Dual inheritance theory

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since humans are the only ape to engage in food processing. The cooking of food has influenced genes to the extent that, research suggests, humans cannot live without cooking. A study on 513 individuals consuming long-term raw diets found that as the percentage of their diet which was made up of raw food and/or the length they had been on a diet of raw food increased, their BMI decreased. This is despite access to many non-thermal processing, like grinding, pounding or heating to 48 °C. (118 °F). With approximately 86 billion neurons in the human brain and 60–70 kg body mass, an exclusively raw diet close to that of what extant primates have would be not viable as, when modelled, it is argued that it would require an infeasible level of more than nine hours of feeding every day. However, this is contested, with alternative modelling showing enough calories could be obtained within 5–6 hours per day. Some scientists and anthropologists point to evidence that brain size in the Homo lineage started to increase well before the advent of cooking due to increased consumption of meat and that basic food processing (slicing) accounts for the size reduction in organs related to chewing. Cornélio et al. argues that improving cooperative abilities and a varying of diet to more meat and seeds improved foraging and hunting efficiency. It is this that allowed for the brain expansion, independent of cooking which they argue came much later, a consequence from the complex cognition that developed. Yet this is still an example of a cultural shift in diet and the resulting genetic evolution. Further criticism comes from the controversy of the archaeological evidence available. Some claim there is a lack of evidence of fire control when brain sizes first started expanding. Wrangham argues that anatomical evidence around the time of the origin of

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ancestors (e.g., choosing mates, hunting, avoiding predators, cooperating, using aggression). These evolved programs contain content-rich assumptions about how the world and other people work. When ideas are passed from mind to mind, they are changed by these evolved inference systems (much like messages get changed in a game of telephone). But the changes are not usually random. Evolved programs add and subtract information, reshaping the ideas in ways that make them more "intuitive", more memorable, and more attention-grabbing. In other words, "memes" (ideas) are not precisely like genes. Genes are normally copied faithfully as they are replicated, but ideas normally are not. It's not just that ideas mutate every once in a while, like genes do. Ideas are transformed every time they are passed from mind to mind, because the sender's message is being interpreted by evolved inference systems in the receiver. It is useful for some applications to note, however, that there are ways to pass ideas which are more resilient and involve substantially less mutation, such as by mass distribution of printed media.

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learning is more efficient. For environments that have very little variability, social learning is not needed since genes can adapt fast enough to the changes that occur, and innate behaviour is able to deal with the constant environment. In fast changing environments cultural learning would not be useful because what the previous generation knew is now outdated and will provide no benefit in the changed environment, and hence individual learning is more beneficial. It is only in the moderately changing environment where cultural learning becomes useful since each generation shares a mostly similar environment but genes have insufficient time to change to changes in the environment. While other species have social learning, and thus some level of culture, only humans, some birds and chimpanzees are known to have cumulative culture. Boyd and Richerson argue that the evolution of cumulative culture depends on observational learning and is uncommon in other species because it is ineffective when it is rare in a population. They propose that the environmental changes occurring in the

304:(1.8 million years ago), indicates that the control of fire and hence cooking occurred. At this time, the largest reductions in tooth size in the entirety of human evolution occurred, indicating that softer foods became prevalent in the diet. Also at this time was a narrowing of the pelvis indicating a smaller gut and also there is evidence that there was a loss of the ability to climb which Wrangham argues indicates the control of fire, since sleeping on the ground needs fire to ward off predators. The proposed increases in brain size from food processing will have led to a greater mental capacity for further cultural innovation in food processing which will have increased digestive efficiency further providing more energy for further gains in brain size. This positive feedback loop is argued to have led to the rapid brain size increases seen in the 290:

processing. Early examples of food processing include pounding, marinating and most notably cooking. Pounding meat breaks down the muscle fibres, hence taking away some of the job from the mouth, teeth and jaw. Marinating emulates the action of the stomach with high acid levels. Cooking partially breaks down food making it more easily digestible. Food enters the body effectively partly digested, and as such food processing reduces the work that the digestive system has to do. This means that there is selection for smaller digestive organs as the tissue is energetically expensive, those with smaller digestive organs can process their food but at a lower energetic cost than those with larger organs. Cooking is notable because the energy available from food increases when cooked and this also means less time is spent looking for food.

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traits to spread through a population (see above section on transmission biases). Conformist bias also helps maintain variation between groups. These two properties, rare in genetic transmission, are necessary for group selection to operate. Based on an earlier model by Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman, Boyd and Richerson show that conformist biases are almost inevitable when traits spread through social learning, implying that group selection is common in cultural evolution. Analysis of small groups in New Guinea imply that cultural group selection might be a good explanation for slowly changing aspects of social structure, but not for rapidly changing fads. The ability of cultural evolution to maintain intergroup diversity is what allows for the study of cultural phylogenetics.

403:. A measure of prestige could be the amount of deference shown to a potential cultural model by other individuals. A "skill bias" results when individuals can directly observe different cultural models performing a learned skill and are more likely to imitate cultural models that perform better at the specific skill. A "success bias" results from individuals preferentially imitating cultural models that they determine are most generally successful (as opposed to successful at a specific skill as in the skill bias.) A "similarity bias" results when individuals are more likely to imitate cultural models that are perceived as being similar to the individual based on specific traits. 696:, is similar to DIT in that it treats culture as an evolutionary process that is distinct from genetic transmission. However, there are some philosophical differences between memetics and DIT. One difference is that memetics' focus is on the selection potential of discrete replicators (memes), where DIT allows for transmission of both non-replicators and non-discrete cultural variants. DIT does not assume that replicators are necessary for cumulative adaptive evolution. DIT also more strongly emphasizes the role of genetic inheritance in shaping the capacity for cultural evolution. But perhaps the biggest difference is a difference in academic lineage. 354:

from a population. This effect should be especially strong in small populations. A model by Hahn and Bentley shows that cultural drift gives a reasonably good approximation to changes in the popularity of American baby names. Drift processes have also been suggested to explain changes in archaeological pottery and technology patent applications. Changes in the songs of song birds are also thought to arise from drift processes, where distinct dialects in different groups occur due to errors in songbird singing and acquisition by successive generations. Cultural drift is also observed in an early computer model of cultural evolution.

672:(HBE) and DIT have a similar relationship to what ecology and evolutionary biology have in the biological sciences. HBE is more concerned about ecological process and DIT more focused on historical process. One difference is that human behavioral ecologists often assume that culture is a system that produces the most adaptive outcome in a given environment. This implies that similar behavioral traditions should be found in similar environments. However, this is not always the case. A study of African cultures showed that cultural history was a better predictor of cultural traits than local ecological conditions. 294:

a day chewing. This frees up time which can be used for hunting. A raw diet means hunting is constrained since time spent hunting is time not spent eating and chewing plant material, but cooking reduces the time required to get the day's energy requirements, allowing for more subsistence activities. Digestibility of cooked carbohydrates is approximately on average 30% higher than digestibility of non-cooked carbohydrates. This increased energy intake, more free time and savings made on tissue used in the digestive system allowed for the selection of genes for larger brain size.

