Battle of Towton - Knowledge

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Roman road to the west. The Lancastrians deployed on the north side of the dale, using the valley as a "protective ditch"; the disadvantage of this position was that they could not see beyond the southern ridge of the dale. The Lancastrian flanks were protected by marshes; their right was further secured by the steep banks of the Cock Beck. The width of their deployment area did not allow for a longer front line, depriving the Lancastrians of the opportunity to use their numerical superiority. Waurin's account gave rise to the suggestion that Somerset ordered a force of mounted spearmen to conceal itself in Castle Hill Wood, ready to charge into the Yorkist left flank at an opportune time in battle.

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situation. By engaging in the fight and encouraging his followers, his example inspired many to stand their ground. The armies clashed and archers shot into the mass of men at short range. The Lancastrians continuously threw fresher men into the fray and gradually the numerically inferior Yorkist army was forced to give ground and retreat up the southern ridge. Gravett thought that the Lancastrian left had less momentum than the rest of its formation, skewing the line of battle such that its western end tilted towards Saxton.

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Lancastrians struggled across the beck Yorkist archers rode to high vantage points and shot arrows at them. The dead began to pile up and the chronicles state that the Lancastrians eventually fled across these "bridges" of bodies. The chase continued northwards across the River Wharfe, which was larger than Cock Beck. A bridge over the river collapsed under the flood of men and many drowned trying to cross. Those who hid in Tadcaster and York were hunted down and killed.

856:, which should have been guarded by Henry, Earl of Northumberland, but he arrived late, by which time the Yorkists had crossed the ford and were heading to attack the Lancastrians at Ferrybridge from the flank. The Lancastrians retreated but were chased to Dinting Dale, where they were all killed, Clifford being slain by an arrow to his throat. Having cleared the vicinity of enemy forces, the Yorkists repaired the bridge and pressed onwards to camp overnight at 1079:, a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites. It was indecisive until the arrival of Norfolk's men. Marching up the Old London Road, Norfolk's contingent was hidden from view until they crested the ridge and attacked the Lancastrian left flank. The Lancastrians continued to give fight but the advantage had shifted to the Yorkists. By the end of the day, the Lancastrian line had broken up, as small groups of men began fleeing for their lives. 4481: 1057: 882:) claimed that the soldiers on each side numbered in the hundreds of thousands. These figures are thought to be exaggerated, and modern historians believe that a combined figure of 50,000–65,000 is more likely, between one and two per cent of the English population at the time. An analysis of 50 skeletons found in mass graves between 1996 and 2003 showed most were 24 to 30 years old and many were veterans of previous engagements. 3969: 3942: 676: 690: 724: 1268:

father. Both killers have acted out of greed and fell into a state of deep grieving after discovering their misdeeds. Shakespearian scholar Arthur Percival Rossiter names the scene as the most notable of the playwright's written "rituals". The delivery of the event follows the pattern of an opera: after a long speech, the actors alternate among one another to deliver single-line

774:—of his birthright. She had fled to Scotland after the Yorkist victory at Northampton; there she began raising an army, promising her followers the freedom to plunder on the march south through England. Her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England, preparing for her arrival. York marched with his army to meet this threat but he was lured into a trap at the 815:

rebellion against the king and his Lancastrian followers. On 4 March Warwick proclaimed the young Yorkist leader as King Edward IV. The proclamation gained greater acceptance than Richard of York's earlier claim, as several nobles opposed to letting Edward's father ascend the throne viewed the Lancastrian actions as a betrayal of the legally established Accord.

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bodies showed severe injuries to their upper torsos; arms and skulls were cracked or shattered. One exhumed specimen, known as Towton 25, had the front of his skull bisected: a weapon had slashed across his face, cutting a deep wound that split the bone. The skull was also pierced by another deep wound, a horizontal cut from a blade across the back.

1144:, which stated the Lancastrians had 9,000 casualties, an estimate Ross and Wolffe found to be more believable. A more recent analysis of the sources and archaeological evidence, which posits that accounts of Towton were combined with those of the actions of Ferrybridge and Dintingdale, suggests total casualty figures in the range 2,800–3,800. 1347:, each year, as part of the terms of his land tenancy. Although the origins of the tradition have never been conclusively identified, it was locally said this was done to commemorate the Earl of Warwick's inspirational deed of slaying his horse to show his resolve to stand and fight with the common soldiers. The tradition died in 1798 when the 1196:

linchpins of their power at court (Northumberland, Clifford, Ros, and Dacre) had either died or fled the country, ending the house's domination over the north of England. Edward further exploited the situation, naming 14 Lancastrian peers as traitors. Approximately 96 Lancastrians of the rank of knight and below were also

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any effective response of its own, the Lancastrian army moved from its position to engage the Yorkists in close combat. Seeing the advancing mass of men, the Yorkist archers shot a few more volleys before retreating behind their ranks of men-at-arms, leaving thousands of arrows in the ground to hinder the Lancastrian attack.

