relatively greater
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Many blacks organized independent Baptist churches, quick to establish congregations without white supervision. At their first state convention in 1868, the 60 Baptists attending represented 32 churches. By 1881 the church had 50 district associations, 600 churches, 700 preachers, and about 90,000
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The rural Black Belt, with its largely African American population, has historically ranked toward the bottom of American regions in terms of quality of life indicators such as poverty rates, median incomes, mortality, unemployment rates, and educational levels. For example, since before the 1950s
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The boundaries of the subregion depend on the exact criteria being used. Census data is used to identify rural Southern counties with a large black population in a particular year. Which percentage and which year depends on the goals of the project—to look at history, or at current patterns, or to
1968:
I have often been asked to define the term "Black Belt". So far as I can learn, the term was first used to designate a part of the country which was distinguished by the colour of the soil. The part of the country possessing this thick, dark, and naturally rich soil was, of course, the part of the
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Led by Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1960s, the Voting Rights emerged. The people involved in the Voting Rights arranged the First Baptist Church. This church was used as a vehicle to give food, clothes, and supplies to fellow Voting Rights activists. The building where King spoke out against the
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The civil rights movement and related changes in the production of history of African Americans raised new interest in elements of their history in the South, including during slavery times. Since the late 20th century, there has been a new emphasis on the restoration, preservation and historical
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was crucified" , "to-day the centre of the Negro problem,-the centre of those nine million men who are America's dark heritage from slavery and the slave-trade." He continues: "Careless ignorance and laziness here, fierce hate and vindictiveness there,—these are the extremes of the Negro problem
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from 1899 to 1901. His political rhetoric was based on his religious outlook. He often addressed racial issues at a time when the rate of lynching was growing rapidly. Northen believed that advances in medicine and health would ultimately help African Americans achieve salvation. He promoted the
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Many, probably most, slaves had become Christians during the antebellum period. Their religious preferences focused on evangelical religion with strong participation by the congregations, and led by a strong minister who typically was also a political leader. By 1867, freedmen, with help from the
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churches. After the war, facing economic losses and disruption to the economy, many of the owners sold out and moved to distant cities. Presbyterian and Episcopal church membership fell. Among the whites, Methodism grew, as did Baptist congregations. In addition, new fundamentalist sects, such as
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for equitable representation. As a result, states were prohibited from having bicameral legislatures in which one house was elected by county. In addition, the Court required the states to redistrict every decade to reflect census data, which many had neglected to conduct. The result was to shift
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to divide the old plantations into many smaller farms that were then assigned to tenant farmers. The tenant farmer and his family worked their plot of land and provided the labor to plant and harvest the crop. Throughout the year, the tenants usually bought food and supplies weekly, on credit,
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After 1900, African Americans, the majority of the population in most of the Black Belt, were rarely allowed to vote, apart from a few ministers, businessmen and schoolteachers. Political power was in the hands of a relatively closed white elite comprising the major landowners, along with local
1994:, when 4.5 million rural blacks left the region from 1940 to 1970. But the University of Alabama in 2007 classifies "roughly 200 counties" as comprising the Black Belt, with significant black populations. The Mississippi Encyclopedia adds to this definition a long history of cotton production.
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In Selma, Alabama there is the Central Loop located in the heart of the city, which is rich in the Black Belt history. The Civil War Battle of Selma and the Voting Rights era were the heart of Selma's history. One attraction of Selma is the Edmund Pettus Bridge. This bridge gained widespread
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When significant change finally occurred, its impetus came from outside the South. Depression-bred New Deal reforms, war-induced demand for labor in the North, perfection of cotton-picking machinery, and civil rights legislation and court decisions finally...destroyed the plantation system,
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To honor one of the martyrs of the civil rights area, the Interpretive Center was constructed as part of the historic tour. The Interpretive Center replicates how the Kings lived, with replicas of furniture, paintings, and household items which the Kings had in their house during the time.
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Until the mid-20th century, the predominant agricultural system in the Black Belt involved interdependent white land owners, tenant farmers, and sharecroppers; most of the latter groups were African Americans. Tenants typically owned their own tools and draft animals, while the
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South where the slaves were most profitable, and consequently they were taken there in the largest numbers. Later, and especially since the war, the term seems to be used wholly in a political sense—that is, to designate the counties where the black people outnumber the white.
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and voting. States became one-party Democratic bastions in which the general election was a formality. The real battles took place inside the Democratic Party primaries, which were made private by law and not open to blacks. The result was to thwart the objective of the
1982:' population, falling to 23% in 2005. The white population in the same counties fell from 23% to 17%. In total numbers, these counties included 6,700,000 blacks in 1980, and 8,400,000 in 2005. They included 10,700,000 whites in 1980 and 11,700,000 in 2005.
2401:(1863–1877), in the Alabama black belt some compromise was reached through a sharecropping system in which local black farmers were under the protection of rich white landowners. According to a review of a 2015 history of Reconstruction in Alabama:
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studies demonstrate that houses, yards, and landscapes reflect cultural values and social relationships and changes to these. The organization of labor may be inferred from the placement of houses in relation to one another and to non-domestic buildings.
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discrimination that the African Americans were bearing, the church was destroyed in 1894 by law enforcement. In 1982, it was rebuilt as a historic site. It is the initial point where people go to start the Martin Luther King Jr. Street Historic Tour.
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The mostly black Republican Party of the South rarely won any Black Belt elections after 1900, but it did send delegates to the presidential nominating conventions every four years, thus giving blacks some voice in national politics. President
1935:
There are 12 counties in Alabama in each of which the blacks are twice as numerous as the whites. These 12 counties, stretching across southern Central Alabama from Georgia and Mississippi, constitute the principal portion of the famous Black
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autonomy in comparison to slavery. As a result of the labor compromise that developed, the black belt saw less terroristic white supremacist violence than did northern Alabama. Fitzgerald's work thus adds specific teeth to the arguments of
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provided no capital and paid fees to the landowner with a share of the crop produced. Very little cash changed hands. The few existing local banks were small; cash was scarce and had to be saved by the landowners for paying taxes.
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The Carver Museum honors the professor and activist who worked tirelessly to transform Southern agriculture. The museum holds original photographs, physical objects that were used during the time, and live reenactments.
