485:*Pomeroy's report contains errors in the equation: the pipeline slope (S, p. 8) is quoted as m/100m, but should be m/m. This introduces a factor of 10 underestimate in the calculation of the "Z factor", used to indicate if there is a risk of sulfide-induced corrosion, if the published units are used. The web link is to the revised 1992 edition, which contains the units error - the 1976 edition has the correct units.
359:
growth. Providing good ventilation of sewers can reduce atmospheric concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas and may dry exposed sewer crowns, but this may create odor issues with neighbors around the venting shafts. Three other efficient methods can be used involving continuous operation of mechanical
161:
Some hydrogen sulfide gas diffuses into the headspace environment above the wastewater. Moisture evaporated from warm sewage may condense on unsubmerged walls of sewers, and is likely to hang in partially formed droplets from the horizontal crown of the sewer. As a portion of the hydrogen sulfide gas
63:
Corrosion may occur where stale sewage generates hydrogen sulfide gas into an atmosphere containing oxygen gas and high relative humidity. There must be an underlying anaerobic aquatic habitat containing sulfates and an overlying aerobic aquatic habitat separated by a gas phase containing both oxygen
387:
Existing structures that have extensive exposure to biogenic corrosion such as sewer manholes and pump station wet wells can be rehabilitated. Rehabilitation can be done with materials such as a structural epoxy coating, this epoxy is designed to be both acid-resistant and strengthen the compromised
320:
The second barrier is due to the precipitation, when the surficial pH gets below 10, of a layer of alumina gel (AH3 in cement chemistry notation). AH3 is a stable compound down to a pH of 4 and it will form an acid-resistant barrier as long as the surface pH is not lowered below 3–4 by the bacterial
354:
S, or using materials resistant to biogenic corrosion. For example, sewage flows more rapidly through steeper gradient sewers reducing time available for hydrogen sulfide generation. Likewise, removing sludge and sediments from the bottom of the pipes reduces the amount of anoxic areas responsible
151:
S is formed only in anaerobic conditions. Slow flow and long retention time gives more time to aerobic bacteria to consume all available dissolved oxygen in water, creating anaerobic conditions. The flatter the land, the less slope can be given to the sewer network, and this favors slower flow and
50:
in the presence of moisture to form sulfuric acid. The effect of sulfuric acid on concrete and steel surfaces exposed to severe wastewater environments can be devastating. In the USA alone, corrosion causes sewer asset losses estimated at $ 14 billion per year. This cost is expected to increase as
201:
of the adjacent concrete and aggregate particles. The weakened crown may then collapse under heavy overburden loads. Even within a well-designed sewer network, a rule of thumb in the industry suggests that 5% of the total length may/will suffer from biogenic corrosion. In these specific areas,
324:
The third barrier is the bacteriostatic effect locally activated when the surface reaches pH values less than 3–4. At this level, the alumina gel is no longer stable and will dissolve, liberating aluminum ions. These ions will accumulate in the thin biofilm. Once the concentration reaches
337:
A mortar made of calcium aluminate cement combined with calcium aluminate aggregates, i.e. a 100% calcium aluminate material, will last much longer, as aggregates can also limit microorganisms' growth and inhibit the acid generation at the source itself.