1216:. Warwick benefited from Edward's rule after the battle. He received parts of Northumberland's and Clifford's holdings, and was made "the king's lieutenant in the North and admiral of England." Edward bestowed on him many offices of power and wealth, further enhancing the earl's considerable influence and riches. 980:(c. 1398 – c. 1474) was a more contemporary source, but his chronicle was made available to the public only from 1891, and several mistakes in it discouraged historians at that time from using it. Later reconstructions of the battle were based on Hall's version, supplemented by minor details from other sources. 1281:

leaders. They share their superiors' determination to seek the destruction of their opponents, even at the cost of their lives. Hill depicts the participants' belief that the event was pre-destined and of utmost importance as a farce; the world went about its business regardless of the Battle of Towton.

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Views of the Wars of the Roses in general and of the battle as a charnel house were formed by Shakespeare and endured for centuries. However at the start of the 21st century the battle was no longer prominent in the public consciousness. Journalists lamented that people were ignorant of the Battle of

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to the audience. In this scene of grief, in a reversal of the approach adopted in his later historical plays, Shakespeare uses anonymous fictional characters to illustrate the ills of civil war while a historical king reflects on their fates. Michael Hattaway, emeritus professor of English Literature

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Although Henry was at large in Scotland with his son, the battle put an end (for the time being) to disputes over the country's state of leadership since the Act of Accord. The English people were assured that there was now one true king; Edward. He turned his attention to consolidating his rule over

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was ineffective as the heavy wind blew snow in their faces. They found it difficult to judge the range and pick out their targets and their arrows fell short of the Yorkist ranks; Fauconberg had ordered his men to retreat after loosing one volley, thus avoiding any casualties. Unable to observe their

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According to Gravett and fellow military enthusiast Trevor James Halsall, Somerset's decision to engage the Yorkist army on this plateau was sound. Defending the ground just before Towton would block any enemy advance towards the city of York, whether they moved along the London–Towton road or an old

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Henry's physical and mental frailty was a major weakness for the Lancastrian cause, and he remained in York with Margaret. In contrast the 18-year-old Edward was a tall and imposing sight in armour and led from the front: his preference for bold offensive tactics determined the Yorkist plan of action

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and continued pillaging on their way to London. The city of London refused to open its gates to Henry and Margaret for fear of being looted. The Lancastrian army was short of supplies and had no adequate means to replenish them. When Margaret learned that Richard of York's eldest son, Edward, Earl of

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The strength of the House of Lancaster was severely reduced as a result of this battle. Henry fled the country and many of his most powerful followers were dead or in exile after the engagement, leaving a new king, Edward IV, to rule England. In 1929 the Towton Cross was erected on the battlefield to

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On receiving news of his army's defeat, Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son. They were later joined by Somerset, Ros, Exeter, and the few Lancastrian nobles who escaped from the battlefield. The Battle of Towton severely reduced the power of the House of Lancaster in England; the

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After the Lancastrians had ceased loosing their arrows, Fauconberg ordered his archers to step forward again to shoot. When they had exhausted their ammunition, the Yorkists plucked arrows off the ground in front of them—arrows loosed by their foes—and continued shooting. Coming under attack without

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As Somerset was content to stand and let his foes come to him, the opening move of the battle was made by the Yorkists. Noticing the direction and strength of the wind, Fauconberg ordered all Yorkist archers to step forward and unleash a volley of their arrows from what would be the standard maximum

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flowed in an S-shaped course around the plateau from the north to west. The plateau was bisected by the Towton Dale, which ran from the west and extended into the North Acres in the east. Woodlands were scattered along the beck; Renshaw Woods lined the river on the north-western side of the plateau,

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Very few historical sources give detailed accounts of the battle and they do not describe the exact deployments of the armies. The paucity of such primary sources led early historians to adopt Hall's chronicle as their main resource for the engagement, despite its authorship 70 years after the

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wrote a number of dramatisations of historic figures. The use of history as a backdrop, against which the familiar characters act out Shakespeare's drama, lends a sense of realism to his plays. Shakespeare wrote a three-part play about Henry VI, relying heavily on Hall's chronicle as a source. His

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By 1464, the Yorkists had "wiped out all effective Lancastrian resistance in the north of England." Edward's reign was not interrupted until 1470; by then, his relationship with Warwick had deteriorated to such an extent that the earl defected to the Lancastrians and forced Edward to flee England,

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Archaeological findings in the late 20th century shed light on the final moments of the battle. In 1996 workmen at a construction site in the village of Towton uncovered a mass grave, which archaeologists believed to contain the remains of men who were slain during or after the battle in 1461. The

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lasted hours, exhausting the combatants. The arrival of Norfolk's men reinvigorated the Yorkists and, encouraged by Edward, they routed their foes. Many Lancastrians were killed while fleeing; some trampled one another and others drowned in the rivers, which are said to have run red with blood for

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Obtaining an accurate figure for casualties has been complicated: remains were either moved or used by farmers as fertiliser, and corpses were generally stripped of clothing and non-perishable items before burial. However some survived when later buildings were constructed over their graves; the

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Shakespeare's version of the battle presents a notable scene that comes immediately after Henry's soliloquy. Henry witnesses the laments of two soldiers in the battle. One slays his opponent in hope of plunder, only to find the victim is his son; the other kills his enemy, who turns out to be his