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rightful land, the Tuskegee Institute was founded by Washington in 1881. This institution helped to educate African Americans about how to farm, their legal land rights, and the financial managerial aspect of farming.
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The Mississippi Black Belt is part of a larger region, stretching from Virginia south to the Carolinas and west through the Deep South, defined by a majority African American population and a long history of cotton
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Landowners needed a great deal of labor at harvest time to pick cotton. The typical plan after the Civil War and emancipation of the slaves who had provided labor on vast estates in the American South during the
1989:
described the Black Belt as some 200 plantation counties where blacks represented more than 50% of the population, lying "in a crescent from Virginia to Texas". Black population decreased in some areas after the
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movement was fading away in the white churches, it grew more popular in the black community. In addition to all-day Sunday services, many Black Baptists became active in Sunday schools and missionary societies.
2352:, although not nearly at the level of Northern Protestant churches. Racial tensions and discrimination was not mentioned, nor the rate of lynchings, which peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
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Democrats and former Whigs divided the Redeemers. The Democratic party proved too small to contain the ambitions of all the white men who sought its rewards, too large and unwieldy to move decisively.
2414:—about the political acumen and solidarity of rural African Americans. White planters obviously were at the top of economic and political ladders, but black tenant farmers were real agents of power.
2365:, began organizing their own separate all-black churches. Northern Methodist missionaries helped organize such churches as were affiliated with the national Methodist Church. More popular were the
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2054:, mainly the years 1890–1907, white Democrats passed new state constitutions and state laws, and used informal local practices across the South to prevent African American citizens from
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2439:(1835–1913), was the Governor of Georgia from 1890 to 1894. A leading Baptist minister, Northen was president of the Georgia Baptist Convention from 1892 to 1910, and president of the
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struck in 1929. Raper's analysis of Black Belt banks shows that deposits plunged by half or more from 1918 to 1932. As a result, most local people became "very shy of banks."
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How curious a land is this,- how full of untold story, of tragedy and laughter, and the rich legacy of human life; shadowed with a tragic past, and big with future promise!
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was strictly enforced, to expand the franchise. During the 1960s, the US Supreme Court ruled in several cases covering rural bias in legislatures, saying that under the
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to meet each other and form supportive friendships. The systematic end of rural isolation meant that black rural women could affirm that "no one was on their own."
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2380:. Small numbers of African Americans belonged to the Episcopalian and Presbyterian churches. All the Methodists had a hierarchical organization led by bishops.
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Additionally, there is a film shown during the tour that is called, "Here I stand". It is a reenactment of how the King's house was bombed during the boycott.
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Political activists and historians continue to use "Black Belt" in considering politics in predominantly black rural areas in the South. For example, in 1962,
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Alston, Lee J., and Joseph P. Ferrie. "Social Control and Labor Relations in the American South Before the Mechanization of the Cotton Harvest in the 1950s"
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Chrissy Lutz, and Dawn Herd-Clark, "'No One Was on Their Own': Sociability among Rural African American Women in Middle Georgia during the Interwar Years."
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analysis of African American dwelling units in the Black Belt, especially those surviving from slavery days. Ashley A. Dumas, et al. explain the rationale:
2219:. Diversified agriculture replaced much of the cotton and tobacco, and gradually industrial-scale agriculture became dominant in large areas of the region.
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to cities of the Midwest and West. Political analysts and historians continue to use the term Black Belt to designate some 200 counties in the South from
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new voting rights legislation.... There was no other choice but the "open spaces" of the Black Belt, and in the Black Belt there was no alternative to
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members in the state, and operated a small seminary in Selma; most of the ministers were strong orators but barely literate. Although the revivalist
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Lindsey, Lydia. "Black Lives Matter: Grace P. Campbell and Claudia Jones—An analysis of the Negro Question, Self-Determination, Black Belt Thesis."
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merchants and bankers. They had almost complete control of local government. They generally also had control of the state legislatures, which
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2037:, came to power after Reconstruction ended in 1877 and ousted Black and White Republicans from political office across the South. Historian
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in the Deep South, and especially their Black Belt counties , spoke to the enduring significance of white resistance to black progress."
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By 1894, political commentators used the term "Black Belt" so often that the term was already very well known in the United States.
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membership grew rapidly in the Black Belt, from a total of 71,000 in 1890 (of whom 86% were African American), to 215,000 in 1916.
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counties. Freedmen established churches independent of white supervision, and their own Baptist state and regional associations.
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Harold D. Woodman, "Economic Reconstruction and the Rise of the New South, 1865-1900" in John B. Boles and Evelyn Thomas Nolen,
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Casey Cater, "To Pick Up Again the Cross of Missionary Work: W. J. Northen's Politics of Race, Religion, and Reform, 1890-1911"
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transportation routes have historically been inadequate in this region. To this day, air transportation facilities are limited.
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Wimberley, Ronald C. "It's Our Most Rural Region; It's the Poorest; It's the Black Belt South; and It Needs Our Attention."
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2017:." In 2012, political scientist Seth McKee concluded that in the 1964 election, "Once again, the high level of support for
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The second great emancipation : the mechanical cotton picker, Black migration, and how they shaped the modern South
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Lewis L. Gould, "Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and the Disputed Delegates in 1912: Texas as a Test Case,"
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Southern Paternalism and the American Welfare State: Economics, Politics, and Institutions in the South, 1865-1965
2102:(the groups were commonly referred to as the "White Citizens' Councils"), which was part an associated network of
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Statistical atlas of southern counties: listing and analysis of socio-economic indices of 1104 southern counties
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2831:. Vol. VII: To Save the Soul of America, January 1961 August 1962. Univ of California Press. p. 437.
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Raybon, S. Paul (1992). "Stick by the old paths: an inquiry into the Southern Baptist response to Populism".
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In certain areas of what was once the Black Belt, citizens began to honor the events that took place there.
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Webster, Gerald R., and Jerrod Bowman. "Quantitatively delineating the black belt geographic region."
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Dale W. Wimberley, "Quality of Life Trends in the Southern Black Belt, 1980–2005: A Research Note*",
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Dale W. Wimberley, "Quality of Life Trends in the Southern Black Belt, 1980–2005: A Research Note*",
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Wimberley, Dale W. "Quality of life trends in the Southern Black Belt, 1980–2005: a research note."