174:, including success bias (copying from those who are perceived to be better off), status bias (copying from those with higher status), homophily (copying from those most like ourselves), conformist bias (disproportionately picking up behaviors that more people are performing), etc. Understanding social learning is a system of pattern replication, and understanding that there are different rates of survival for different socially learned cultural variants, this sets up, by definition, an evolutionary structure: cultural evolution. 2574: 859: 3181: 2777: 510:. This book outlined a series of mathematical models of how genetic evolution might favor the selection of cultural traits and how cultural traits might, in turn, affect the speed of genetic evolution. While it was the first book published describing how genes and culture might coevolve, it had relatively little effect on the further development of DIT. Some critics felt that their models depended too heavily on genetic mechanisms at the expense of cultural mechanisms. Controversy surrounding Wilson's 7232: 5882: 556:. This book presents the now-standard mathematical models of the evolution of social learning under different environmental conditions, the population effects of social learning, various forces of selection on cultural learning rules, different forms of biased transmission and their population-level effects, and conflicts between cultural and genetic evolution. The book's conclusion also outlined areas for future research that are still relevant today. 7258: 7245: 5892: 36: 591:"In many ways the most complex and potentially rewarding of all approaches, , with its multiple processes and cerebral onslaught of sigmas and deltas, may appear too abstract to all but the most enthusiastic reader. Until such a time as the theoretical hieroglyphics can be translated into a respectable empirical science most observers will remain immune to its message." 619:

sees DIT models as providing the best explanations for the ultimate cause of human behavior and the best paradigm for integrating those disciplines with evolutionary theory. In a review of competing evolutionary perspectives on human behavior, Laland and Brown see DIT as the best candidate for uniting the other evolutionary perspectives under one theoretical umbrella.

189:. DIT recognizes that the natural selection of genotypes is an important component of the evolution of human behavior and that cultural traits can be constrained by genetic imperatives. However, DIT also recognizes that genetic evolution has endowed the human species with a parallel evolutionary process of cultural evolution. DIT makes three main claims: 163:. Genes and culture continually interact in a feedback loop: changes in genes can lead to changes in culture which can then influence genetic selection, and vice versa. One of the theory's central claims is that culture evolves partly through a Darwinian selection process, which dual inheritance theorists often describe by analogy to genetic evolution. 273:

and in societies which did not develop dairying, such as East Asians and Amerindians, this is still true today. In areas with lactase persistence, it is believed that by domesticating animals, a source of milk became available while an adult and thus strong selection for lactase persistence could occur; in a Scandinavian population, the estimated

230:, which describes the fall of birth rates within industrialized societies. Dual inheritance theorists hypothesize that the demographic transition may be a result of a prestige bias, where individuals that forgo reproduction to gain more influence in industrial societies are more likely to be chosen as cultural models. 166:'Culture', in this context, is defined as 'socially learned behavior', and 'social learning' is defined as copying behaviors observed in others or acquiring behaviors through being taught by others. Most of the modelling done in the field relies on the first dynamic (copying), though it can be extended to teaching. 223:, respectively. As another example, it is likely that once culture became adaptive, genetic selection caused a refinement of the cognitive architecture that stores and transmits cultural information. This refinement may have further influenced the way culture is stored and the biases that govern its transmission. 412:

mode cultural variant in the population. Another possible frequency dependent bias is the "rarity bias." The rarity bias results when individuals preferentially choose cultural variants that are less common in the population. The rarity bias is also sometimes called a "nonconformist" or "anti-conformist" bias.

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Content biases result from situations where some aspect of a cultural variant's content makes them more likely to be adopted. Content biases can result from genetic preferences, preferences determined by existing cultural traits, or a combination of the two. For example, food preferences can result

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Understanding the different ways that culture traits can be transmitted between individuals has been an important part of DIT research since the 1970s. Transmission biases occur when some cultural variants are favored over others during the process of cultural transmission. Boyd and Richerson (1985)

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Evolutionary psychologists study the evolved architecture of the human mind. They see it as composed of many different programs that process information, each with assumptions and procedures that were specialized by natural selection to solve a different adaptive problem faced by our hunter-gatherer

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Frequency-dependent biases result when an individual is biased to choose particular cultural variants based on their perceived frequency in the population. The most explored frequency-dependent bias is the "conformity bias." Conformity biases result when individuals attempt to copy the mean or the

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in evolutionary biology. In cultural drift, the frequency of cultural traits in a population may be subject to random fluctuations due to chance variations in which traits are observed and transmitted (sometimes called "sampling error"). These fluctuations might cause cultural variants to disappear

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Humans living on cooked diets spend only a fraction of their day chewing compared to other extant primates living on raw diets. American girls and boys spent on average 7 to 8 percent of their day chewing respectively (1.68 to 1.92 hours per day), compared to chimpanzees, who spend more than 6 hours

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There is no necessary contradiction between evolutionary psychology and DIT, but evolutionary psychologists argue that the psychology implicit in many DIT models is too simple; evolved programs have a rich inferential structure not captured by the idea of a "content bias". They also argue that some

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Herb Gintis has named DIT one of the two major conceptual theories with potential for unifying the behavioral sciences, including economics, biology, anthropology, sociology, psychology and political science. Because it addresses both the genetic and cultural components of human inheritance, Gintis

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One of the best known examples is the prevalence of the genotype for adult lactose absorption in human populations, such as Northern Europeans and some African societies, with a long history of raising cattle for milk. Until around 7,500 years ago, lactase production stopped shortly after weaning,

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In their 1985 book, Boyd and Richerson outlined an agenda for future DIT research. This agenda, outlined below, called for the development of both theoretical models and empirical research. DIT has since built a rich tradition of theoretical models over the past two decades. However, there has not

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In DIT, the evolution of culture is dependent on the evolution of social learning. Analytic models show that social learning becomes evolutionarily beneficial when the environment changes with enough frequency that genetic inheritance can not track the changes, but not fast enough that individual

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are human cultures and cultural variation. However, Dual Inheritance theorists charge that both disciplines too often treat culture as a static superorganic entity that dictates human behavior. Cultures are defined by a suite of common traits shared by a large group of people. DIT theorists argue

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is commonly thought to be nonexistent or unimportant in genetic evolution, DIT predicts that, due to the nature of cultural inheritance, it may be an important force in cultural evolution. Group selection occurs in cultural evolution because conformist biases make it difficult for novel cultural