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The tired Lancastrians flung off their helmets and armour to run faster. Without such protection, they were much more vulnerable to the attacks of the Yorkists. Norfolk's troops were much fresher and faster. Fleeing across what would later become known as Bloody Meadow, many Lancastrians were cut

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Learning of the encounter, Edward led the main Yorkist army to the bridge and was forced into a gruelling battle: although the Yorkists were superior in numbers, the narrow bridge was a bottleneck, forcing them to confront Clifford's men on equal terms. Edward sent Fauconberg and his horsemen to

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in Herefordshire and were marching towards London, she withdrew the Lancastrians to York. Warwick and the remnants of his army marched from St Albans to join Edward's men and the Yorkists were welcomed into London. Having lost custody of Henry, the Yorkists needed a justification to continue the

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Lord Dacre was buried at the church of All Saints in Saxton and his tomb was reported in the late 19th century to be well maintained, although several of its panels had been weathered away. The tree from which Dacre's killer was supposed to have shot his arrow had been cut down by the late 19th

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As the Yorkists reformed their ranks to receive the Lancastrian charge, their left flank came under attack by the horsemen from Castle Hill Wood mentioned by Waurin. The Yorkist left wing fell into disarray and several men started to flee. Edward had to take command of the left wing to save the

995:(to the north). The region was agricultural land, with plenty of wide open areas and small roads on which to manoeuvre the armies. Two roads ran through the area: the Old London Road, which connected Towton to the English capital, and a direct road between Saxton and Towton. The steeply banked 1280:

in his poem "Funeral Music" (1968). Hill presents the historical event through the voices of its combatants, looking at the turmoil of the era through their eyes. The common soldiers grouse about their physical discomforts and the sacrifices that they had made for the ideas glorified by their

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The new king preferred winning over his enemies to his cause; the nobles he attainted either died in the battle or had refused to submit to him. The estates of a few of these nobles were confiscated by the crown but the rest were untouched, remaining in the care of their families. Edward also

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The Lancastrians lost more troops in their rout than from the battlefield. Men struggling across the Cock Beck were dragged down by currents and drowned. Those floundering were stepped on and pushed under water by their comrades behind them as they rushed to get away from the Yorkists. As the

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The Yorkists appeared as the Lancastrians finished deployment. Line after line of soldiers crested the southern ridge of the dale and formed up in ranks opposite their enemies as snow began to fall. Edward's army was outnumbered and Norfolk's troops had yet to arrive to join them. The Yorkist

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The country now had two kings—a situation that could not be allowed to persist, especially if Edward were to be formally crowned. Edward offered an amnesty to any Lancastrian supporter who renounced Henry. The move was intended to win over the commoners; his offer did not extend to wealthy

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largest, fought in England and resulted in the replacement of one royal dynasty by another. Hill expressed a different opinion. Although impressed with the casualty figures touted by the chroniclers, he believed the battle brought no monumental changes to the lives of the English people.

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turned the tables by ordering his archers to take advantage of the strong wind to outrange their enemies. The one-sided missile exchange, with Lancastrian arrows falling short of the Yorkist ranks, provoked the Lancastrians into abandoning their defensive positions. The ensuing

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was sent east to raise forces and rejoin Edward before the battle. Warwick's group moved to the west of the main body, through the Midlands, gathering men as they went. On 28 March, the leading elements of the Yorkist army came upon the remains of the crossing in

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and the Yorkists were in no mood to spare anyone after the long, gruelling fight. A number of Lancastrians, such as Trollope, also had substantial bounties on their heads. Gregory's chronicle stated 42 knights were killed after they were taken prisoner.

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Lancastrians (mostly the nobles). The young king summoned and ordered his followers to march towards York to take back his family's city and to depose Henry formally through force of arms. The Yorkist army moved along three routes. Warwick's uncle,

1264:". Historian Bertram Wolffe said it was thanks to Shakespeare's dramatisation of the battle that the weak and ineffectual Henry was at least remembered by English society, albeit for his pining to have been born a shepherd rather than a king. 1294:, set in 1541, sixty years after the battle, concerns a Towton farmer appealing to King Henry VIII to be compensated for the time and effort he has to spend on turning over to the Church the skeletons discovered nearly every day on his land. 4475:

Briefly joined the Lancastrians. Briefly joined the Yorkists. Defected from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian cause. Initially a Yorkist who later supported the Tudor claim. Initially a Lancastrian who later supported the Tudor claim.

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in 1485 meant the building was never completed and eventually collapsed. In 1929 stones allegedly from the chapel were used to create the Towton Cross, also known as Lord Dacre's Cross, which commemorates those who died in the battle.

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when he was nine months old in 1422, but was a weak, ineffectual and mentally unsound ruler, which encouraged the nobles to scheme for control over him. The situation deteriorated in the 1450s into a civil war between his

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first were uncovered in 1996 and excavations have so far uncovered more than 50 skeletons from the battle. An analysis of their injuries shows the brutality of the contest, including extensive post-mortem mutilations.