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argues the Redeemers were sharply divided, however, and fought for control of the Democratic Party:
2373:, the first independent black denominations, whose missionaries planted thousands of new churches.
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Big Cotton: How A Humble Fiber Created Fortunes, Wrecked Civilizations, and Put America on the Map
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The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America
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The planters in the region had been affluent before the Civil War, and typically belonged to the
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Mary Summers, "The New Deal farm programs: looking for reconstruction in American agriculture."
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A decade after the end of the war, a practical combination of more efficient machinery, such as
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After 1945, a large fraction of the laborers were replaced by machinery, and they joined the
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2545:, the "heart of the Black Belt". He says: "Here are the remnants of the vast plantations."
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A map of the poverty rates in the United States by county. Areas such as the majority-black
3905:(1936, reprinted Univ of South Carolina Press, 2005), a classic study of Black Belt life;
3738:"Cabins as Far as the Eyes Can See: An Introduction to the Black Belt Slave Housing Survey"
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Interpreting Southern history: Historiographical essays in honor of Sanford W. Higginbotham
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2006:
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1900:, especially concerning slavery and black workers, of the geological region known as the
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Dispossession Discrimination against African American Farmers in the Age of Civil Rights
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Fraser, Max, and RaMell Ross. "Filming the Black Belt: An Interview with RaMell Ross."
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Adams, Katherine. "Du Bois, Dirt Determinism, and the Reconstruction of Global Value."
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wrote of his "People to People" tour through the Black Belt of Virginia: "The idea of '
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Human factors in cotton culture; a study in the social geography of the American South
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The early 1920s were especially difficult financially in cotton growing regions. The
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King Cotton in Modern America: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945
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1975:
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The Reference Book on Regional Well-Being: U.S. Regions, the Black Belt, Appalachia.
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Isolation in the South: Poverty and Transportation Infrastructure in the Black Belt
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2152:
1919:
that have a history of majority African American population and cotton production.
1071:
928:
756:
691:
671:
580:
4019:
3786:
31.4 (2019): 715–740; explores the studies of black belt history by W.E.B. DuBois.
2932:
The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction - 15th Anniversary Edition
2095:
political districts to strongly favor rural areas and under-represent the cities.
4183:
3860:
3325:
2970:
Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary
2604:
2538:
2524:
2449:
2332:
2038:
2034:
2018:
1099:
906:
656:
575:
3823:
2344:
Holiness and Nazarene, began to emerge, but their rapid growth came after 1900.
4009:
3119:
Robert Higgs, "Patterns of Farm Rental in the Georgia Cotton Belt, 1880–1900."
2614:
To honor this in 1998, President Bill Clinton passed a law that instituted the
2092:
2014:
1897:
1848:
1836:
1558:
983:
953:
711:
701:
532:
2423:
2275:
In the late 19th century, formerly enslaved African Americans in Alabama, now
4198:
4178:
3947:
3457:
3418:
2349:
2261:
2203:. With the beginning of the war, outbound migration increased significantly.
2176:
2140:
2107:
1734:
1627:
1622:
4004:
Wimberley, Ronald C. et al. "A Federal Commission for the Black Belt South"
2783:
2187:
2162:
4143:
4108:
4035:
3324:
University of Georgia. Institute for the Study of Georgia Problems (1950).
2905:
In the Name of God and Country: Reconsidering Terrorism in American History
2385:
1986:
1941:
1111:
923:
651:
514:
3271:
The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History
2998:
George N. Green, "Republicans, Bull Moose, and Negroes in Florida, 1912,"
2808:
2227:
2130:
political power toward the more populated and industrialized urban areas.
4168:
4118:
4088:
4075:
3935:
Sisk, Glenn S. "Crime and Justice in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875-1917."
3700:
3028:
2632:
2478:
2407:
2159:
agricultural programs helped the land owners much more than the tenants.
2148:
1824:
1277:
933:
786:
666:
450:
4018:(Southern Rural Development Center, Mississippi State University, 1996)
3968:
3923:
3618:
The Sacred Trust: sketches of the Southern Baptist Convention presidents
3554:
3465:
3003:
2986:
4123:
4093:
3928:
Sisk, Glenn N. "Negro Education in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875-1900."
3840:
3538:
3522:
3199:
3182:
3124:
2637:
1957:
382:
121:
3918:
Sisk, Glenn. "Post-War Vigor And Industry In The Alabama Black Belt."
3848:
Holloway, W. H. "A Black Belt County, Georgia," in W.E.B. DuBois, ed.
3549:
Glenn N. Sisk, "Negro Churches in the Alabama Black Belt, 1875-1917",
3433:
2376:
White southern Methodists had a separate body, and they sponsored the
4158:
4153:
4148:
4113:
3869:(LSU Press, 1986) major scholarly survey with detailed bibliography;
3449:
3398:
2647:
2445:
2340:
2075:. Congress did not object, and the Supreme Court generally approved.
2030:
1949:
1945:
1860:
1800:
1607:
948:
681:
460:
287:
3885:
Visions of the Black Belt: A Cultural Survey of the Heart of Alabama
2033:", a Southern Democratic political coalition that sought to enforce
1974:
project future trends. In 1980, Southern counties with at least 25%
4173:
4163:
3802:
King Cotton: A Cultural, Political, and Economic History since 1945
3689:"Du Bois, Dirt Determinism, and the Reconstruction of Global Value"
2554:
2320:
2276:
2235:
region have some of the highest poverty rates in the United States.
2156:
2068:
1953:
1912:
1884:
1812:
1764:
993:
918:
911:
3194:
Theodore Saloutos, "New Deal agricultural policy: an evaluation."
2180:
through the local country store (sometimes owned by the planter).
2005:' was spawned not in Georgia or Alabama—–but in the hearts of the
3278:: Global America, 1915–2000. Yale University Press. p. 160.
2207:
1776:
1752:
1081:
387:
3533:
Glenn N. Sisk, " Churches in the Alabama Black Belt 1875-1917"
3517:
Glenn N. Sisk, "Churches in the Alabama Black Belt 1875-1917",
2603:
In 1939, the U.S. government let African Americans train to be
2558:
which we met that day, and we scarce knew which we preferred."
