258:
327:
184:
398:
40:
502:
negotiations was to lead to de facto recognition of its existence, then in the second stage, the signing of the peace treaty with the
Central Powers would lead to the full recognition of the new government. This two-stage solution was the result of a compromise between Max Hoffmann and Richard von Kühlmann, who were both in favor of rapidly concluding peace with Russia, while the Dioscuri wished to realize the ambitious program of war objectives defined during the month of October.
422:, repelled the German government and military, who were all in favor of strengthening German power in Europe and Africa. What's more, this program exacerbated tensions between civilians and the military, with civilians calling for the establishment of independent states linked to Germany by long-term agreements, and the military for the annexation of the Baltic and Polish regions of the former Russian Empire to the Reich or to Prussia.
483:
439:
To legalize this military occupation, the military contemplated specific clauses in the peace treaty between Russia and the
Central Powers, the reorganization of its army along Prussian lines and the permanent occupation of certain Russian cities or regions. Customs and trade clauses were also considered. The Russian government was required to adopt German trade standards, and to draw up regulations for
273:, but these hopes were quickly dashed by the declarations of the members of the provisional government, who supported the continuation of the war. On November 21, 1917, however, when the Bolsheviks had secured their power in Petrograd, Lenin requested the opening of peace negotiations, which were immediately refused by the
384:, represented the civil government. Despite the pre-eminence of his position, the Chancellor, a tired old man, who was disliked by the Lutheran elite because he was a Catholic, delegated the details of the exchange with the military to his minister: relations between the Ministry and the OHL were abominable.
300:, announced to the Russian troops the end of hostilities with the Central Powers, calling into question the operational capabilities of the Russian army: Russian soldiers, thinking that peace had been signed, fraternized with Austro-German troops; these fraternizations were initially encouraged by the
473:
The conference participants agreed on moderate armistice conditions, limited to a suspension of arms and an armistice line defined by the front line. They accepted the
Bolsheviks' request to legalize fraternization between soldiers. However, a consensus was reached to limit its impact and scope: such
248:
On
November 6 and 7, 1917, the Bolsheviks staged a successful coup d'état in Petrograd, installing a government that remained in precarious conditions. It was not until early December 1917 that Lenin and his government managed to stabilize their power, not only in the capital but also in Moscow: the
497:
Richard von Kühlmann, however, made no mistake about the solidity of the
Petrograd government's power; despite the military's reluctance, he obtained de facto recognition of Lenin's government and the opening of peace negotiations. In the Secretary of State's view, no power that could impose itself
438:
The civilians' program was bound to clash with the military, who were still in favor of annexations in the Baltic states and the military occupation of vast portions of
Russian territory, including the seat of government, reduced to the role of extra and guarantor of Russia's proper administration.
225:
Russia's new government soon came out in favor of continuing
Russian involvement in the conflict, disappointing the wishes of the majority of the population. This policy also disappointed the Germans, who had expected the provisional government to request a suspension of operations. Thus, in April,
513:
While all participants agreed to remove Poland and the Baltic states from Russia, they remained divided over the nature of German control over these territories. The
Russian demand for a cessation of hostilities did not put an end to the quarrels between civilians and the military: the civilians
517:
Civilians and the military also disagreed over the delineation of Russia's western borders, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, with the civilians calling for remote control of these territories. In particular, through a return to the clauses of the German-Russian trade treaty in force before the
434:
The civilians wanted the
Eastern Front closed and long-term access to Russia's agricultural and mineral wealth, enabling the establishment of a continental bloc in Eastern Europe, supported by independent states detached from Russia and linked to the Reich by long-term political, technical and
417:
The revolutionary program of Lenin and his government seemed to frighten some German and Austro-Hungarian officials; indeed, Lenin's pacifist proclamations raised fears of contagion within the
Central Powers. The program of "peace without annexations or indemnities", which found echoes in the
501:
The Reich government did not wish to formally recognize the Council of People's Commissars as the legal government of the Russian Republic, but Richard von Kühlmann succeeded in getting the Kaiser to agree to a two-stage recognition of Lenin's government. In the first stage, the opening of
430:
Some of the participants, especially members of the civilian government, favored opening negotiations with the new authorities in Petrograd, while the military wanted to resume hostilities, which had in fact been suspended for a month, and "restore order" in Russia in Ludendorff's words.