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Cultural traits may be gained in a population through the process of individual learning. Once an individual learns a novel trait, it can be transmitted to other members of the population. The process of guided variation depends on an adaptive standard that determines what cultural variants are

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Despite its benefits, brain tissue requires a large amount of calories, hence a main constraint in selection for larger brains is calorie intake. A greater calorie intake can support greater quantities of brain tissue. This is argued to explain why human brains can be much larger than other apes,

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Culture has driven changes to the human digestive systems making many digestive organs, such as teeth or stomach, smaller than expected for primates of a similar size, and has been attributed to one of the reasons why humans have such large brains compared to other great apes. This is due to food

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Genes affect cultural evolution via psychological predispositions on cultural learning. Genes encode much of the information needed to form the human brain. Genes constrain the brain's structure and, hence, the ability of the brain to acquire and store culture. Genes may also endow individuals

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as a label is more influential in popular culture than in academia. Critics of memetics argue that it is lacking in empirical support or is conceptually ill-founded, and question whether there is hope for the memetic research program succeeding. Proponents point out that many cultural traits are

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that began when humans developed the cognitive architecture to understand others as mental agents. Furthermore, Tomasello proposed in the 80s that there are some disparities between the observational learning mechanisms found in humans and great apes - which go some way to explain the observable

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Context biases result from individuals using clues about the social structure of their population to determine what cultural variants to adopt. This determination is made without reference to the content of the variant. There are two major categories of context biases: model-based biases, and

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try to understand how maximizing genetic fitness, in either the modern era or past environments, can explain human behavior. When faced with a trait that seems maladaptive, some sociobiologists try to determine how the trait actually increases genetic fitness (maybe through kin selection or by

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Model-based biases result when an individual is biased to choose a particular "cultural model" to imitate. There are four major categories of model-based biases: prestige bias, skill bias, success bias, and similarity bias. A "prestige bias" results when individuals are more likely to imitate

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Differences between cultural phenomena result in differential rates of their spread; similarly, cultural differences among individuals can lead to differential survival and reproduction rates of individuals. The patterns of this selective process depend on transmission biases and can result in

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This view of culture emphasizes population thinking by focusing on the process by which culture is generated and maintained. It also views culture as a dynamic property of individuals, as opposed to a view of culture as a superorganic entity to which individuals must conform. This view's main

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techniques may also be useful for testing hypothesis stemming from DIT. Although findings from traditional ethnologic studies have been used to buttress DIT arguments, thus far there have been little ethnographic fieldwork designed to explicitly test these hypotheses.

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that this doesn't sufficiently explain variation in cultural traits at the individual level. By contrast, DIT models human culture at the individual level and views culture as the result of a dynamic evolutionary process at the population level.

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Cultural traits alter the social and physical environments under which genetic selection operates. For example, the cultural adoptions of agriculture and dairying have, in humans, caused genetic selection for the traits to digest starch and

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introduced ideas of cultural evolution to a popular audience. Although one of the best-selling science books of all time, because of its lack of mathematical rigor, it had little effect on the development of DIT. Also in 1976, geneticists

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transmitted by way of a self-assembly code (as in genetic evolution) is misleading, because this second use does not capture the algorithmic structure that makes an inheritance system require a particular kind of mathematical framework.

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Perry, George H; Dominy, Nathaniel J; Claw, Katrina G; Lee, Arthur S; Fiegler, Heike; Redon, Richard; Werner, John; Villanea, Fernando A; Mountain, Joanna L; Misra, Rajeev; Carter, Nigel P; Lee, Charles; Stone, Anne C (October 2007).

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McElreath, Richard; Lubell, Mark; Richerson, Peter J.; Waring, Timothy M.; Baum, William; Edsten, Edward; Efferson, Charles; Paciotti, Brian (November 2005). "Applying evolutionary models to the laboratory study of social learning".

603:. These behavioral economic techniques have been adapted to test predictions of cultural evolutionary models in laboratory settings as well as studying differences in cooperation in fifteen small-scale societies in the field. 1222:

Richerson, Peter J.; Boyd, Robert (2001). "Evolutionary Theory and the Social Sciences Increasingly a Mutual Exchange. Culture is Part of Human Biology. Why the Superorganic Concept Serves the Human Sciences Badly".

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published some of the first theoretical work that adapted principles of evolutionary theory to the evolution of cultures. In 1976, two developments in cultural evolutionary theory set the stage for DIT. In that year

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of the phenomena DIT models attribute to cultural evolution are cases of "evoked culture"—situations in which different evolved programs are activated in different places, in response to cues in the environment.

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Social learning processes give rise to cultural evolution. Cultural traits are transmitted differently from genetic traits and, therefore, result in different population-level effects on behavioral variation.

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Baum, William M.; Richerson, Peter J.; Efferson, Charles M.; Paciotti, Brian M. (September 2004). "Cultural evolution in laboratory microsocieties including traditions of rule giving and rule following".

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In DIT, the evolution and maintenance of cultures is described by five major mechanisms: natural selection of cultural variants, random variation, cultural drift, guided variation and transmission bias.

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speculating about early evolutionary environments). Dual inheritance theorists, in contrast, will consider a variety of genetic and cultural processes in addition to natural selection on genes.

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published the first dynamic models of gene–culture coevolution. These models were to form the basis for subsequent work on DIT, heralded by the publication of three seminal books in the 1980s.

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The human capacity to store and transmit culture arose from genetically evolved psychological mechanisms. This implies that at some point during the evolution of the human species a type of

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Bersaglieri, Todd; Sabeti, Pardis C.; Patterson, Nick; Vanderploeg, Trisha; Schaffner, Steve F.; Drake, Jared A.; Rhodes, Matthew; Reich, David E.; Hirschhorn, Joel N. (June 2004).

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Koebnick, C.; Strassner, C.; Hoffmann, I.; Leitzmann, C. (1999). "Consequences of a Long-Term Raw Food Diet on Body Weight and Menstruation: Results of a Questionnaire Survey".

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as “…the best nineteenth-century case for gene-culture coevolution.” The idea that human cultures undergo a similar evolutionary process as genetic evolution also goes back to

469:, accredited as a founding document of DIT; “The approach to gene-culture coevolution first developed by Engels and developed later on by anthropologists…” is described by 466: 177:

Because genetic evolution is relatively well understood, most of DIT examines cultural evolution and the interactions between cultural evolution and genetic evolution.

537:, passing cultural traits from parents to offspring; oblique transmission, passing cultural traits from any member of an older generation to a younger generation; and 972:

Simoons, F (1970). "Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: A problem in biologic and cultural interrelations: II. A culture historical hypothesis".

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defined and analytically modeled a number of possible transmission biases. The list of biases has been refined over the years, especially by Henrich and McElreath.