2484:
988:
2957:
Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908
3211:
2523:
The most prominent analyst of the Black Belt was sociologist
2117:
Federal intervention changed the situation in the 1970s. The
1940:
By 1900, the term "Black Belt" was commonly used to denote a
1916:
1872:
761:
3033:"Finding Aid – FBI and Other Files (Ernie Lazar Collection)"
2628:
African-American history of agriculture in the United States
791:
2537:
contains extensive analysis and reflection. Du Bois calls
2607:. Civil pilot training was enacted and took place at the
2191:
United States map of the Black American population from
2125:, states needed to redistrict based on the principle of
3903:
Preface to peasantry: A tale of two black belt counties
3755:"10 Places Everyone Should See in Alabama's Black Belt"
3621:. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman. p. 27.
2397:
Although racial tensions often grew violent during the
4025:
Winemiller, Terance L. "Black Belt Region in Alabama"
2114:, especially against integrating the public schools.
3371:
25.1 (2010) updates the data into the 21st century.
3081:
Resisting Equality: The Citizens' Council, 1954–1989
3042:. The University of California – via Database.
2871:"The Past, Present, and Future of Southern Politics"
2199:
West Coast. This population movement was called the
3240:
3096:
America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s
2392:
2083:used black Southern support to defeat ex-President
1584:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
3791:Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics
3578:Bradley Proctor, review of Michael W Fitzgerald,
2063:to the Constitution, which sought to protect the
4196:
3867:Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920-1960
3804:(University Press of Mississippi, 2011) 440 pp.
3340:
3205:
3092:
2110:organizations that directed white resistance to
3584:Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era
2928:
2901:
2853:The Cotton Plantation South since the Civil War
2561:
2469:, collaborated with the segregated unit of the
4022:. Highly detailed Statistics from 1990 census.
3551:Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society
3303:. Fayetteville, Ark.: University of Arkansas.
3059:. Indiana University Press. pp. 112–117.
2881:(3, The Politics Issue). UNC Press Books: 10.
311:Education of freed people during the Civil War
24:Majority-Black counties in the U.S. as of the
4061:
3569:(U of North Carolina Press, 1947), pp 256-65.
3052:
2868:
2052:disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
2009:Virginia, commonly known as the Black Belt."
1682:
3911:Roller, David C. and Robert W. Twyman, eds.
3317:
3267:
3247:. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 13.
2730:"Politics and the race question in Alabama,
2513:
2485:Collapse of the Black belt plantation system
322:Historically black colleges and universities
3434:"The American South: Portrait of a Culture"
3431:
3347:. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 140.
3234:
3086:
2895:
2701:Wilson, Charles Reagan (October 10, 2017).
306:Education during the slave period in the US
4068:
4054:
3883:McDonald, Robin, and Valerie Pope Burnes.
3614:
3504:J. D. Pope, "Types of Farming Areas," in
3480:"The Black Belt Nature and Heritage Trail"
3403:. The University of North Carolina Press.
3261:
3220:. Cambridge University Press. p. 28.
3168:(1936) pp 205–207, 278–79; quote on p 279.
3056:Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement
2746:
1689:
1675:
629:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
4006:Professional Agricultural Workers Journal
3839:
3334:
3046:
2922:
2678:List of belt regions of the United States
2553:Yet, he notes, it is not far from "where
2531:in the early 20th century. His 1903 book
1944:region, much like later coinages such as
85:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
3915:(Louisiana State University Press, 1979)
3212:Lee J. Alston; Joseph P. Ferrie (2007).
2862:
2821:
2422:
2226:
2186:
2161:
2098:By the 1950s, many counties had a local
18:
4014:Wimberley, Ronald C.; Morris, Libby V.
3824:"Reconsidering the Southern Black Belt"
3759:National Parks Conservation Association
3292:
2935:. Oxford University Press. p. 35.
2815:
2696:
2694:
2475:United States Department of Agriculture
2371:African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
4197:
3595:
3298:
3040:Berkeley Center for Right Wing Studies
2908:. Yale University Press. p. 109.
2700:
2616:Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site
4210:Regions of the Southern United States
4049:
3892:Southern regions of the United States
3821:
3387:(Mississippi State University, 2015).
3027:
3016:Southern Politics in State and Nation
2643:History of the Southern United States
827:Athletic associations and conferences
316:History of African-American education
16:Social history in the southeastern US
3913:The Encyclopedia of Southern History
3887:(University of Alabama Press, 2015).
3432:Riggan, W.; Rubin, Louis D. (1981).
3396:
3021:
2828:The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr
2691:
2529:The Atlantic University Publications
2499:Black land loss in the United States
2448:, but did not abandon the policy of
1717:Cultural region of the United States
1703:Cultural region of the United States
750:Association for the Study of African
4215:Social history of the United States
3977:The Negro in Mississippi: 1865-1890
3567:The Negro in Mississippi: 1865-1890
1564:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1065:African-American Vernacular English
634:National Conference of Black Mayors
13:
3979:(U of North Carolina Press, 1947).
3957:(U of North Carolina Press, 1929)
3894:(U of North Carolina Press, 1936)
3776:
3615:Caner, Emir; Caner, Ergun (2003).
3136:"Cotton Prices in the World Wars"
2518:
2378:Colored Methodist Episcopal Church
2367:African Methodist Episcopal Church
2222:
2024:
767:National Black Chamber of Commerce
14:
4226:
3942:Tullos, Allen. "The Black Belt."
3214:"1: The Economics of Paternalism"
2983:Southwestern Historical Quarterly
2972:(2016) pp. 3, 74, 81, 83, 163–69.
2355:
2326:
2133:
1978:populations comprised 29% of the
1471:Places by plurality of population
137:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
127:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
80:Abolitionism in the United States
3996:Journal of Rural Social Sciences
3985:Journal of Rural Social Sciences
3369:Journal of Rural Social Sciences
2772:Journal of Rural Social Sciences
2393:Sharecropping and tenant farmers
2087:for the GOP nomination in 1912.
1964:wrote in his 1901 autobiography
1894:Black Belt in the American South
1877:
1865:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1817:
1805:
1793:
1781:
1769:
1757:
1745:
1727:
1710:Black Belt in the American South
1646:
168:Black Belt in the American South
3747:
3730:
3718:
3706:
3681:
3668:
3655:
3642:
3608:
3589:
3572:
3559:
3543:
3527:
3511:
3498:
3472:
3425:
3390:
3377:
3361:
3188:
3171:
3158:
3145:
3130:
3113:
3073:
3008:
2992:
2975:
2962:
2949:
772:National Council of Negro Women
3878:Journal of Pan African Studies
3828:The Review of Regional Studies
3744:70.1 (January 2017) pp. 22-49.