265:
Since March, the German imperial government held a series of talks, both internally and with its quadruplicate allies, to define a program of war aims, despite the fact that the central powers had lost the strategic initiative in the previous year.
435:
economic agreements; they also wanted to remain out of Russian political life. To firmly tie Russia to the Reich, trade clauses were also considered: the Russian government had to agree to a return to the customs rate in effect in 1914.
143:
The conference, which brought together civilians and soldiers, was also a new opportunity for confrontation between members of the civilian government and the military, who were opposed over the nature of the peace to be imposed on a
514:
wanted to set up states linked to the Reich by long-term political, economic and military agreements, calling into question their real independence, while the military wanted extensive annexations in the Baltic states and Poland.
469:
The precarious nature of Lenin's government did not prevent those present from considering the opening of armistice negotiations, despite the differences within the Reich government over the policy to be adopted in Russia.
245:, which after some initial successes, gave the signal for the dissolution of the Russian army in July 1917, depriving the provisional government of any capacity to wage war effectively against the Central Powers.
136:
to ratify the conditions on which the members of the Quadruple Alliance, or Central Powers would be prepared to accept an armistice with the Council of People's Commissars in power in Russia after the
414:
was the most cautious about the Russian proposals. He was well aware of the precariousness of the new power in Petrograd, which had been in place for two weeks and did not control Russian territory.
129:
234:
and his relatives, to cross Germany by train to Russia to create a structured pacifist movement, in a context marked by the Russian population's weariness with the prolonged conflict.
642:
The military command therefore hoped to limit the impact of the pacifist propaganda that the Bolsheviks thought they could spread among the German units deployed on the Eastern Front.
586:
In the battles of the Somme, of Gorizia, and on the Brusiluv offensive, the Central Powers suffered losses that were impossible to replace, both in men and equipment.
651:
In Kreuznach, and then in Vienna Conferences, first German and then German-Austro-Hungarian, had defined an ambitious program of war aims on October 7 and 22.
297:
474:
meetings between German and Russian soldiers could only take place in specific locations, and exchanges of letters remained subject to postal control.
145:
148:. The former wanted to impose moderate conditions, while the latter favored a peace that would reflect the reality of the military balance on the
547:
457:
510:
This conference also represented the second opportunity to consider the peace terms that the Reich wished to impose on the Russian government.
249:
efforts of Kerensky, the most dangerous of their rivals at the time, to restore his authority ended in failure, as the army did not intervene.
629:
On July 31, 1917, the differences between civilian and military opinion on the question of the Reich's war goals were revealed during the
567:
1466:
498:
through a possible overthrow of the Bolsheviks would be able to impose a resumption of hostilities against the Central Powers.
1461:
1442:
1376:
1357:
1322:
1102:
1044:
1012:
965:
940:
868:
321:
440:
562:
20:
1415:
1294:
630:
1471:
1394:
1248:
917:
892:
845:
816:
794:
750:
701:
679:
523:
242:
257:
519:
211:
369:
992:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Migeon. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 465.
1343:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 654.
1270:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 481.
1226:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 489.
1204:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 484.
1179:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 488.
1154:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 483.
1132:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 485.
1071:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 462.
775:] (in French). Translated by Geneviève, Migeon; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 376.
726:] (in French). Translated by Migeon, Geneviève; Thiès, Henri. Paris: Éditions de Trévise. p. 374.
518:
outbreak of the conflict. Meanwhile, the military favored evicting Russia from the Baltic states, Poland,
596:
494:'s return to Russia, German leaders welcomed the new Russian government's requests to open negotiations.
463:
408:
The Bolshevik government's request gave rise to some reservations on the part of the Quadruple Alliance.
270:
199:
149:
1332:
1215:
1193:
1168:
1143:
1121:
1060:
981:
764:
715:
613:
419:
156:. This opposition also forms around the question of control over the abandoned Russian territories.
1350:
L'envers des parades: Le commandement de l'armée allemande: réalités et destins croisés: 1914-1918
261:
Fraternization between German and Russian soldiers was initially encouraged by the German command.