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the country, winning over the people and putting down the rebellions raised by the few remaining Lancastrian diehards. He knighted several of his supporters and elevated several of his gentry supporters to the

860:. The Lancastrian army marched to Tadcaster, about 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Towton, and made camp. As dawn broke the two rival armies struck camp under dark skies and strong winds. Although it was 758:

in 1460, the duke, who was of royal blood, issued his claim to the throne. Even York's closest supporters among the nobility were reluctant to usurp the dynasty; the nobles passed by a majority vote the

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and south of Towton Dale, Castle Hill Wood grew on the west side of the plateau at a bend in the beck. The area to the north-east of this forest would be known as Bloody Meadow after the battle.

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at the University of Sheffield, comments that Shakespeare intended to show Henry's sadness over the war, to elicit the same emotion among the audience and to expose Henry's ineptitude as king.

3528:"Killing Time: Challenging the Common Perceptions of Three Medieval Conflicts – Ferrybridge, Dintingdale and Towton – 'The Largest Battle on British Soil'" 490:, and "has the dubious distinction of being probably the largest and bloodiest battle on English soil". Fought for ten hours between an estimated 50,000 soldiers in a snowstorm on 868:

but the name did not gain wide acceptance. Popular opinion favoured naming the battle after the village of Towton because of its proximity and it being the most prominent in the area.

916:, highly regarded by contemporaries for his military skills. He demonstrated this in a wide range of roles, having captained the Calais garrison, led naval piracy expeditions in the 912:

and Robert Horne; this may have been an advantage, since he was regarded as an unpredictable ally. Edward relied heavily on Warwick's uncle, Lord Fauconberg, a veteran of the

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reported only 800 dead Yorkists. Other contemporary sources gave higher numbers, ranging from 30,000 to 38,000; Hall quoted an exact figure of 36,776. An exception was the

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and other historians believe was exaggerated. The number was taken from the heralds' estimate of the dead and appeared in letters from Edward and the Bishop of Salisbury,

754:. Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both factions, York's attempts to displace Henry's favourites from power led to war. After capturing Henry at the 801:

The victors of Wakefield were joined by Margaret's army and marched south, plundering settlements along the way. They liberated Henry after defeating the Yorkist army of

558:, found enough backing to denounce Henry and declare himself king. The Battle of Towton was to affirm the victor's right through force of arms to rule over England. 1220:

restoring Henry to the throne. The interruption of Yorkist rule was brief, as Edward regained his throne after defeating Warwick and his Lancastrian cohorts at the

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range of their longbows. With the wind behind them, the Yorkist missiles travelled farther than usual, plunging deep into the masses of soldiers on the hill slope.

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Contemporary sources claim over 100,000 on each side, modern estimates suggest 75,000 in total as the upper limit, over 3% of the English population at the time

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commemorate the event. Various archaeological remains and mass graves related to the battle have been found in the area centuries after the engagement.

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and the Duke of Exeter as the commanders of the Lancastrian host, but show little agreement as to which portion of the host each of them was assigned.

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results, the Lancastrians loosed their arrows until most had been used, leaving a thick, prickly carpet in the ground in front of the Yorkists.

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Towton and of its significance. According to English Heritage the battle was of the "greatest importance": it was one of the largest, if not

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were afterwards taken and executed. Lord Dacre was said to have been killed by an archer who was perched in a "bur tree" (a local term for an

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Sutherland, TL; Schmidt, A (2003). "The Towton Battlefield Archaeological Survey Project:An Integrated Approach to Battlefield Archaeology".

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for this engagement. His presence and example were crucial to ensuring the Yorkists held together through the long and exhausting struggle.

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on which the equine figure was located as private property. The scouring was revived during the early 20th century but has since stopped.

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broke this number down into 8,000 dead for the Yorkists and 20,000 for the Lancastrians; in contrast, bishops Nicholas O'Flanagan (

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century. In 2010 fragments from what are some of the earliest known handguns found in Britain were discovered on the battlefield.

864:, a day of holy significance to Christians, the forces prepared for battle and a few documents named the engagement the Battle of 4067: 4062: 3753: 1314:

15th-century documents confirm some casualties were reburied in graveyards at Saxton and a chapel constructed for the purpose by

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naming York as Henry's successor, but neither the queen nor her Lancastrian allies would accept the disinheritance of her son,

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down from behind or were slain after they had surrendered. Before the battle, both sides had issued the order to give

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On reaching the battlefield, the Yorkists found themselves heavily outnumbered, since part of their force under the

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A newsletter dated 4 April 1461 reported a widely circulated figure of 28,000 casualties in the battle, which

802: 171: 3664: 4462: 4022: 3830: 2812: 1240:, Act 2, Scene 5, a father finds he has killed his son, while a son finds he has killed his own father. 1172: 1152: 944: 3511:. Shakespeare Criticism. Vol. 17. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–119. 1306:

Re-enactors from the Towton Battlefield Society observe a moment of silence in memory of the dead of the battle.

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At the crucial moment, Norfolk's troops arrived, helping the Yorkists (white) overcome the Lancastrians (red).

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In 1461 England was in the sixth year of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars between the houses of

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fought in the battle; eight were with the Yorkist army, whereas the Lancastrians had at least nineteen.