3678:(LSU Press, 1987) pp. 273-274.
3099:. A&C Black. p. 123.
3083:(2018) focuses on Mississippi.
2845:
2793:
2784:Arthur Raper, "The Black Belt"
2777:
2764:
2747:Washington, Booker T. (1901).
2740:
2724:
2266:Black Belt (region of Alabama)
1922:
1569:Racism against Black Americans
1:
3695:31.4 (Winter 2019): 715-740.
3508:(Montgomery: 1930), pp. 53ff.
2684:
2473:, an educational arm of the
2471:Cooperative Extension Service
2431:
777:National Pan-Hellenic Council
3241:James Noble Gregory (2005).
3000:Florida Historical Quarterly
2562:Restoration of old dwellings
2444:ideology of the modernizing
1579:School segregation in the US
1117:Black American Sign Language
1091:Languages and other dialects
7:
3196:Journal of American History
3121:Journal of Economic History
2869:Seth C. McKee (Fall 2012).
2621:
2605:airmen in the U.S. military
2441:Southern Baptist Convention
2270:
406:African-American businesses
10:
4231:
3930:Journal of Negro Education
3598:American Baptist Quarterly
3537:23#2 (1954), pp. 153-174
2488:
2467:historically black college
2418:
2255:
2251:
944:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
619:Congressional Black Caucus
586:African Diaspora Religions
373:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
4084:
3822:Gibbs, Robert M. (2003).
3784:American Literary History
3736:Ashley A. Dumas, et al.,
3693:American Literary History
3652:(2008), Vol. 21, pp 23-41
3580:Reconstruction in Alabama
3521:23#2 (1954), pp. 153-174
3341:D. Clayton Brown (2011).
3093:Klaus P. Fischer (2006).
2774:25.1 (2010) pp. 108, 109.
2514:Historiography and memory
2463:Fort Valley State College
2119:Voting Rights Act of 1965
1740:
1722:
1715:
1708:
1451:US states and territories
752:American Life and History
474:Lift Every Voice and Sing
183:Treatment of the enslaved
26:2020 United States Census
4205:Black Belt (U.S. region)
3586:(2017, 15#4 pp. 542-544.
2929:Edward L. Ayers (2007).
2902:Michael Fellman (2010).
2707:Mississippi Encyclopedia
2663:Tenant farmers in the US
2504:the 1920s to the 1970s:
2461:economic opportunities.
2455:
1653:United States portal
1060:African-American English
571:African-American Muslims
132:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
4027:Encyclopedia of Alabama
3965:Southeastern Geographer
3725:The Souls of Black Folk
3713:The Souls of Black Folk
3650:Georgia Baptist History
3299:Holley, Donald (2000).
2823:King Jr., Martin Luther
2734:Sept. 20, 1894, p. 211
2534:The Souls of Black Folk
2123:Equal Protection Clause
1574:Reparations for slavery
662:Back-to-Africa movement
561:Black Hebrew Israelites
439:African-American beauty
3998:25.2 (2010): 175–182.
3974:Wharton, Vernon Lane.
3506:Agriculture of Alabama
3438:World Literature Today
3053:Jack M. Bloom (1987).
2801:"Black Belt Fact Book"
2658:Southern United States
2653:Republic of New Afrika
2574:
2551:
2511:
2428:
2416:
2236:
2217:Second Great Migration
2195:
2167:
2048:
1999:Martin Luther King Jr.
1992:Second Great Migration
1980:Southern United States
1971:
1938:
1044:Dialects and languages
204:Second Great Migration
29:
3932:22.2 (1953): 126–135.
3920:Mississippi Quarterly
3880:12.9 (2019): 110–144.
3871:online free to borrow
3665:93.3 (2019): 437–451.
3565:Vernon Lane Wharton,
3397:Pete, Daniel (2015).
3268:D. W. Meinig (2010).
3198:61.2 (1974): 394–416
3181:74.2 (2000): 241–257
3002:43.2 (1964): 153–164
2805:University of Alabama
2673:Soviet Negro Republic
2569:
2547:
2506:
2489:Further information:
2427:Picking cotton, 1890s
2426:
2403:
2256:Further information:
2230:
2190:
2165:
2050:During the period of
2043:
1985:In 1936, sociologist
1966:
1933:
1456:US metropolitan areas
1283:List of neighborhoods
897:Alabama Creole people
887:African-American Jews
819:Negro league baseball
782:National Urban League
734:Civic/economic groups
566:African-American Jews
456:African-American hair
318:, after the Civil War
147:Post–civil rights era
22:
4079:of the United States
3922:12.2 (1959): 92–96.
3865:Kirby, Jack Temple.
3855:Johnson, Charles S.
3663:Agricultural History
3553:(1955) 33#2: 87-92.
3179:Agricultural History
3166:Preface to Peasantry
3153:Preface to Peasantry
3141:(March 1944) pp 2-3.
3123:34.2 (1974): p. 468
3079:Stephanie R. Rolph,
2811:on November 3, 2007.
2703:"Black Belt/Prairie"
2166:Picking cotton, 1886
1962:Booker T. Washington
1613:Criminal stereotypes
1388:District of Columbia
1105:Afro-Seminole Creole
547:Non-Christian groups
142:Black power movement
106:during the Civil War
75:Atlantic slave trade
3939:40 (1958): 106–113.
3818:66.4 (2019): 30–37.
3800:Brown, D. Clayton.
3715:pp. 93–94, 96, 100.
3486:. November 25, 2012
3155:(1936), pp 212-213.
2985:80.1 (1976): 33–56
2081:William Howard Taft
2061:Fifteenth Amendment
2056:registering to vote
1009:Sierra Leone Creole
970:Specific ancestries
855:Southwestern (SWAC)
378:Black History Month
209:New Great Migration
163:Agriculture history
3967:48.1 (2008): 3–18
3841:10.52324/001c.8429
3701:10.1093/alh/ajz036
3383:Derrick Shapley,
3018:(1949) pp. 513-17.