1082:
1028:
958:
L'envers des parades: Le commandement de l'armée allemande: réalités et destins croisés 1914-1918
557:
411:
401:
377:
326:
105:
381:
397:
552:
536:
362:
339:
301:
274:
219:
215:
8:
350:
207:
170:
109:
933:
L'envers des parades: Le commandement de l'armée allemande: réalités et destins croisés
617:
373:
238:
195:
187:
183:
174:
137:
101:
466:
led those present to take a positive view of the overtures of the Russian government.
1438:
1411:
1372:
1353:
1318:
1290:
1098:
1040:
1008:
961:
936:
864:
620:
portray him as an indolent old man, with little concern for the tasks imposed on him.
346:
309:
292:
As soon as the acceptance of the Russian proposal was announced on December 2, 1917,
45:
361:, the "unavoidable man from the East," attended this Crown Council on behalf of the
39:
354:
293:
282:
178:
113:
486:
Max Hoffmann opposed the conclusion of a peace that might be too harsh for Russia.
1386:
1240:
909:
884:
837:
808:
786:
742:
693:
671:
286:
595:
Max Hoffmann held various functions in the staffs of the armies deployed on the
404:
doubted the strength of the government established after the October Revolution.
269:
In Russia, the February Revolution raised hopes of the end of operations on the
491:
231:
153:
1404:
L'Or et le sang: Les Buts de guerre économiques de la Première Guerre mondiale
1283:
L'Or et le sang: Les Buts de guerre économiques de la Première Guerre mondiale
1455:
87:
49:
1313:
Bled, Jean-Paul; Deschodt, Jean-Pierre; et al. (Intarissable) (2017).
859:
Bled, Jean-Paul; Deschodt, Jean-Pierre; et al. (Intarissable) (2017).
358:
278:
117:
1431:
Histoire de l'Allemagne: XIXe-XXe siècle: Le long chemin vers l'Occident
1091:
Histoire de l'Allemagne: XIXe-XXe siècle: Le long chemin vers l'Occident
542:
335:
330:
Paul von Hindenburg, Wilhelm II and Erich Ludendorff on January 8, 1917
227:
191:
133:
97:
600:
305:
482:
443:
and rivers and canals based on the model in place in the Reich.
334:
The conference, held in the Imperial Chancellery and chaired by
237:
In parallel with this agitation, the Russian army carried out a
222:
has been crumbling and rapidly losing its operational capacity.
1434:
1407:
1286:
1094:
1036:
77:
357:, accompanied by their Chief of Staff and principal advisor,
477:
304:, the German High Command, despite the reservations of the
226:
the German government allowed exiled left-wing socialists (
1433:] (in French). Translated by Demange, Odile. Paris:
1093:] (in French). Translated by Demange, Odile. Paris:
308:, in charge of operations on the Eastern Front, and the
1341:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1268:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1224:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1202:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1177:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1152:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1130:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
1069:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
990:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
773:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
724:
Les Buts de guerre de l’Allemagne impériale (1914-1918)
296:, chief of staff of the Russian army appointed by the
126:
The Berlin Conference held on December 6 and 7, 1917
1391:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
1245:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
1035:(in French). Translated by Demange, Odile. Paris:
914:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
889:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
842:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
813:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
791:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
747:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
698:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
676:La Crise européenne et la Première Guerre mondiale
1389:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
1352:(in French). Paris: 14-18 éditions. p. 388.
1243:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
960:(in French). Paris: 14-18 éditions. p. 335.
935:(in French). Paris: 14-18 éditions. p. 336.
912:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
887:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
840:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
811:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
789:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
745:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
696:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
674:; et al. (Peuples et civilisations) (1934).
1453:
210:, the Reich has been seeking to destabilize the
132:summoned to the Imperial Chancellery by Emperor
548:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers
458:Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers
505:
277:; this proposal was accepted on the advice of
1348:Laparra, Jean-Claude; Hesse, Pascal (2011).
1347:
1312:
956:Laparra, Jean-Claude; Hesse, Pascal (2011).
955:
931:Laparra, Jean-Claude; Hesse, Pascal (2011).