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Of the other Yorkist leaders, Warwick was absent from the battle, having suffered a leg wound at

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Geology and Warfare: Examples of the Influence of Terrain and Geologists on Military Operations

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The armies gathered at Towton were among the largest at the time. Contemporary sources (like

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Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts in the Archives and Collections of Milan 1385–1618

1179:). In contrast, the Yorkists lost only one notable member of the gentry, Horne, at Towton. 1084: 787: 555: 503: 437: 159: 763:, which ruled that the duke and his heirs would succeed to the throne upon Henry's death. 8: 4311: 3982: 3897: 3269:. London, United Kingdom: Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Association: 303–308 2885: 1339:

The Battle of Towton was associated with a tradition previously upheld in the village of

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Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461

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and others as commanders of the Yorkist rearguard. Sources variously mention the

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over the English throne. The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England,

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Shakespeare used the Battle of Towton to illustrate the ills of civil war; in

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The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the constitution in England, c. 1437–1509

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Initial deployments: the Yorkists (white) and Lancastrians (red) at Towton

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pardoned many of those he attainted after they submitted to his rule.

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The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society, 1452–97

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The armies of York (white) and Lancaster (red) move towards Towton.

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The fighting continued for three hours, according to research by

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several days. Several high-ranking prisoners were also executed.

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The Historical Archaeology of Military Sites: Method and Topic

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The Uncommon Tongue: The Poetry and Criticism of Geoffrey Hill

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Dean, Sidney (2015). "Bloody Sunday: The Battle of Towton".

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event and questions over the origin of his information. The

955:, had been killed by an arrow in the throat at Ferrybridge. 3154:. Manchester, United Kingdom: Manchester University Press. 2932:. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press (published 27 January 2005). 2314: 2312: 2275: 2273: 2231: 2197: 2195: 1917: 1915: 3632:"'Unique' battlefield gun discovery on Towton battlefield" 3373:

Harris, Mary Dormer (18 May 1935). "The Tysoe Red Horse".

3286:(Second revised ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxbow. 3282:

Fiorato, Veronica (2007). "The Context of the Discovery".

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Shakespeare's English Kings: History, Chronicle, and Drama

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Based on total casualties of 9,000 to 13,000, 1/3 Yorkist

1056: 2769:. Michigan, United States: University of Michigan Press. 2683: 2632: 2396: 2156: 2110: 2108: 1813: 1803: 1801: 1613: 1583: 1523: 770:, refused to accept an arrangement that deprived her son— 3381:. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press: 349. 3215:. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press: 394. 2560: 2466: 2464: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2360: 2336: 2309: 2270: 2260: 2258: 2192: 2168: 2144: 2062: 2050: 2038: 2002: 1956: 1954: 1939: 1912: 1837: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1661: 1637: 1625: 1571: 3152:

Acceptable Words: Essays on the Poetry of Geoffrey Hill

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implemented by the English government redesignated the

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were among the missiles that killed many in the battle.

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The Yorkshire Archaeological and Topographical Journal

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Brawl Ridiculous: Swordfighting in Shakespeare's Plays

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vanguard was commanded by Lord Fauconberg. Hall names

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Hattaway, Michael & Shakespeare, William (1993).

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The Lancastrian nobility sustained heavy losses. The

1128:. Letters from an ambassador and a merchant from the 920:, and commanded the Yorkist vanguard at Northampton. 3685:"Our Most Brutal Battle has been Erased from Memory" 3354:. In Rose, Edward P. F.; Nathanail, C. Paul (eds.). 2608: 2548: 2372: 1825: 1738: 1511: 1487: 1472: 1443: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1398: 1396: 935:

in 1459. Other notable Lancastrian leaders included

3058:. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 2946: 2695: 2656: 2518: 2506: 2476: 2420: 1750: 1460: 1087:, said combat lasted for a total of 10 hours. 3754:"Battle of Towton, 1461 (Grade II) (1000040)" 3720:"English Heritage Battlefield Report: Towton 1461" 2725: 2348: 2285: 1885: 1861: 1774: 1709: 1598: 3576: 2602: 2590: 1408: 1393: 1191:Towton Cross: a memorial for the Battle of Towton 893:Edward's presence was crucial to Yorkist victory. 4499: 3718: 3321:Oxfordshire Architectural and Historical Society 3207:Askew, H. (1 June 1935). "The Tysoe Red Horse". 2977:. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. 2099: 2032: 2020: 1933: 1906: 1691: 3415:"The Naming of Battlefields in the Middle Ages" 2864:"Local Revolts and Nobles' Struggles, 1469–71" 3831: 3600:"An Aspect of Dramatic Technique in Henry VI" 317: 3419:War and Society in Medieval and Early Modern 3078:Towton: The Battle of Palm Sunday Field 1461 840:by a band of about 500 Lancastrians, led by 836:. They were rebuilding the bridge when they 647: 498:army achieved a decisive victory over their 4528:Registered historic battlefields in England 3838: 3824: 3525: 3149: 2995:(1906). "The Crowning Victory of Towton". 2689: 2578: 2566: 2542: 2237: 324: 310: 3107: 2811: 2366: 2342: 2318: 2279: 1792: 1505: 778:and killed. The duke and his second son, 3748: 2614: 1301: 1276:The Battle of Towton was re-examined by 1231: 1186: 1094: 1055: 1031: 962: 888: 792: 4068:Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland 4063:Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland 3780: 3602:. In Alexander, Catherine M. S. (ed.). 3439: 3349: 3281: 3094: 2991: 2918: 2891:Towton 1461: England's Bloodiest Battle 2884: 2858: 2835: 2719: 2650: 2626: 2455: 2249: 2201: 2186: 2174: 2162: 2150: 2138: 2126: 2114: 2080: 2068: 2056: 2044: 2008: 1996: 1984: 1972: 1960: 1945: 1921: 1879: 1855: 1843: 1807: 1768: 1703: 1679: 1655: 1643: 1553: 1466: 478:took place on 29 March 1461 during the 4500: 3988:Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales 3679: 3629: 3597: 3498: 3412: 3372: 3300: 3257:Fallow, Thomas McCall (January 1889). 3256: 3199: 3168: 3126: 3112:. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. 3080:. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. 3072: 3053: 2791: 2764: 2743: 2704: 2678: 2662: 2638: 2554: 2530: 2494: 2482: 2470: 2443: 2402: 1744: 1732: 1667: 1619: 1592: 1529: 1481: 1454: 565:had yet to arrive. The Yorkist leader 540:Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales 526:on one side, with those of his cousin 4083:Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham 4058:Thomas Neville, Bastard of Fauconberg 3998:Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset 3993:Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset 3983:Elizabeth Woodville, Queen of England 3845: 3819: 3622: 3471: 3401: 3259:"The Dacre Tomb in Saxton Churchyard" 3206: 2969: 2925:Shaping the Nation: England 1360–1461 2801:Visits to Fields of Battle in England 2731: 2414: 2378: 2225: 2213: 1831: 1819: 1756: 1631: 1577: 1517: 871: 331: 305: 4237:George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence 3649: 3630:Catton, Richard (22 November 2010). 3235: 3095:Salzman, Louis Francis, ed. (1949). 3027: 3008: 2674: 2426: 2390: 2354: 2330: 2303: 2291: 2264: 1894: 1867: 1780: 1715: 1607: 1565: 1541: 1493: 1437: 1402: 1200:: 24 of them members of parliament. 16:1461 battle in the Wars of the Roses 4232:Edmund Plantagenet, Earl of Rutland 4118:Thomas Clifford, 8th Baron Clifford 3978:Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England 3110:Edward IV and the Wars of the Roses 2998:Richard III: His Life and Character 2797:"The Field of the Battle of Towton" 1167:fell in battle, while the earls of 923:The senior Lancastrian general was 633: 458:Stafford's & Lovell's rebellion 13: 4212:Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury 4182:Thomas FitzGerald, Earl of Desmond 4078:Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham 3774: 3759:National Heritage List for England 3101:A History of the County of Warwick 1048:The response from the Lancastrian 661: 14: 4554: 4533:Civil parishes in North Yorkshire 4187:William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke 4103:George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury 4048:John Neville, Marquess of Montagu 3796: 3711: 3097:"Parishes – Tysoe" 619: 530:, on the other. In October 1460, 4518:Battles of the Wars of the Roses 4480: 4479: 4242:Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon 4192:William Hastings, Baron Hastings 4177:John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln 4161: 4053:Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick 4008:Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset 4003:John Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont 3967: 3956: 3940: 3930: 3920: 3910: 3900: 3547:10.1163/157407709x12634580640173 3341: 2668: 1249:vision of the Battle of Towton ( 925:Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset 897:Approximately three-quarters of 810:March, and his army had won the 803:Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick 722: 716: 710: 688: 674: 660: 646: 632: 618: 602: 595: 510:and secured the English throne. 