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Simoons, F (1969). "Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: A problem in biologic and cultural interrelations: I. Review of the medical research".

5614: 281:. Recently, analysis of natural selection on the human genome suggests that civilization has accelerated genetic change in humans over the past 10,000 years. 2705:

Kerr, Benjamin; Feldman, Marcus W. (January 2003). "Carving the Cognitive Niche: Optimal Learning Strategies in Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Environments".

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Malmström, Helena; Linderholm, Anna; Lidén, Kerstin; Storå, Jan; Molnar, Petra; Holmlund, Gunilla; Jakobsson, Mattias; Götherström, Anders (December 2010).

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from genetic preferences for sugary or fatty foods and socially-learned eating practices and taboos. Content biases are sometimes called "direct biases."

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Soltis, Joseph; Boyd, Robert; Richerson, Peter J. (June 1995). "Can Group-Functional Behaviors Evolve by Cultural Group Selection?: An Empirical Test".

576:"...for some reason I haven't fully fathomed, this most promising frontier of scientific research has attracted very few people and very little effort." 238:

People have defined the word "culture" to describe a large set of different phenomena. A definition that sums up what is meant by "culture" in DIT is:

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DIT also predicts that, under certain situations, cultural evolution may select for traits that are genetically maladaptive. An example of this is the

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Marwick, Ben (December 2008). "Three Styles of Darwinian Evolution in the Analysis Of Stone Artefacts: Which One to Use in Mainland Southeast Asia?".

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Aiello, Leslie C.; Wheeler, Peter (1995-01-01). "The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis: The Brain and the Digestive System in Human and Primate Evolution".

5928: 170:, at its simplest, involves blind copying of behaviors from a model (someone observed behaving), though it is also understood to have many potential 2122:

Zink, Katherine D.; Lieberman, Daniel E. (24 March 2016). "Impact of meat and Lower Palaeolithic food processing techniques on chewing in humans".

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Bentley, R.A., C. Lipo, H.D.G. Maschner and B. Marler 2007. Darwinian Archaeologies. In R.A. Bentley, H.D.G. Maschner & C. Chippendale (Eds.)

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Barkow, J., Cosmides, L, & Tooby, J. (1992) The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture. Oxford University Press.

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Cornélio, Alianda M.; de Bittencourt-Navarrete, Ruben E.; de Bittencourt Brum, Ricardo; Queiroz, Claudio M.; Costa, Marcos R. (25 April 2016).

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Mcelreath, Richard (June 2004). "Social Learning and the Maintenance of Cultural Variation: An Evolutionary Model and Data from East Africa".

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Feldman, M.; Cavalli-Sforna, L. (1976). "Cultural and biological evolutionary processes, selection for a trait under complex transmission".

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Laland, K.N.; Odling-Smee, J.; Myles, S. (2010). "How culture shaped the human genome: bringing genetics and the human sciences together".

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Random variation arises from errors in the learning, display or recall of cultural information, and is roughly analogous to the process of

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Henrich, Joseph; McElreath, Richard (2012). "Dual-inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution".

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Henrich, Joseph; McElreath, Richard (2012). "Dual-inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution".

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Henrich, Joseph; McElreath, Richard (2012). "Dual-inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution".

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may have provided the right environmental conditions. Michael Tomasello argues that cumulative cultural evolution results from a

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Feldman, M; Cavalli-Sfornza, L. (1977). "The evolution of continuous variation: II, complex transmission and assortive mating".

533:, this book built a mathematical theory concerning the spread of cultural traits. It describes the evolutionary implications of 4673: 79: 6664: 6584: 6559: 6438: 6318: 5921: 5630: 5390: 4492: 4442: 4357: 4330: 4184: 4156: 4137: 4111: 4085: 4052: 3489: 3040: 2768: 2649: 2446: 1792: 1575: 1240: 1201: 913: 17: 6784: 5992: 4987: 2938:

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.; Feldman, M. W. (1973). "Models for cultural inheritance. I. Group mean and within group variation".

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discrete, and that many existing models of cultural inheritance assume discrete cultural units, and hence involve memes.

86: 2691:

Richerson, P.J. and R. Boyd. 2000. Climate, culture, and the evolution of cognition. In C.M. Heyes and L. Huber, (Eds),

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Richerson, P. J.; Boyd, R. (2000). "Built for Speed: Pleistocene Climate Variation and the Origin of Human Culture".

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Sasaki, Joni Y. (2013). "Promise and Challenges Surrounding Culture–Gene Coevolution and Gene–Culture Interactions".

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The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter

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The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter

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Richerson, Peter J.; Boyd, Robert (2001). "Built For Speed, Not For Comfort: Darwinian Theory and Human Culture".

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Mesoudi, Alex; Whiten, Andrew; Laland, Kevin N. (August 2006). "Towards a unified science of cultural evolution".

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was 0.09-0.19. This implies that the cultural practice of raising cattle first for meat and later for milk led to

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Uyenoyama, M.; Feldman, M. W. (1980). "Theories of kin and group selection: a population genetics perspective".

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Boyd, R.; Richerson, P. (1983). "The cultural transmission of acquired variation: effects on genetic fitness".

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Culture is socially learned information stored in individuals' brains that is capable of affecting behavior.

7305: 7017: 6789: 6609: 6232: 6200: 6108: 5825: 5327: 4608:, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, and Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen 545: 7263: 6829: 6064: 5895: 5489: 3246:

Marwick, Ben (2005). "What Can Archaeology Do With Boyd and Richerson's Cultural Evolutionary Program?".

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Holden, C.; Mace, R. (1997). "Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults".

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disagrees with this critique, citing empirical work as well as more recent work using techniques from

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Henrich, Joseph; Boyd, Robert; Bowles, Samuel; Camerer, Colin; Fehr, Ernst; Gintis, Herbert (2004).

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Gabora, L (2013). "An evolutionary framework for culture: Selectionism versus communal exchange".

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Gerbault, Pascale; Roffet-Salque, Mélanie; Evershed, Richard P.; Thomas, Mark G. (December 2013).

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Itan, Yuval; Powell, Adam; Beaumont, Mark A.; Burger, Joachim; Thomas, Mark G. (28 August 2009).

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Boyer, P. (2001) Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. Basic Books.

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Other criticisms of the effort to frame culture in tandem with evolution have been leveled by

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Henrich, Joseph; McElreath, Richard (January 2003). "The evolution of cultural evolution".

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Henrich, Joseph; McElreath, Richard (January 2003). "The evolution of cultural evolution".

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Henrich, Joseph; McElreath, Richard (January 2003). "The evolution of cultural evolution".

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Boyd, Robert; Richerson, Peter J. (2001). "Memes: Universal acid or a better mousetrap".

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Campbell, D. T. (1965). "Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution".