930:
858:
285:'s Chief of Staff, and under pressure from
338:, brought together representatives of the
1371:(in French). Paris: Perrin. p. 411.
478:The Reich confronts the new Russian power
289:, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister.
1385:
1366:
1315:De Tannenberg à Verdun: La guerre totale
1239:
1007:(in French). Paris: Perrin. p. 40.
1002:
908:
883:
861:De Tannenberg à Verdun: La guerre totale
836:
807:
785:
741:
670:
568:Peace efforts during the First World War
481:
396:
325:
312:, the Austro-Hungarian Supreme Command.
256:
182:
1424:
1331:
1261:
1214:
1192:
1167:
1142:
1120:
1081:
1059:
1027:
980:
763:
714:
1454:
1401:
1317:(in French). Paris: SPM. p. 363.
1280:
863:(in French). Paris: SPM. p. 170.
692:
342:with members of the Imperial Cabinet.
164:
1235:
1233:
1188:
1186:
1163:
1161:
1116:
1114:
904:
902:
392:
322:History of Germany during World War I
832:
830:
828:
826:
737:
735:
733:
425:
130:council of the German Imperial Crown
382:State Secretary for Foreign Affairs
16:Strategy meeting during World War I
13:
1230:
1183:
1158:
1111:
916:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
899:
891:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
844:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
815:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
793:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
749:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
700:(in French) (19 ed.). Paris:
563:Treaty of Berlin (August 27, 1918)
21:Berlin Conference (disambiguation)
14:
1483:
1425:Winkler, Heinrich August (2005).
823:
730:
1395:Presses universitaires de France
1249:Presses universitaires de France
918:Presses universitaires de France
893:Presses universitaires de France
846:Presses universitaires de France
817:Presses universitaires de France
795:Presses universitaires de France
751:Presses universitaires de France
702:Presses universitaires de France
680:Presses universitaires de France
462:A study of the situation on the
252:
38:
1306:
1274:
1255:
1208:
1136:
1075:
1053:
1021:
996:
974:
949:
924:
877:
852:
645:
636:
623:
606:
589:
315:
1402:Soutou, Georges-Henri (1989).
1281:Soutou, Georges-Henri (1989).
801:
779:
757:
708:
686:
664:
580:
387:
298:Council of People's Commissars
212:Russian provisional government
1:
1467:Russian Empire in World War I
1003:Le Naour, Jeana-Yves (2016).
658:
1462:German Empire in World War I
1367:Le Naour, Jean-Yves (2016).
451:
446:
7:
529:
506:Preparing peace with Russia
10:
1488:
455:
319:
168:
159:
18:
1427:Der lange Weg nach Westen
1087:Der lange Weg nach Westen
1033:Der lange Weg nach Westen
93:
83:
73:
65:
57:
37:
28:
1369:1918: L'étrange victoire
1337:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1264:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1220:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1198:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1173:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1148:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1126:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1065:Griff nach der Weltmacht
1005:1918: L'étrange victoire
986:Griff nach der Weltmacht
769:Griff nach der Weltmacht
720:Griff nach der Weltmacht
573:
243:Austro-Hungarian Galicia
1472:World War I conferences
1262:Fischer, Fritz (1970).
558:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
490:As the main players in
1393:(19 ed.). Paris:
487:
405:
331:
262:
203:
69:December 6 and 7, 1917
31:December 6 and 7, 1917
603:from August 17, 1914.
553:Operation Faustschlag
537:Oberste Heeresleitung
485:
400:
329:
260:
186:
1406:(in French). Paris:
1285:(in French). Paris:
1247:(in French). Paris:
1097:. pp. 296–299.
1083:Winkler, Heinrich A.
1039:. pp. 301–302.
1029:Winkler, Heinrich A.