253: 232: 219: 207: 189: 177: 165: 153: 37: 4463:Second Cornish uprising of 1497 4202:Francis Lovell, Viscount Lovell 4108:John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury 3535:Journal of Conflict Archaeology 2953:The Third Part of King Henry VI 2519:Hattaway & Shakespeare 1993 2507:Hattaway & Shakespeare 1993 951:. Another leading Lancastrian, 4423:Issue of Edward III of England 4172:Anne Neville, Queen of England 4133:Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke 4128:Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond 3482:Texas A&M University Press 3472:Scott, Douglas Dowell (2010). 3350:Halsall, Trevor James (2000). 3211:(PDF, subscription required). 1374: 1365: 675: 603: 513:Henry VI succeeded his father 1: 4397:Stafford and Lovell rebellion 4222:William Neville, Earl of Kent 4207:John Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk 4148:Edward Woodville, Lord Scales 4093:George Stanley, Baron Strange 4088:Thomas Stanley, Earl of Derby 4038:Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter 4033:John Courtenay, Earl of Devon 4028:John Clifford, Baron Clifford 4013:John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley 3505:Nicoll, John Ramsay Allardyce 3446:The English Historical Review 3421:. Liverpool, United Kingdom: 3402:Hinds, Allen B., ed. (1912). 3387:10.1093/nq/CLXVIII.may18.349a 3221:10.1093/nq/CLXVIII.jun01.394e 2930:New Oxford History of England 2603:Sutherland & Schmidt 2003 2591:Sutherland & Schmidt 2003 1387: 1227: 958: 937:Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter 550:in December. Financed by the 4297:Siege of the Tower of London 4197:John Howard, Duke of Norfolk 4018:James Butler, Earl of Ormond 3693:. p. 33. Archived from 3440:Ransome, Cyril (July 1889). 3408:. London: Stationery Office. 3150:Wainwright, Jeffrey (2005). 1182: 939:, and northern magnates the 689: 7: 4513:Battles involving Yorkshire 4357:1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion 4043:John Neville, Baron Neville 4023:John Butler, Earl of Ormond 3791:. Vol. 61, no. 5. 3127:Sherry, Vincent B. (1987). 1260:terror that is essentially 1027: 983:The battle took place on a 48:Richard Caton Woodville Jr. 10: 4559: 4123:James Tuchet, Baron Audley 3803:Towton Battlefield Society 3423:Liverpool University Press 3319:. Oxford, United Kingdom: 3001:. London, United Kingdom: 2803:. London, United Kingdom: 2752: 1318:in 1484. His death at the 1212:; Fauconberg was made the 812:Battle of Mortimer's Cross 807:Second Battle of St Albans 586: 582: 4473: 4410: 4264: 4156: 3951: 3888: 3881: 3853: 3811:. The Battlefields Trust. 3169:Wolffe, Bertram (2001) . 3108:Santiuste, David (2010). 2836:Edelman, Charles (1992). 2765:Berlin, Normand (2000) . 2417:, pp. 281, 292, 296. 1297: 1244:In the sixteenth century 343: 287: 282: 277: 143: 126: 54: 36: 28: 23: 3781:Goodwin, George (2011). 3526:Sutherland, Tim (2009). 3499:Styles, Philip (2002) . 3480:. Texas, United States: 3417:. In Dunn, Diana (ed.). 3129:"King Log: Thorny Craft" 2757: 1358: 1142:Annales rerum anglicarum 987:between the villages of 838:were attacked and routed 506:deposed the Lancastrian 502:opponents. As a result, 4438:Bonville–Courtenay feud 3598:Warren, Roger (2003) . 3413:Morgan, Philip (2000). 3177:English Monarchs series 3054:Saccio, Peter (2000) . 3037:English Monarchs series 1090: 780:Edmund, Earl of Rutland 554:, York's son and heir, 4387:Buckingham's rebellion 4367:Readeption of Henry VI 3783:"The Battle of Towton" 3729:. 1995. Archived from 3442:"The Battle of Towton" 3003:Smith, Elder & Co. 1307: 1241: 1192: 1149:Earl of Northumberland 1100: 1064: 1041: 1022:Earl of Northumberland 968: 941:Earl of Northumberland 894: 798: 766:The Queen of England, 448:Buckingham's rebellion 239:Earl of Northumberland 144:Commanders and leaders 4073:Thomas Ros, Baron Ros 3858:Red Rose of Lancaster 3604:Shakespeare Criticism 3458:10.1093/ehr/IV.XV.460 3009:Penn, Thomas (2019). 2975:Warwick the Kingmaker 2767:O'Neill's Shakespeare 2141:, pp. 50, 69–73. 2100:English Heritage 1995 2083:, pp. 60–61, 65. 