2851:Charles S. Aiken,
2609:Tuskegee Institute
2491:Plantation economy
2437:William J. Northen
2429:
2399:Reconstruction era
2258:History of Alabama
2237:
2196:
2168:
2112:racial integration
2085:Theodore Roosevelt
2073:American Civil War
2003:massive resistance
1931:reported in 1894:
1018:Sexual orientation
892:Afro-Puerto Ricans
845:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
480:Self-determination
444:Black is beautiful
110:Reconstruction era
30:
4192:
4191:
3953:Vance, Rupert B.
3946:(April 19, 2004)
3901:Raper, Arthur F.
3810:978-1-60473-798-1
3687:Katherine Adams,
3410:978-1-4696-0814-3
3354:978-1-60473-799-8
3285:978-0-300-17394-9
3254:978-0-8078-2983-7
3227:978-0-521-03579-8
3106:978-0-8264-1816-6
2942:978-0-19-988683-8
2915:978-0-300-15501-3
2875:Southern Cultures
2838:978-0-520-28269-8
2668:Black Southerners
2618:at Norton Field.
2410:—and before him,
2363:Freedmen's Bureau
2233:Mississippi Delta
2212:cotton harvesters
2127:one man, one vote
2104:white supremacist
2100:Citizens' Council
1890:
1889:
1699:
1698:
1636:
1635:
1534:
1533:
1308:Dallas-Fort Worth
1125:
1124:
1035:
1034:
979:Americo-Liberians
862:
861:
800:
799:
725:
724:
594:
593:
538:Womanist theology
488:
487:
430:Symbols and ideas
216:
215:
95:Antebellum period
90:Revolutionary War
45:African Americans
4222:
4070:
4063:
4056:
4047:
4046:
4008:(PAWJ) 2#1: 6–9
3890:Odum, Howard W.
3852:(2003) pp 57–64.
3850:The Negro Church
3845:
3843:
3793:(1989): 133–157
3770:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3751:
3745:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3685:
3679:
3672:
3666:
3659:
3653:
3646:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3635:
3612:
3606:
3605:
3593:
3587:
3576:
3570:
3563:
3557:
3547:
3541:
3531:
3525:
3515:
3509:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3450:10.2307/40136135
3429:
3423:
3422:
3394:
3388:
3381:
3375:
3365:
3359:
3358:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3209:
3203:
3192:
3186:
3175:
3169:
3162:
3156:
3149:
3143:
3134:
3128:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3090:
3084:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3037:
3025:
3019:
3012:
3006:
2996:
2990:
2979:
2973:
2968:Geoffrey Cowan,
2966:
2960:
2955:Michael Perman,
2953:
2947:
2946:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2866:
2860:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2807:. Archived from
2797:
2791:
2788:Southern Spaces,
2781:
2775:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2744:
2738:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2698:
2543:Dougherty County
2495:Jim Crow economy
2412:W. E. B. Du Bois
2193:1900 U.S. Census
2153:Great Depression
1976:African American
1883:
1881:
1880:
1871:
1869:
1868:
1859:
1857:
1856:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1811:
1809:
1808:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1763:
1761:
1760:
1751:
1749:
1748:
1733:
1731:
1730:
1706:
1705:
1691:
1684:
1677:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1598:media depictions
1547:
1546:
1442:Population count
1138:
1137:
1072:Liberian English
1051:English dialects
1048:
1047:
1004:Samaná Americans
929:Creoles of color
875:
874:
813:
812:
757:Black conductors
738:
737:
607:
606:
581:Louisiana Voodoo
503:
502:
248:Family structure
231:
230:
178:Military history
173:Business history
104:military history
59:
58:
32:
31:
4230:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4220:
4219:
4195:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4080:
4074:
3944:Southern Spaces
3779:
3777:Further reading
3774:
3773:
3763:
3761:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3735:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3711:
3707:
3686:
3682:
3673:
3669:
3660:
3656:
3647:
3643:
3633:
3631:
3629:
3613:
3609:
3594:
3590:
3577:
3573:
3564:
3560:
3548:
3544:
3532:
3528:
3516:
3512:
3503:
3499:
3489:
3487:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3430:
3426:
3411:
3395:
3391:
3382:
3378:
3366:
3362:
3355:
3339:
3335:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3297:
3293:
3286:
3266:
3262:
3255:
3239:
3235:
3228:
3210:
3206:
3193:
3189:
3176:
3172:
3163:
3159:
3150:
3146:
3135:
3131:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3091:
3087:
3078:
3074:
3067:
3051:
3047:
3035:
3031:(August 2016).
3026:
3022:
3013:
3009:
2997:
2993:
2980:
2976:
2967:
2963:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2867:
2863:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2820:
2816:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2782:
2778:
2769:
2765:
2755:
2753:
2750:Up From Slavery
2745:
2741:
2729:
2725:
2711:
2709:
2699:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2624:
2564:
2539:Albany, Georgia
2525:W. E. B. DuBois
2521:
2519:W. E. B. DuBois
2516:
2501:
2487:
2458:
2450:white supremacy
2434:
2421:
2395:
2358:
2329:
2273:
2268:
2254:
2225:
2223:Quality of life
2201:Great Migration
2175:period was for
2136:
2039:Edward L. Ayers
2035:white supremacy
2027:
2025:Political power
1925:
1909:Great Migration
1878:
1876:
1875:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1746:
1744:
1728:
1726:
1718:
1711:
1704:
1695:
1647:
1645:
1638:
1637:
1632:
1588:
1544:
1536:
1535:
1530:
1475:
1437:
1413:Omaha, Nebraska
1378:Historic places
1372:
1264:
1135:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1086:
1045:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1013:
965:
907:Black Seminoles
872:
871:Sub-communities
864:
863:
850:Southern (SIAC)
810:
802:
801:
796:
751:
735:
727:
726:
721:
638:
604:
596:
595:
590:
576:Nation of Islam
542:
519:
500:
490:
489:
484:
425:
392:
359:
331:
292:
268:Musical theater
228:
218:
217:
199:Great Migration
56:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4228:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4077:"Belt" regions
4073:
4072:
4065:
4058:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4033:
4023:
4012:
4002:
3992:
3981:
3972:
3961:
3951:
3940:
3933:
3926:
3916:
3909:
3899:
3888:
3881:
3874:
3863:
3853:
3846:
3834:(3): 254–263.