678:(in French). Paris:
412:Richard von Kühlmann
402:Richard von Kühlmann
378:Richard von Kühlmann
190:, portrayed here by
152:, which favored the
106:Richard von Kühlmann
19:For other uses, see
370:Imperial Chancellor
363:German High Command
351:Paul von Hindenburg
208:February Revolution
194:, launched a final
171:February Revolution
165:Situation in Russia
110:Paul von Hindenburg
29:Berlin Conference (
618:Jean-Yves Le Naour
488:
418:opposition in the
406:
393:German hesitations
374:Georg von Hertling
336:Emperor Wilhelm II
332:
263:
204:
188:Alexander Kerensky
175:October Revolution
138:October Revolution
102:Georg von Hertling
1444:978-2-213-62443-3
1378:978-2-262-03038-4
1359:978-2-916385-77-8
1324:978-2-917232-64-4
1104:978-2-213-62443-3
1046:978-2-213-62443-3
1014:978-2-262-03038-4
967:978-2-916385-77-8
942:978-2-916385-77-8
870:978-2-917232-64-4
631:Bingen Conference
426:Proposed policies
196:Russian offensive
123:
122:
1479:
1448:
1437:. p. 1154.
1421:
1398:
1387:Renouvin, Pierre
1382:
1363:
1344:
1328:
1301:
1300:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1241:Renouvin, Pierre
1237:
1228:
1227:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1165:
1156:
1155:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1118:
1109:
1108:
1079:
1073:
1072:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1000:
994:
993:
978:
972:
971:
953:
947:
946:
928:
922:
921:
910:Renouvin, Pierre
906:
897:
896:
885:Renouvin, Pierre
881:
875:
874:
856:
850:
849:
838:Renouvin, Pierre
834:
821:
820:
809:Renouvin, Pierre
805:
799:
798:
787:Renouvin, pierre
783:
777:
776:
761:
755:
754:
743:Renouvin, Pierre
739:
728:
727:
712:
706:
705:
694:Pierre, Renouvin
690:
684:
683:
672:Renouvin, Pierre
668:
652:
649:
643:
640:
634:
627:
621:
610:
604:
593:
587:
584:
376:, together with
355:Erich Ludendorff
294:Nikolai Krylenko
283:Erich Ludendorff
202:on July 1, 1917.
179:Russian Republic
114:Erich Ludendorff
61:Strategy meeting
42:
32:
26:
25:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1452:
1451:
1445:
1418:
1410:. p. 963.
1379:
1360:
1325:
1309:
1304:
1297:
1289:. p. 645.
1279:
1275:
1260:
1256:
1238:
1231:
1213:
1209:
1191:
1184:
1166:
1159:
1141:
1137:
1119:
1112:
1105:
1080:
1076:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1026:
1022:
1015:
1001:
997:
979:
975:
968:
954:
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943:
929:
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907:
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878:
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835:
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806:
802:
784:
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762:
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731:
713:
709:
691:
687:
669:
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646:
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628:
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611:
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581:
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532:
508:
480:
460:
454:
449:
428:
395:
390:
324:
318:
287:Ottokar Czernin
255:
239:final offensive
214:that succeeded
181:
169:Main articles:
167:
162:
146:defeated Russia
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
53:
30:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1485:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1450:
1449:
1443:
1422:
1416:
1399:
1397:. p. 779.
1383:
1377:
1364:
1358:
1345:
1333:Fischer, Fritz
1329:
1323:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1295:
1273:
1254:
1251:. p. 516.
1229:
1216:Fischer, Fritz
1207:
1194:Fischer, Fritz
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218:, while the
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118:Max Hoffmann
94:Participants
612:Historians
388:Discussions
216:Nicholas II
74:Location(s)
46:chancellery
1456:Categories
659:References
543:Wilhelm II
456:See also:
320:See also:
228:Bolsheviks
206:Since the
192:Ilya Repin
134:Wilhelm II
98:Wilhelm II
452:Armistice
447:Decisions
420:Reichstag
1335:(1970).
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601:Ober Ost
530:See also
524:Caucasus
522:and the
347:Dioscuri
306:Ober Ost
52:en 1910.
520:Ukraine
198:on the
160:Context
84:Country
66:Date(s)
48:of the
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574:Notes
492:Lenin
232:Lenin
58:Genre
50:Reich
1439:ISBN
1412:ISBN
1373:ISBN
1354:ISBN
1319:ISBN
1291:ISBN
1099:ISBN
1041:ISBN
1009:ISBN
962:ISBN
937:ISBN
865:ISBN
616:and
368:The
353:and
345:The
44:The
310:AOK
302:OHL
241:in
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