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Koerper, H.; Stickel, E. (1980). "Cultural Drift: A Primary Process of Culture Change".

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Campbell, D. 1965. Variation and selective retention in socio-cultural evolution. In

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CARTA: The Evolution of Human Nutrition -- Richard Wrangham: Fire Starch Meat and Honey

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Since one of the goals of DIT is to explain the distribution of human cultural traits,

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advantage is that it connects individual-level processes to population-level outcomes.

160: 3385:"Conformists and mavericks: the empirics of frequency-dependent cultural transmission" 7257: 7250: 7244: 7027: 7022: 6936: 6738: 6479: 6446: 6313: 6174: 6122: 6081: 6059: 6027: 5891: 5845: 5571: 5519: 5297: 5113: 5014: 4977: 4972: 4928: 4923: 4876: 4842: 4469: 4438: 4398: 4353: 4326: 4286: 4250: 4180: 4152: 4133: 4107: 4081: 4066: 4048: 3907: 3789:

Gabora, Liane (March 2008). "The cultural evolution of socially situated cognition".

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Temkin, I.; Eldredge, N. (2007). "Phylogenetics and material cultural evolution".

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Boyd, Robert; Richerson, Peter J. (2007). "Culture, Adaptation, and Innateness".

3812: 3720:"Cultural variation in Africa: role of mechanisms of transmission and adaptation" 2804:

Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought

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Carmody, Rachel N.; Weintraub, Gil S.; Wrangham, Richard W. (29 November 2011).

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Bentley, R. Alexander; Hahn, Matthew W.; Shennan, Stephen J. (22 July 2004).

2272: 2065: 757: – Study of cultural change modelled on theories of evolutionary biology 748: 587:

attribute this lack of attention to DIT's heavy reliance on formal modeling.

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DIT holds that genetic and cultural evolution interacted in the evolution of

4313:

McElreath, Richard; Henrich, Joseph (2012). "Modelling cultural evolution".

4096:

Genes, Memes and Human History: Darwinian Archaeology and Cultural Evolution

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Sperber, D. (1996). Explaining Culture: A Naturalistic Approach. Blackwell.

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leading to cumulative cultural evolution was evolutionarily advantageous.

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Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut

4514:, Departments of Psychology and Economics, University of British Columbia 3717: 2567: 2319:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences

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difference between great ape traditions and human types of culture (see

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Human Biological and Cultural Evolution Group, University of Exeter, UK

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The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution

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Gabora, Liane (2011). "Five Clarifications about Cultural Evolution".

3259: 2873: 2367:"Drift as a mechanism for cultural change: An example from baby names" 2008: 1179: 1177: 823:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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Fonseca-Azevedo, Karina; Herculano-Houzel, Suzana (6 November 2012).

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Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany

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Culture can profoundly influence gene frequencies in a population.

4555: 3894: 3840: 3803: 2468: 1994: 1882:"Energetic consequences of thermal and nonthermal food processing" 572:

expressed disappointment at the little attention afforded to DIT:

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Sense and Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behaviour

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Fracchia, J.; Lewontin, R. C. (1999). "Does culture evolve?".

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Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach.

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Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach.

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Mace, Ruth; Holden, Clare J.; Shennan, Stephen, eds. (2016).

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Three styles in the evolutionary analysis of human behavior.

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Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach

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Gorman, Rachael Moeller (2008). "Cooking Up Bigger Brains".

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Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach

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Not By Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution

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The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man

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with certain types of transmission bias (described below).

4546:, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia 4526:, Department of Environmental Science and Policy, UC Davis 4376:. Stephen Shennan. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 304. 3316: 2242: 2240: 2225: 1547: 1249: 1162: 250: 1963:

University of California Television (UCTV) (2013-03-21),

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Carmody, Rachel N.; Wrangham, Richard W. (October 2009).

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may also have decreased the lasting effect of this book.

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Culture; A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions.

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behavior that is more adaptive to a given environment.

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Cavalli-Sforza, L., P. Menozzi and A. Piazza. 1994.

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Further information on cultural group selection:

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Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews

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Genes, Mind and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process.

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The descent of man and selection in relation to sex.

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Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews

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Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews

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has criticised DIT. She argues that traits that are

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Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

3864:

How a generation was misled about natural selection

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Borrowing heavily from 465:wrote a manuscript titled 441: 407:Frequency-dependent biases 7219: 7145:Environmental determinism 7116:Cultural selection theory 7108: 7003:Evolutionary epistemology 6990: 6917:evolutionary neuroscience 6879: 6872: 6770: 6645: 6590:Rank theory of depression 6513: 6437: 6339: 6145: 6138: 6092:Parent–offspring conflict 6001: 5944: 5876: 5776: 5701: 5605: 5532: 5488: 5343: 5247: 5064: 5023: 4956:Parent–offspring conflict 4892: 4761:Earliest known life forms 4682: 4649: 4283:10.1017/s0140525x07000581 4247:10.1017/S0140525X06009083 3627:Richerson & Boyd 2008 3606:10.1017/s0140525x07000581 3559:10.1017/s0140525x07000581 3532:10.1525/aa.2004.106.2.308 3308:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2981:Boyd & Richerson 1985 2695:Massachusetts: MIT Press. 2590:Boyd & Richerson 1985 2417:Boyd & Richerson 1985 2053:Frontiers in Neuroscience 1256:Richerson & Boyd 2008 1169:Richerson & Boyd 2008 1131:Richerson & Boyd 2008 1119:Boyd & Richerson 1985 866:Richerson & Boyd 2008 755:Cultural selection theory 517:The second 1981 book was 498:Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza 69:"Dual inheritance theory" 7038:Cultural group selection 6922:Biocultural anthropology 6615:Societal impacts of cars 6548:Media naturalness theory 6238:Fight-or-flight response 5809:Cultural group selection 5673:The eclipse of Darwinism 5645:On the Origin of Species 5620:Transmutation of species 4147:Henrich, Joseph (2015). 4019: 3850:10.1163/156853711x568699 2753:Perspectives in Ethology 2273:10.1086/jar.36.4.3629615 2066:10.3389/fnins.2016.00167 1783:Henrich, Joseph (2015). 1371:BMC Evolutionary Biology 670:Human behavioral ecology 665:Human behavioral ecology 623:Relation to other fields 512:sociobiological theories 444:Cultural group selection 438:Cultural group selection 141:gene–culture coevolution 27:Theory of human behavior 7238:Evolutionary psychology 7202:Sociocultural evolution 7043:Dual inheritance theory 6500:Personality development 5961:Theoretical foundations 5938:Evolutionary psychology 5814:Dual inheritance theory 5653:History of paleontology 4487:Current DIT researchers 4383:Nature Reviews Genetics 3947:10.1111/0018-2656.00104 3882:Physics of Life Reviews 3777:Laland & Brown 2011 3745:10.1073/pnas.92.16.7585 3580:Laland & Brown 2011 3520:American Anthropologist 3323:Laland & Brown 2011 3191:Laland & Brown 2011 3081:Gould, Stephen (1987). 2200:10.1073/pnas.1018116108 1907:10.1073/pnas.1112128108 1675:10.1073/pnas.1206390109 1554:Laland & Brown 2011 1392:10.1186/1471-2148-10-89 767:Sociocultural evolution 683:, which comes from the 539:horizontal transmission 508:Genes, Mind and Culture 133:Dual inheritance theory 7160:Social constructionism 7155:Psychological nativism 7130:Biological determinism 7078:Recent human evolution 7073:Punctuated equilibrium 6896:Behavioral epigenetics 6891:evolutionary economics 6860:Variability hypothesis 6805:Emotional intelligence 6538:Engineering psychology 6228:Evolution of the brain 5502:Punctuated equilibrium 4823:Non-adaptive radiation 4771:Evolutionary arms race 4367:Sterelny, Kim (2002). 4035:and M. Feldman. 1981. 3677:Australian Archaeology 3286:Haag, Allison (2006). 3083:An Urchin in the Storm 2727:10.1006/jtbi.2003.3146 2386:10.1098/rsbl.2003.0045 2380:(Suppl 1): S120–S123. 2331:10.1098/rspb.2004.2746 835:10.1098/rstb.2008.0132 593: 578: 457:Historical development 338:in genetic evolution. 244: 228:demographic transition 7296:Cultural anthropology 7187:Multilineal evolution 7150:Nature versus nurture 7109:Theoretical positions 6957:Functional psychology 6952:Evolutionary medicine 6927:Biological psychiatry 6635:Texting while driving 6625:Lead–crime hypothesis 6485:Cognitive development 6470:Caregiver deprivation 5981:Gene selection theory 5794:Evolutionary medicine 5668:Mendelian inheritance 5376:Biological complexity 5364:Programmed cell death 5056:Phenotypic plasticity 4776:Evolutionary pressure 4766:Evidence of evolution 4664:Timeline of evolution 4094:Shennan, S. J. 2002. 4033:Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. 3248:Review of Archaeology 3056:Foster, John (2000). 3033:10.4324/9781315418612 1270:Psychological Inquiry 743:Nature versus nurture 638:cultural anthropology 589: 574: 535:vertical transmission 275:selection coefficient 240: 145:biocultural evolution 18:Biocultural evolution 7291:Behavioural genetics 7140:Cultural determinism 6947:Evolutionary biology 6932:Cognitive psychology 6880:Academic disciplines 6528:Cognitive ergonomics 6495:Language acquisition 6475:Childhood attachment 6288:Wason selection task 6182:Behavioral modernity 5971:Cognitive revolution 5954:Evolutionary thought 5768:Teleology in biology 5663:Blending inheritance 5041:Genetic assimilation 4904:Artificial selection 4643:Evolutionary biology 4344:. pp. 555–570. 4317:. pp. 571–586. 4061:Durham, W. H. 1991. 3995:Kauffman, S (1999). 3962:Current Anthropology 3862:Gabora, L. (2011). 2998:Current Anthropology 2636:. pp. 555–570. 2433:. pp. 551–557. 1598:Current Anthropology 1188:. pp. 142–162. 900:. pp. 555–570. 798:on 10 September 2017 601:behavioral economics 54:improve this article 7306:Population genetics 7207:Unilineal evolution 6972:Population genetics 6757:Sexy son hypothesis 6695:Hormonal motivation 6675:Concealed ovulation 6216:Dual process theory 6087:Parental investment 5831:Molecular evolution 5789:Ecological genetics 5658:Transitional fossil 5448:Sexual reproduction 5288:endomembrane system 5217:pollinator-mediated 5173:dolphins and whales 4951:Parental investment 4531:Related researchers 4200:Smith, E. A. 1999. 4165:Laland, K.H. 2017. 3779:, pp. 289–290. 3736:1995PNAS...92.7585G 3582:, pp. 287–319. 3448:2004EHumB..25..305B 3404:2008EHumB..29...56E 3362:2005EHumB..26..483M 3217:1983JThBi.100..567B 3146:1976TPBio...9..238F 2983:, pp. 227–240. 2952:1973TPBio...4...42C 2909:1980TPBio..17..380U 2866:1964Natur.201.1145S 2860:(4924): 1145–1147. 2719:2003JThBi.220..169K 2552:1977TPBio..11..161F 2509:1976TPBio...9..238F 2478:2013arXiv1309.7524G 2325:(1547): 1443–1450. 2191:2011PNAS..108.5209R 2144:10.1038/nature16990 2136:2016Natur.531..500Z 1898:2011PNAS..10819199C 1892:(48): 19199–19203. 1843:2009JHumE..57..379C 1761:10.1079/bjn19560019 1713:2008SciAm.298a.102G 1701:Scientific American 1666:2012PNAS..10918571F 1660:(45): 18571–18576. 1383:2010BMCEE..10...89M 1324:2009PLSCB...5E0491I 1133:, pp. 169–182. 1121:, pp. 199–202. 1054:Durham, W. 1991. 829:(1509): 3577–3589. 788:"Glossary of Terms" 527:population genetics 367:Biased transmission 268:Lactase persistence 7165:Social determinism 7048:Fisher's principle 7008:Great ape language 6998:Cultural evolution 6967:Philosophy of mind 6800:Division of labour 6762:Westermarck effect 6710:Mating preferences 6620:Distracted driving 6354:Literary criticism 6211:Domain specificity 6191:modularity of mind 5804:Cultural evolution 4919:Fisher's principle 4848:Handicap principle 4838:Parallel evolution 4702:Adaptive radiation 4574:2019-01-09 at the 4561:2007-06-12 at the 4542:2018-10-02 at the 4524:Peter J. Richerson 4504:2015-11-28 at the 4429:. pp. 23–38. 4262:Gintis, H (2006). 4226:10.1002/evan.10110 3935:History and Theory 3105:Darwin, C. 1874. 2679:10.1002/evan.10110 2616:10.1002/evan.10110 2493:Cavalli-Sforza, L. 2234:, pp. 98–102. 986:10.1007/bf02235991 943:10.1007/bf02233204 687:idea described in 585:Gillian Ruth Brown 479:Donald T. Campbell 394:Model-based biases 161:cultural evolution 7273: 7272: 7251:Psychology portal 7215: 7214: 7058:Hologenome theory 7028:Unit of selection 7023:Primate cognition 6937:Cognitive science 6868: 6867: 6739:Sexual attraction 6715:Mating strategies 6480:Cinderella effect 6410:Moral foundations 6314:Visual perception 6206:Domain generality 6175:Facial expression 6123:Sexual dimorphism 6082:Natural selection 6028:Hamiltonian spite 5904: 5903: 5520:Uniformitarianism 5473:Sex-determination 4978:Sexual dimorphism 4973:Natural selection 4877:Unit of selection 4843:Signalling theory 4594:Michael Tomasello 4518:Richard McElreath 4444:978-0-19-531013-9 4359:978-0-19-856830-8 4332:978-0-19-856830-8 4186:978-0-7867-4478-7 4158:978-1-4008-7329-6 4139:978-0-226-71213-0 4113:978-0-19-958696-7 4087:978-0-674-00582-2 4054:978-0-226-06931-9 3730:(16): 7585–7589. 