3819:
3812:
3798:
3787:
3778:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3746:
3742:Alabama Review
3729:
3717:
3705:
3680:
3667:
3654:
3641:
3627:
3607:
3588:
3571:
3558:
3542:
3535:Church History
3526:
3519:Church History
3510:
3497:
3484:Alabama Byways
3471:
3424:
3409:
3389:
3376:
3360:
3353:
3333:
3316:
3309:
3291:
3284:
3260:
3253:
3233:
3226:
3204:
3187:
3170:
3157:
3151:Arthur Raper,
3144:
3139:Monthly Review
3129:
3112:
3105:
3085:
3072:
3065:
3045:
3020:
3007:
2991:
2974:
2961:
2948:
2941:
2921:
2914:
2894:
2887:
2861:
2844:
2837:
2814:
2792:
2776:
2763:
2739:
2723:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2563:
2560:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2486:
2483:
2457:
2454:
2433:
2430:
2420:
2417:
2394:
2391:
2357:
2356:Black religion
2354:
2328:
2327:White religion
2325:
2272:
2269:
2253:
2250:
2224:
2221:
2135:
2134:Tenant farming
2132:
2026:
2023:
1924:
1921:
1898:social history
1896:refers to the
1888:
1887:
1849:South Carolina
1837:North Carolina
1742:
1738:
1737:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1702:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1686:
1679:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1559:Black genocide
1555:
1552:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1468:
1466:US communities
1463:
1458:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1423:South Carolina
1420:
1418:North Carolina
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1274:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1240:South Carolina
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1220:North Carolina
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1087:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1077:Samaná English
1074:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1027:LGBT community
1023:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
991:
986:
984:Creek Freedmen
981:
975:
972:
971:
967:
966:
964:
963:
958:
957:
956:
954:Carmel Indians
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
915:
914:
909:
899:
894:
889:
883:
880:
879:
873:
870:
869:
866:
865:
860:
859:
858:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
835:Central (CIAA)
829:
828:
824:
823:
822:
821:
811:
808:
807:
804:
803:
798:
797:
795:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
746:
743:
742:
736:
733:
732:
729:
728:
723:
722:
720:
719:
714:
709:
704:
702:Pan-Africanism
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
674:
669:
664:
659:
654:
648:
645:
644:
640:
639:
637:
636:
631:
626:
621:
615:
612:
611:
605:
602:
601:
598:
597:
592:
591:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
552:
549:
548:
544:
543:
541:
540:
535:
533:Black theology
529:
526:
525:
521:
520:
518:
517:
511:
508:
507:
501:
496:
495:
492:
491:
486:
485:
483:
482:
477:
470:
465:
464:
463:
453:
448:
447:
446:
435:
432:
431:
427:
426:
424:
423:
418:
413:
408:
402:
399:
398:
397:Economic class
394:
393:
391:
390:
385:
380:
375:
369:
366:
365:
361:
360:
358:
357:
352:
347:
341:
338:
337:
336:Academic study
333:
332:
330:
329:
324:
319:
313:
308:
302:
299:
298:
294:
293:
291:
290:
285:
280:
275:
270:
265:
260:
255:
250:
245:
239:
236:
235:
229:
224:
223:
220:
219:
214:
213:
212:
211:
206:
201:
193:
192:
188:
187:
186:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
157:
156:
152:
151:
150:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
118:
117:
107:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
64:
63:
57:
52:
51:
48:
47:
41:
40:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4227:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4083:
4078:
4071:
4066:
4064:
4059:
4057:
4052:
4051:
4048:
4041:
4037:
4036:Yafa, Stephen
4034:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4011:
4007:
4003:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3973:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3931:
3927:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3914:
3910:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3886:
3882:
3879:
3875:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3820:
3817:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3780:
3760:
3756:
3750:
3743:
3739:
3733:
3726:
3721:
3714:
3709:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3684:
3677:
3671:
3664:
3658:
3651:
3645:
3630:
3624:
3620:
3619:
3611:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3581:
3575:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3507:
3501:
3485:
3481:
3475:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3428:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3393:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3370:
3364:
3356:
3350:
3346:
3345:
3337:
3330:. p. 15.
3329:
3328:
3320:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3295:
3287:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3272:
3264:
3256:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3237:
3229:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3208:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3184:
3180:
3174:
3167:
3161:
3154:
3148:
3142:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3122:
3116:
3108:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3089:
3082:
3076:
3068:
3066:0-253-20407-0
3062:
3058:
3057:
3049:
3041:
3034:
3030:
3024:
3017:
3011:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2988:
2984:
2978:
2971:
2965:
2958:
2952:
2944:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2925:
2917:
2911:
2907:
2906:
2898:
2890:
2888:9781469607382
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2857:online p. 215
2854:
2848:
2840:
2834:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2818:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2796:
2789:
2785:
2780:
2773:
2767:
2752:
2751:
2743:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2720:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2695:
2690:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2617:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2568:
2559:
2556:
2550:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2442:
2438:
2425:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2402:
2400:
2390:
2387:
2381:
2379:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2353:
2351:
2350:Social Gospel
2345:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2267:
2263:
2262:Alabama Fever
2259:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2229:
2220:
2218:
2215:known as the
2213:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2160:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2141:sharecroppers
2131:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2108:extreme right
2105:
2101:
2096:
2094:
2093:gerrymandered
2088:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1932:
1930:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1886:
1874:
1862:
1850:
1838:
1826:
1814:
1802:
1790:
1778:
1766:
1754:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1735:United States
1725:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1701:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1629:
1628:Minstrel show
1626:
1624:
1623:Magical Negro
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1540:
1539:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1434:
1433:West Virginia
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1368:San Francisco
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1348:New York City
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
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902:Black Indians
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840:HBCU (HBCUAC)
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3764:November 29,
3762:. Retrieved
3758:
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3490:November 24,
3488:. Retrieved
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3274:. Vol.