678:
Herisson J., Van
Hullebusch E., Gueguen Minerbe M., Chaussadent T. (2014) Biogenic corrosion mechanism: study of parameters explaining calcium aluminate cement durability. CAC 2014 – International Conference on Calcium Aluminates, May 2014, France. 12
453:
Herisson J., Van
Hullebusch E., Gueguen Minerbe M., Chaussadent T. (2014) Biogenic corrosion mechanism: study of parameters explaining calcium aluminate cement durability. CAC 2014 – International Conference on Calcium Aluminates, May 2014, France. 12
668:
Vincke E., Van
Wanseele E., Monteny J., Beeldens A., De Belie N., Taerwe L., Van Gemert D., Verstraete W. (2002) Influence of polymer addition on biogenic sulfuric acid attack. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 49,
449:
Vincke E., Van
Wanseele E., Monteny J., Beeldens A., De Belie N., Taerwe L., Van Gemert D., Verstraete W. (2002) Influence of polymer addition on biogenic sulfuric acid attack. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 49,
197:, it reacts with the calcium hydroxide in concrete to form calcium sulfate. This change simultaneously destroys the polymeric nature of calcium hydroxide and substitutes a larger molecule into the matrix causing pressure and
419:
Brongers, M.P.H., Virmani, P.Y., Payer, J.H., 2002. Drinking Water and Sewer
Systems in Corrosion Costs and preventive Strategies in the United States. United States Department of Transportation Federal Highway
312:
of calcium aluminate cements vs. ordinary
Portland Cement; one gram of calcium aluminate cement can neutralize around 40% more acid than a gram of ordinary Portland cement. For a given production of acid by the
621:
Morton R.L., Yanko W.A., Grahom D.W., Arnold R.G. (1991) Relationship between metal concentrations and crown corrosion in Los
Angeles County sewers. Research Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 63,
432:
Morton R.L., Yanko W.A., Grahom D.W., Arnold R.G. (1991) Relationship between metal concentrations and crown corrosion in Los
Angeles County sewers. Research Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 63,
121:
Sewage oxygen concentration. The threshold is 0.1 mg/l; above this value, sulfides produced in sludge and sediments are oxidized by oxygen; below this value, sulfides are emitted in the gaseous phase.
658:
Monteny J., De Belie N., Vincke E., Verstraete W., Taerwe L. (2001) Chemical and microbiological tests to simulate sulfuric acid corrosion of polymer-modified concrete. Cement and
Concrete Research, 31,
445:
Monteny J., De Belie N., Vincke E., Verstraete W., Taerwe L. (2001) Chemical and microbiological tests to simulate sulfuric acid corrosion of polymer-modified concrete. Cement and
Concrete Research, 31,
372:
S, or an injection of compressed air in pressurized mains to avoid the anaerobic condition to develop. In sewerage areas where biogenic sulfide corrosion is expected, acid-resistant materials like
304:, processes are completely different because they are based on another chemical composition. At least three different mechanisms contribute to the better resistance to biogenic corrosion:
631:
Mori T., Nonaka T., Tazaki K., Koga M., Hikosaka Y., Noda S. (1992) Interactions of nutrients, moisture, and pH on microbial corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. Water Research, 26, 29–37.
436:
Mori T., Nonaka T., Tazaki K., Koga M., Hikosaka Y., Noda S. (1992) Interactions of nutrients, moisture, and pH on microbial corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. Water Research, 26, 29–37.
511:
Weismann, D. & Lohse, M. (Hrsg.): "Sulfid-Praxishandbuch der Abwassertechnik; Geruch, Gefahr, Korrosion verhindern und Kosten beherrschen!" 1. Auflage, VULKAN-Verlag, 2007,
640:
Ismail N., Nonaka T., Noda S., Mori T. (1993) Effect of carbonation on microbial corrosion of concrete. Journal of Construction Management and Engineering, 20, 133-138.
439:
Ismail N., Nonaka T., Noda S., Mori T. (1993) Effect of carbonation on microbial corrosion of concrete. Journal of Construction Management and Engineering, 20, 133–138.
429:
United States Environmental Protection Agency (1985) Design Manual, Odor and Corrosion Control in Sanitary Sewerage Systems and Treatment Plants (Technical Report).
700:
649:
Davis J.L. (1998) Characterization and modeling of microbially induced corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
442:
Davis J.L. (1998) Characterization and modeling of microbially induced corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
162:
and oxygen gas from the air above the sewage dissolves into these stationary droplets, they become a habitat for sulfur oxidizing bacteria (SOB), of the genus
426:
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1991. Hydrogen Sulphide Corrosion in Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems (Technical Report).