3491:978-0-19-926205-2 3288:"The synthesizer" 3042:978-1-315-41860-5 2874:10.1038/2011145a0 2848:Maynard Smith, J. 2770:978-1-4613-5447-5 2651:978-0-19-856830-8 2448:978-0-08-045337-8 2419:, pp. 9, 69. 2185:(13): 5209–5214. 2130:(7595): 500–503. 2009:10.1159/000012770 1794:978-1-4008-7329-6 1577:978-0-7867-2750-6 1242:978-3-933127-64-8 1203:978-0-19-263244-9 1082:(10): 1256–1260. 915:978-0-19-856830-8 484:Richard Dawkins's 471:Stephen Jay Gould 321:Natural selection 181:Theoretical basis 157:genetic evolution 139:), also known as 130: 129: 122: 104: 16:(Redirected from 7318: 7260: 7247: 7234: 7233: 6877: 6876: 6873:Related subjects 6660:Adult attachment 6187:Cognitive module 6143: 6142: 6130:Social selection 6104:Costly signaling 6099:Sexual selection 5986:Modern synthesis 5931: 5924: 5917: 5908: 5907: 5894: 5884: 5883: 5683:Modern synthesis 5443:Multicellularity 5438:Mosaic evolution 5323:auditory ossicle 5005:Social selection 4988:Flowering plants 4983:Sexual selection 4636: 4629: 4622: 4613: 4612: 4477: 4460:(3–4): 425–465. 4448: 4419:Journal articles 4414: 4377: 4375: 4363: 4336: 4302: 4268: 4258: 4229: 4190: 4162: 4143: 4117: 4091: 4058: 4009: 4008: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3897: 3877: 3871: 3870:, Mindbloggling. 3868:Psychology Today 3860: 3854: 3853: 3843: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3806: 3797:(1–2): 104–114. 3786: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3757: 3747: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3672: 3666: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3648: 3645: 3639: 3636: 3630: 3624: 3618: 3617: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3515: 3509: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3469: 3460: 3459: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3389: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3307: 3299: 3283: 3277: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3243: 3237: 3236: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3179: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3129: 3123: 3116: 3110: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3020: 3014: 3013: 2993: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2935: 2929: 2928: 2892: 2886: 2885: 2844: 2838: 2821: 2815: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2775: 2774: 2748: 2739: 2738: 2702: 2696: 2689: 2683: 2682: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2629: 2620: 2619: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2572: 2571: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2471: 2459: 2453: 2452: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2397: 2371: 2362: 2353: 2352: 2342: 2310: 2301: 2294: 2285: 2284: 2256: 2250: 2244: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2212: 2202: 2170: 2164: 2163: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2110: 2109: 2103:www.berkeley.edu 2095: 2089: 2088: 2078: 2068: 2044: 2029: 2028: 1992: 1981: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1929: 1919: 1909: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1822: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1780: 1774: 1773: 1763: 1739: 1733: 1732: 1696: 1690: 1689: 1687: 1677: 1645: 1630: 1629: 1593: 1582: 1581: 1563: 1557: 1551: 1545: 1544: 1534: 1517:(6): 1111–1120. 1502: 1493: 1492: 1474: 1472:10.1002/iub.1227 1450: 1444: 1443: 1441: 1440: 1431:. 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In the 1960s, 463:Friedrich Engels 358:Guided variation 330:Random variation 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 21: 7326: 7325: 7321: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7301:Human evolution 7276: 7275: 7274: 7269: 7211: 7197:Neoevolutionism 7104: 7088:Species complex 7053:Group selection 6991:Research topics 6986: 6962:Neuropsychology 6864: 6850:Substance abuse 6772:Sex differences 6766: 6680:Coolidge effect 6641: 6553:Neuroergonomics 6518: 6509: 6433: 6335: 6269:Folk psychology 6150: 6134: 6004: 5997: 5940: 5935: 5905: 5900: 5872: 5799:Group selection 5772: 5697: 5601: 5528: 5490:Tempo and modes 5484: 5339: 5243: 5060: 5019: 4895: 4888: 4865:Species complex 4678: 4669:History of life 4645: 4640: 4576:Wayback Machine 4563:Wayback Machine 4544:Wayback Machine 4533: 4506:Wayback Machine 4489: 4484: 4445: 4421: 4395:10.1038/nrg2734 4373: 4360: 4333: 4266: 4197: 4187: 4179:. 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5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5027: 5025: 5021: 5020: 5018: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4953: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4932: 4931: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4900: 4898: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4886: 4885: 4884: 4874: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4862: 4852: 4851: 4850: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4828:Origin of life 4825: 4820: 4815: 4813:Microevolution 4810: 4808:Macroevolution 4805: 4800: 4795: 4794: 4793: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4746:Common descent 4743: 4742: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4724:Baldwin effect 4721: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4688: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4639: 4638: 4631: 4624: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4603: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4579: 4566: 4553: 4547: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4499:Marcus Feldman 4496: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4482:External links 4480: 4479: 4478: 4449: 4443: 4420: 4417: 4416: 4415: 4389:(2): 137–148. 4378: 4364: 4358: 4337: 4331: 4310: 4303: 4259: 4241:(4): 329–347. 4230: 4220:(3): 123–135. 4209: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4191: 4185: 4170: 4163: 4157: 4144: 4138: 4125: 4118: 4112: 4106:. OUP Oxford. 4099: 4092: 4086: 4073: 4059: 4053: 4040: 4030: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4010: 3987: 3974:10.1086/510463 3968:(1): 146–153. 3952: 3925: 3888:(2): 117–145. 3872: 3855: 3834:(1–2): 61–83. 3818: 3781: 3769: 3710: 3667: 3658: 3649: 3640: 3631: 3619: 3584: 3572: 3537: 3526:(2): 308–321. 3510: 3497: 3490: 3461: 3442:(5): 305–326. 3425: 3375: 3356:(6): 483–508. 3339: 3327: 3325:, p. 290. 3315: 3278: 3265: 3238: 3195: 3180: 3167: 3124: 3111: 3098: 3091: 3073: 3066: 3048: 3041: 3015: 3010:10.1086/204381 3004:(3): 473–494. 2985: 2973: 2930: 2903:(3): 380–414. 2887: 2839: 2824:Williams, G.C. 2816: 2799:Williams, G.C. 2791: 2787:Tomasello 1999 2776: 2769: 2740: 2713:(2): 169–188. 2697: 2684: 2673:(3): 123–135. 2657: 2650: 2621: 2610:(3): 123–135. 2594: 2573: 2546:(2): 161–181. 2530: 2503:(2): 238–259. 2483: 2454: 2447: 2421: 2409: 2354: 2302: 2286: 2267:(4): 463–469. 2251: 2249:, p. 127. 2236: 2224: 2165: 2114: 2090: 2030: 1982: 1955: 1953:, p. 142. 1943: 1941:, p. 140. 1931: 1872: 1837:(4): 379–391. 1812: 1800: 1793: 1775: 1754:(2): 111–115. 1734: 1707:(1): 102–105. 1691: 1631: 1610:10.1086/204350 1604:(2): 199–221. 1583: 1576: 1558: 1556:, p. 260. 1546: 1523:10.1086/421051 1494: 1445: 1416: 1357: 1295: 1260: 1248: 1241: 1209: 1202: 1173: 1161: 1148: 1135: 1123: 1111: 1088:10.1038/ng2123 1060: 1047: 1036:(5): 605–628. 1020: 1007: 980:(8): 695–710. 