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3029:Lazar, Ernie
3023:
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2847:
2827:
2817:
2809:the original
2804:
2795:
2787:
2779:
2771:
2766:
2754:. Retrieved
2749:
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2726:
2717:
2710:. Retrieved
2706:
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2386:camp meeting
2382:
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2333:Presbyterian
2330:
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2246:
2242:
2238:
2205:
2197:
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2146:
2137:
2116:
2097:
2089:
2077:
2049:
2044:
2028:
2011:
1996:
1987:Arthur Raper
1984:
1972:
1967:
1942:geopolitical
1939:
1934:
1928:
1926:
1906:
1893:
1891:
1700:
1526:Sierra Leone
1358:Philadelphia
1328:Jacksonville
924:Brass Ankles
677:Conservatism
652:Afrocentrism
624:Joint Center
515:Black church
506:Institutions
421:Billionaires
411:Middle class
364:Celebrations
327:Fraternities
167:
3959:online free
3937:Mid-America
3907:Online free
3896:online free
3014:V. O. Key,
2756:January 26,
2719:production.
2633:Black mecca
2479:rural women
2408:Steven Hahn
2149:boll weevil
1923:Definitions
1825:Mississippi
1594:Stereotypes
1521:Nova Scotia
1403:Mississippi
1363:San Antonio
1343:Los Angeles
1278:Black mecca
1205:Mississippi
1112:Negro Dutch
934:Dominickers
878:Multiethnic
787:TransAfrica
697:Nationalism
667:Black power
451:Black pride
416:Upper class
115:Politicians
4199:Categories
4184:Unchurched
3628:080542668X
3444:(2): 326.
3310:155728606X
2732:The Nation
2712:August 23,
2685:References
2638:Deep South
2313:Montgomery
2173:antebellum
2071:after the
1958:Bible Belt
1929:The Nation
1902:Black Belt
1160:California
1134:Population
707:Patriotism
692:Liberalism
672:Capitalism
643:Ideologies
524:Theologies
383:Juneteenth
355:Literature
283:Newspapers
191:Migrations
122:Juneteenth
3604:(3): 241.
3458:0196-3570
3419:949947377
3327:Monograph
2648:New South
2446:New South
2341:Methodist
2337:Episcopal
2031:Redeemers
2019:Goldwater
2007:Southside
1950:rust belt
1946:snow belt
1861:Tennessee
1801:Louisiana
1618:Hollywood
1608:Blackface
1543:Prejudice
1461:US cities
1338:Lexington
1313:Davenport
1293:Baltimore
1269:US cities
1245:Tennessee
1195:Louisiana
1141:US states
949:Melungeon
919:Blaxicans
717:Socialism
682:Garveyism
657:Anarchism
461:Good hair
288:Soul food
258:Folktales
3859:(1941).
3466:40136135
2825:(2014).
2622:See also
2555:Sam Hose
2432:Religion
2277:freedmen
2271:Religion
2208:tractors
2177:planters
2157:New Deal
2069:freedmen
2065:suffrage
1954:sun belt
1913:Virginia
1885:Virginia
1813:Maryland
1765:Arkansas
1658:Category
1481:Diaspora
1408:Missouri
1333:Kentucky
1260:Virginia
1230:Oklahoma
1215:New York
1210:Nebraska
1200:Maryland
1175:Illinois
1155:Arkansas
994:Merikins
939:Freedmen
912:Mascogos
712:Populism
603:Politics
498:Religion
468:Stepping
234:Lifeways
70:Timeline
37:a series
35:Part of
4179:Tornado
4144:Pretzel
4109:Borscht
4042:(2004).
4029:(2009)
3861:excerpt
3816:Dissent
3634:June 1,
3164:Raper,
2959:(2001).
2855:(1998)
2419:Georgia
2321:Baptist
2317:Bullock
2309:Lowndes
2297:Marengo
2252:Alabama
1789:Georgia
1777:Florida
1753:Alabama
1723:Country
1516:Liberia
1398:Georgia
1393:Florida
1323:Houston
1318:Detroit
1303:Chicago
1288:Atlanta
1180:Indiana
1170:Georgia
1165:Florida
1150:Alabama
1082:Tutnese
961:Redbone
687:Leftism
388:Kwanzaa
345:Studies
297:Schools
226:Culture
155:Aspects
100:Slavery
62:Periods
54:History
4169:Stroke
4129:Jell-O
4119:Cotton
4089:Banana
4031:online
4020:online
4010:online
4000:online
3989:Online
3969:Online
3948:Online
3924:online
3808:
3795:Online
3625:
3555:Online
3539:online
3523:online
3464:
3456:
3417:
3407:
3373:Online
3351:
3307:
3282:
3251:
3224:
3200:online
3183:online
3125:Online
3103:
3063:
3004:online
2987:online
2939:
2912:
2885:
2835:
2736:online
2497:, and
2315:, and
2305:Wilcox
2301:Dallas
2293:Sumter
2281:Greene
2264:, and
2029:The "
1882:
1870:
1858:
1846:
1834:
1822:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1750:
1741:States
1732:
1550:Racism
1511:Israel
1501:France
1496:Canada
1491:Africa
1298:Boston
1235:Oregon
1190:Kansas
1100:Gullah
989:Gullah
809:Sports
556:Hoodoo
4124:Fruit
4104:Black
4099:Bison
4094:Bible
3462:JSTOR
3036:(PDF)
2541:, in
2456:Women
2339:, or
2289:Perry
2015:Selma
1936:Belt.
1917:Texas
1873:Texas
1663:Index
1506:Ghana
1428:Texas
1353:Omaha
1250:Texas
762:NAACP
273:Names
263:Music
243:Dance
4164:Snow
4159:Salt
4154:Rust
4149:Rice
4139:Pine
4134:Lead
4114:Corn
3806:ISBN
3766:2021
3636:2016
3623:ISBN
3492:2021
3454:ISSN
3415:OCLC
3405:ISBN
3349:ISBN
3305:ISBN
3280:ISBN
3249:ISBN
3222:ISBN
3101:ISBN
3061:ISBN
2937:ISBN
2910:ISBN
2883:ISBN
2833:ISBN
2790:2004
2758:2020
2714:2020
2465:, a
2369:and
2285:Hale
2210:and
1956:and
1892:The
1596:and
1255:Utah
1225:Ohio
1185:Iowa
792:UNCF
253:Film
102:and
4174:Sun
3836:doi
3697:doi
3582:in
3446:doi
2067:of
1915:to
350:Art
4201::
4038:.
3832:33
3830:.
3826:.
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3740:.
3691:.
3602:11
3600:.
3482:.
3460:.
3452:.
3442:55
3440:.
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2879:18
2877:.
2873:.
2803:.
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2693:^
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