612:
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1991. Hydrogen Sulphide Corrosion in Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems (Technical Report)
423:
Sydney, R., Esfandi, E., Surapaneni, S., 1996. Control concrete sewer corrosion via the crown spray process. Water Environ. Res. 68 (3), 338–347.
72:
Fresh domestic sewage entering a wastewater collection system contains proteins including organic sulfur compounds oxidizable to sulfates (
1036:
516:
479:
707:
499:
466:
735:
868:
117:
Hydrogen sulfide production depends on various physicochemical, topographic, and hydraulic parameters such as:
817:
202:
biogenic sulfide corrosion can deteriorate metal or several millimeters per year of concrete (see Table).
913:
309:
193:
Sulfuric acid produced by microorganisms will interact with the surface of the structure material. For
908:
373:
356:
301:
138:
105:
969:
740:
1010:
329:
effect on bacteria metabolism. In other words, bacteria will stop oxidizing the sulfur from H
326:
168:. Colonies of these aerobic bacteria metabolize the hydrogen sulfide gas to sulfuric acid (
8:
964:
883:
847:
837:
775:
535:
O'Dea, Vaughn, "Understanding Biogenic Sulfide Corrosion", MP (November 2007), pp. 36-39.
402:
52:
1072:
1000:
1077:
1067:
1057:
903:
827:
693:
512:
495:
462:
346:
There are several options to address biogenic sulfide corrosion problems: impairing H
164:
918:
893:
832:
97:
27:
1062:
928:
801:
361:
194:
898:
812:
770:
765:
745:
730:
1051:
949:
863:
755:
110:
31:
888:
878:
785:
368:
S formation, an active ventilation through odor treatment units to remove H
131:
Sewage pH. It must be included between 5.5 and 9 with an optimum at 7.5–8.
959:
873:
780:
188:
104:
S) as an alternative source of oxygen for catabolizing organic waste by
1020:
842:
750:
89:
43:
1005:
984:
979:
974:
923:
807:
397:
124:
Temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the kinetics of H
716:
92:
organic material in sewage. In the absence of dissolved oxygen and
47:
35:
23:
156:
954:
822:
760:
407:
314:
152:
more pumping stations (where retention time is generally longer).
93:
108:(SRB), identified primarily from the obligate anaerobic species
1015:
364:
can be continuously added in the sewerage water to impair the H
144:
85:
508:(8th edition) United States Government Printing Office (1975)
198:
39:
67:
685:
64:
and hydrogen sulfide at concentrations in excess of 2 ppm.
384:
may be substituted to ordinary concrete or steel sewers.
46:
environments. The hydrogen sulfide gas is biochemically
317:, a calcium aluminate cement concrete will last longer.
482:. Published by the Clay Pipes Development Association
333:
S to produce acid, and the pH will stop decreasing.
1049:
504:United States Department of the Interior (USDI)
84:) and may contain inorganic sulfates. Dissolved
16:Microbial degradation involving the sulfur cycle
157:Conversion of hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid
701:
480:"The problem of hydrogen sulphide in sewers"
137:Nutrients concentration, associated to the
708:
694:
563:
561:
559:
490:Sawyer, Clair N. & McCarty, Perry L.