964: 921: 914: 885: 870: 858: 809: 777: 775: 772: 771: 770: 764: 758: 752: 746: 738: 735: 727:Niles Eldredge 706: 703: 677: 674: 666: 663: 646: 643: 629: 626: 624: 621: 597:Herbert Gintis 561: 558: 521:and Feldman's 519:Cavalli-Sforza 494:Marcus Feldman 458: 455: 439: 436: 427:ratchet effect 417: 414: 408: 405: 395: 392: 386: 383: 377: 374: 368: 365: 359: 356: 347:Cultural drift 343: 342:Cultural drift 340: 331: 328: 322: 319: 313: 310: 261: 258: 252: 249: 235: 232: 215: 212: 206: 203: 194: 191: 182: 179: 149:human behavior 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7323: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7283: 7281: 7266: 7265: 7259: 7255: 7253: 7252: 7246: 7242: 7240: 7239: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7222: 7221: 7218: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7192:Neo-Darwinism 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7177:Functionalism 7175: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7135:Connectionism 7133: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7126: 7125:indeterminism 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7030: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6989: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6888: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6878: 6875: 6871: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6845:Schizophrenia 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6830:Mental health 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6775: 6773: 6769: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6749: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6705:Mate guarding 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6665:Age disparity 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6652: 6650: 6648: 6644: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6617: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6595:Schizophrenia 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6521: 6520:Mental health 6516: 6515:Human factors 6512: 6506: 6505:Socialization 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6465:paternal bond 6462: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6436: 6430: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6411: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6403: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6385: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6367: 6364: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6330: 6329:Naïve physics 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6316: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6296: 6295:Motor control 6293: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6261: 6258: 6254: 6253:Ophidiophobia 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6243:Arachnophobia 6241: 6240: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6192: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6170:Display rules 6168: 6166: 6163: 6162: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6137: 6131: 6128: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6097: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6072:Kin selection 6070: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6006: 6000: 5994: 5991: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5966:Adaptationism 5964: 5963: 5962: 5959: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5943: 5939: 5932: 5927: 5925: 5920: 5918: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5887: 5879: 5878: 5875: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5847: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5841:Phylogenetics 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5801: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5779: 5775: 5769: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5744:Structuralism 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5719:Catastrophism 5717: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5678:Neo-Darwinism 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5647: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5637: 5633: 5632: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5604: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5592:Reinforcement 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5525: 5524:Catastrophism 5521: 5518: 5516: 5515:Macromutation 5512: 5511:Micromutation 5509: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5478: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5418:Immune system 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5355: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5342: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5278:symbiogenesis 5276: 5275: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5253: 5251: 5246: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5213: 5210: 5206: 5203: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5143: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5130: 5127: 5126: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5103: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5081: 5078: 5076: 5073: 5072: 5070: 5068: 5063: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5026: 5022: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4946:Kin selection 4944: 4942: 4941:Genetic drift 4939: 4937: 4934: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4891: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4632: 4630: 4625: 4623: 4618: 4617: 4614: 4607: 4604: 4601: 4600:Peter Turchin 4598: 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4580: 4577: 4573: 4570: 4567: 4564: 4560: 4557: 4554: 4551: 4548: 4545: 4541: 4538: 4535: 4534: 4525: 4522: 4519: 4516: 4513: 4510: 4507: 4503: 4500: 4497: 4494: 4491: 4490: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4422: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4372: 4371: 4365: 4361: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4198: 4188: 4182: 4178: 4177: 4171: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4154: 4150: 4145: 4141: 4135: 4131: 4126: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4079: 4074: 4072: 4071:0-8047-1537-8 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4031: 4028: 4024: 4023: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3929: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3778: 3773: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3671: 3662: 3653: 3644: 3635: 3628: 3623: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3588: 3581: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3507: 3501: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3466: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3379: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3311: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3275: 3269: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3211:(4): 567–96. 3210: 3206: 3199: 3192: 3187: 3185: 3177: 3171: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3140:(2): 238–59. 3139: 3135: 3128: 3121: 3115: 3108: 3102: 3094: 3092:0-393-02492-X 3088: 3084: 3077: 3069: 3067:9781583670125 3063: 3059: 3052: 3044: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2990: 2982: 2977: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2854: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2836:0-632-01541-1 2833: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2814: 2813:0-691-02357-3 2810: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2795: 2788: 2783: 2781: 2772: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2745: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2701: 2694: 2688: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2661: 2653: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2628: 2626: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2598: 2591: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2491:Feldman, M.; 2487: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2458: 2450: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2425: 2418: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2361: 2359: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2309: 2307: 2299: 2293: 2291: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2248: 2247:Wrangham 2009 2243: 2241: 2233: 2232:Wrangham 2009 2228: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2169: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2118: 2104: 2100: 2094: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2035: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1972: 1968: 1967: 1959: 1952: 1951:Wrangham 2009 1947: 1940: 1939:Wrangham 2009 1935: 1927: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1810:, p. 40. 1809: 1808:Wrangham 2009 1804: 1796: 1790: 1786: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1738: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1695: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1579: 1573: 1569: 1562: 1555: 1550: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1501: 1499: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1449: 1435:on 2017-03-28 1434: 1430: 1429:www.ucl.ac.uk 1426: 1420: 1412: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1361: 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