68:Conversion of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide
1050:
1037:History of water supply and sanitation
556:
689:
30:gas and the subsequent conversion to
325:300–500 ppm, it will produce a
13:
360:equipment: chemical reactant like
14:
1089:
553:Sydney et al., 1996; US EPA, 1991
494:(2nd edition) McGraw-Hill (1967)
88:is depleted as bacteria begin to
567:Sawyer&McCarty p.461&462
492:Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers
459:Water and Waste-Water Technology
308:The first barrier is the larger
736:Decentralized wastewater system
672:
662:
652:
643:
634:
625:
615:
606:
597:
588:
579:
570:
547:
538:
529:
350:S formation, venting out the H
58:
1:
461:John Wiley & Sons (1975)
413:
341:
715:
182:
26:mediated process of forming
7:
391:
10:
1094:
945:Biogenic sulfide corrosion
914:Stormwater detention vault
310:acid neutralizing capacity
186:
96:, sulfates are reduced to
20:Biogenic sulfide corrosion
1029:
993:
937:
909:Sewer gas destructor lamp
856:
794:
723:
374:calcium aluminate cements
357:sulfate-reducing bacteria
302:calcium aluminate cements
139:biochemical oxygen demand
106:sulfate-reducing bacteria
576:Metcalf & Eddy p.259
522:
195:ordinary Portland cement
970:Sanitary sewer overflow
869:Combined sewer overflow
741:Drain-waste-vent system
795:Construction materials
473:Wastewater Engineering
1011:Industrial wastewater
544:Brongers et al., 2002
478:Pomeroy, R.D., 1976,
134:Sulfate concentration
388:concrete structure.
277:Monteny et al., 2001
994:Liquids transported
965:Infiltration/Inflow
848:Vitrified clay pipe
838:Reinforced concrete
776:Simplified sewerage
471:Metcalf & Eddy
403:Microbial corrosion
382:vitrified clay pipe
288:Vincke et al., 2002
255:Ismail et al., 1993
233:Morton et al., 1991
55:continues to fail.
1001:Blackwater (waste)
475:McGraw-Hill (1972)
143:Conception of the
1045:
1044:
904:Sewer dosing unit
857:Related equipment
828:Interceptor ditch
517:978-3-8027-2845-7
298:
297:
244:Mori et al., 1992
165:Acidithiobacillus
1085:
919:Submersible pump
894:Sanitary manhole
710:
703:
696:
687:
686:
680:
676:
670:
666:
660:
656:
650:
647:
641:
638:
632:
629:
623:
619:
613:
610:
604:
601:
595:
594:USDI pp.9&10
592:
586:
583:
577:
574:
568:
565:
554:
551:
545:
542:
536:
533:
457:Hammer, Mark J.
205:
204:
178:
98:hydrogen sulfide
83:
82:
81:
78:
28:hydrogen sulfide
1093:
1092:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1025:
989:
933:
852:
802:Asbestos cement
790:
719:
714:
684:
683:
677:
673:
667:
663:
657:
653:
648:
644:
639:
635:
630:
626:
620:
616:
611:
607:
602:
598:
593:
589:
584:
580:
575:
571:
566:
557:
552:
548:
543:
539:
534:
530:
525:
506:Concrete Manual
420:Administration.
416:
394:
371:
367:
362:calcium nitrate
353:
349:
344:
332:
211:Thickness loss
191:
185:
177:
173:
169:
159:
150:
127:
103:
79:
76:
75:
73:
70:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1091:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1039:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
997:
995:
991:
990:
988:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
941:
939:
935:
934:
932:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
899:Sewage pumping
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
860:
858:
854:
853:
851:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
813:Cast iron pipe
810:
805:
798:
796:
792:
791:
789:
788:
783:
778:
773:
771:Sanitary sewer
768:
766:Pressure sewer
763:
758:
753:
748:
746:Effluent sewer
743:
738:
733:
731:Combined sewer
727:
725:
721:
720:
713:
712:
705:
698:
690:
682:
681:
671:
661:
651:
642:
633:
624:
614:
605:
596:
587:
578:
569:
555:
546:
537:
527:
526:
524:
521:
520:
519:
509:
502:
488:
487:
486:
476:
469:
455:
451:
447:
443:
440:
437:
434:
430:
427:
424:
421:
415:
412:
411:
410:
405:
400:
393:
390:
369:
365:
351:
347:
343:
340:
335:
334:
330:
327:bacteriostatic
322:
318:
296:
295:
292:
289:
285:
284:
281:
278:
274:
273:
270:
267:
263:
262:
259:
256:
252:
251:
248:
245:
241:
240:
237:
234:
230:
229:
226:
223:
219:
218:
217:Material type
215:
209:
184:
181:
175:
171:
158:
155:
154:
153:
148:
141:
135:
132:
129:
125:
122:
101:
69:
66:
60:
57:
53:infrastructure
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1090:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
998:
996:
992:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
950:Blocked Sewer
948:
946:
943:
942:
940:
936:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
864:Chopper pumps
862:
861:
859:
855:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
818:Concrete pipe
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
803:
800:
799:
797:
793:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
756:Gravity sewer
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
728:
726:
722:
718:
711:
706:
704:
699:
697:
692:
691:
688:
675:
665:
655:
646:
637:
628:
618:
609:
600:
591:
582:
573:
564:
562:
560:
550:
541:
532:
528:
518:
514:
510:
507:
503:
501:
500:0-07-054970-2
497:
493:
489:
484:
483:
481:
477:
474:
470:
468:
467:0-471-34726-4
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
441:
438:
435:
431:
428:
425:
422:
418:
417:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
395:
389:
385:
383:
379:
375:
363:
358:
339:
328:
323:
319:
316:
311:
307:
306:
305:
303:
293:
290:
287:
286:
282:
279:
276:
275:
271:
268:
265:
264:
260:
257:
254:
253:
249:
246:
243:
242:
238:
235:
232:
231:
227:
224:
221:
220:
216:
214:
213:(in mm/year)
210:
207:
206:
203:
200:
196:
190:
180:
167:
166:
146:
142:
140:
136:
133:
130:
128:S production.
123:
120:
119:
118:
115:
113:
112:
111:Desulfovibrio
107:
99:
95:
91:
87:
65:
56:
54:
49:
45:
41:
37:
34:that attacks
33:
32:sulfuric acid
29:
25:
21:
944:
889:Lift station
879:Grinder pump
833:Plastic pipe
786:Vacuum sewer
674:
664:
654:
645:
636:
627:
617:
608:
599:
590:
585:US EPA, 1985
581:
572:
549:
540:
531:
505:
491:
472:
458:
386:
381:
377:
345:
336:
299:
222:US EPA, 1991
212:
192:
163:
160:
116:
109:
71:
62:
19:
18:
960:First flush
874:Grease trap
781:Storm drain
603:Hammer p.58
266:Davis, 1998
189:Sulfidation
59:Environment
24:bacterially
1052:Categories
1030:Background
1021:Stormwater
884:Maceration
843:Steel pipe
751:Force main
659:1359-1365.
446:1359–1365.
414:References
342:Prevention
187:See also:
90:catabolize
51:the aging
44:wastewater
1073:Corrosion
1006:Greywater
985:Sewer rat
980:Sewer gas
975:Sewer fly
924:Sump pump
808:Brickwork
398:Corrosion
321:activity.
294:Concrete
291:1.1 – 1.8
280:1.0 – 1.3
272:Concrete
250:Concrete
247:4.3 – 4.7
239:Concrete
228:Concrete
183:Corrosion
1078:Sewerage
1068:Concrete
1058:Bacteria
938:Problems
717:Sewerage
669:283-292.
622:789–798.
450:283–292.
433:789–798.
392:See also
225:2.5 – 10
199:spalling
94:nitrates
48:oxidized
36:concrete
955:Fatberg
823:Culvert
761:Outfall
408:Sulfide
315:biofilm
283:Mortar
261:Mortar
42:within
1063:Cement
1016:Sewage
515:
498:
465:
208:Source
145:sewage
86:oxygen
724:Types
523:Notes
258:2 – 4
40:steel
22:is a
929:Trap
804:pipe
513:ISBN
496:ISBN
463:ISBN
355:for
300:For
147:As H
38:and
380:or
378:PVC
269:3.1
236:2.7
179:).
1054::
679:p.
558:^
454:p.
376:,
174:SO
114:.
100:(H
77:2−
74:SO
709:e
702:t
695:v
370:2
366:2
352:2
348:2
331:2
176:4
172:2
170:H
149:2
126:2
102:2
80:4
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