2033:English Heritage 1995 2021:English Heritage 1995 1934:English Heritage 1995 1907:English Heritage 1995 1692:English Heritage 1995 1305: 1235: 1190: 1098: 1059: 1035: 966: 892: 796: 772:Edward of Westminster 756:Battle of Northampton 748:Richard, Duke of York 587:Further information: 528:Richard, Duke of York 288:Casualties and losses 4448:Neville–Neville feud 4433:Princes in the Tower 3306:"Francis Wise, B. D" 2886:Gravett, Christopher 2813:Carpenter, Christine 1822:, pp. 147, 240. 1795:, pp. 126, 156. 1288:’s historical novel 1085:Henry VII of England 715:– Battle of Towton; 704:class=notpageimage| 522:relatives and Queen 296:6,000 to 8,500 dead 293:3,000 to 4,500 dead 99:53.83611°N 1.27361°W 44:The Battle of Towton 4227:Sir Richard Herbert 3200:Essays and journals 2641:, pp. 303–305. 2405:, pp. 335–337. 1634:, pp. 218–219. 1622:, pp. 332–333. 1595:, pp. 330–331. 1580:, pp. 216–217. 1532:, pp. 324–327. 1246:William Shakespeare 991:(to the south) and 879:Gregory's Chronicle 825:The Duke of Norfolk 776:Battle of Wakefield 572:hand-to-hand combat 95: / 4443:Percy–Neville feud 4322:St Albans (Second) 4217:Sir Thomas Neville 3863:White Rose of York 3809:"Battle of Towton" 3683:(25 August 2007). 3653:(24 August 2008). 3623:Newspaper articles 3509:Shakespeare Survey 3501:"The Commonwealth" 3484:. pp. 21–29. 3425:. pp. 34–52. 3302:Gibson, Strickland 2807:. pp. 81–129. 2805:John Russell Smith 2775:10.3998/mpub.14276 2581:, pp. 19, 37. 2228:, pp. 65, 81. 2216:, pp. 68, 73. 2165:, pp. 37, 88. 2035:, pp. 3, 4–5. 1670:, pp. 38, 40. 1345:Red Horse of Tysoe 1320:Battle of Bosworth 1308: 1242: 1193: 1101: 1065: 1042: 969: 895: 872:Force compositions 866:Palme Sonday Felde 799: 138:House of Lancaster 104:53.83611; -1.27361 4523:Conflicts in 1461 4493: 4492: 4272:St Albans (First) 4260: 4259: 4138:Margaret Beaufort 3847:Wars of the Roses 3667:on 3 January 2011 3491:978-1-60344-207-7 3375:Notes and Queries 3293:978-1-84217-289-6 3209:Notes and Queries 3190:978-0-300-08926-4 3179:(Yale ed.). 3119:978-1-84415-930-7 3087:978-1-84415-965-9 3011:The Brothers York 2993:Markham, Clements 2939:978-0-19-822816-5 2914:on 8 August 2013. 2904:978-1-84176-513-6 2877:978-0-415-05264-1 2862:(19 July 1990) . 2851:978-0-7190-3507-4 2828:978-0-521-31874-7 2784:978-0-472-10469-7 2593:, pp. 15–25. 2533:, pp. 86–87. 2509:, pp. 32–34. 2393:, pp. 70–71. 2333:, pp. 41–63. 2306:, pp. 67–68. 2267:, pp. 37–38. 2240:, pp. 21–24. 2204:, pp. 79–80. 2177:, pp. 72–73. 2153:, pp. 85–89. 2071:, pp. 56–57. 2059:, pp. 53–56. 2047:, pp. 52–53. 2011:, pp. 49–50. 1948:, pp. 44–46. 1924:, pp. 50–51. 1846:, pp. 20–21. 1646:, pp. 32–39. 1568:, pp. 29–32. 1544:, pp. 7, 33. 1496:, pp. 11–18. 1138:Francesco Coppini 1126:Richard Beauchamp 1083:, chronicler for 914:Anglo-French wars 858:Sherburn-in-Elmet 768:Margaret of Anjou 721:– other battles; 589:Wars of the Roses 524:Margaret of Anjou 480:Wars of the Roses 471: 470: 335:Wars of the Roses 300: 299: 122: 121: 31:Wars of the Roses 4550: 4483: 4482: 4317:Mortimer's Cross 4247:Margaret of York 4165: 3971: 3960: 3944: 3934: 3924: 3914: 3904: 3886: 3885: 3840: 3833: 3826: 3817: 3816: 3812: 3792: 3769: 3768: 3766: 3750:Historic England 3745: 3743: 3741: 3735: 3727:English Heritage 3724: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3663:. 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3681:Kettle, Martin 3677: 3647: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3618: 3612: 3595: 3574: 3523: 3517: 3496: 3490: 3469: 3437: 3431: 3410: 3399: 3370: 3364: 3347: 3298: 3292: 3279: 3254: 3233: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3195: 3189: 3166: 3160: 3147: 3141: 3124: 3118: 3105: 3092: 3086: 3070: 3064: 3051: 3045: 3025: 3020:978-1846146909 3019: 3013:. Allen Lane. 3006: 2989: 2983: 2971:Hicks, Michael 2967: 2961: 2944: 2938: 2916: 2903: 2882: 2876: 2856: 2850: 2833: 2827: 2809: 2789: 2783: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2754: 2751: 2749: 2748: 2746:, p. 180. 2736: 2724: 2722:, p. 175. 2709: 2694: 2682: 2667: 2655: 2653:, p. 463. 2643: 2631: 2619: 2607: 2595: 2583: 2571: 2559: 2557:, pp. 88. 2547: 2535: 2523: 2511: 2499: 2497:, p. 236. 2487: 2475: 2473:, p. 141. 2460: 2448: 2446:, p. 139. 2431: 2429:, p. 171. 2419: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2381:, p. 221. 2371: 2369:, p. 158. 2367:Carpenter 2002 2359: 2347: 2345:, p. 148. 2343:Carpenter 2002 2335: 2323: 2321:, p. 149. 2319:Carpenter 2002 2308: 2296: 2284: 2282:, p. 159. 2280:Carpenter 2002 2269: 2254: 2242: 2230: 2218: 2206: 2191: 2179: 2167: 2155: 2143: 2131: 2119: 2117:, p. 644. 2104: 2085: 2073: 2061: 2049: 2037: 2025: 2013: 2001: 1989: 1977: 1965: 1950: 1938: 1926: 1911: 1899: 1884: 1872: 1860: 1858:, p. 166. 1848: 1836: 1834:, p. 179. 1824: 1812: 1810:, p. 165. 1797: 1793:Carpenter 2002 1785: 1773: 1761: 1749: 1737: 1735:, p. 331. 1720: 1708: 1696: 1684: 1672: 1660: 1648: 1636: 1624: 1612: 1597: 1582: 1570: 1558: 1556:, p. 538. 1546: 1534: 1522: 1520:, p. 211. 1510: 1508:, p. 147. 1506:Carpenter 2002 1498: 1486: 1484:, p. 289. 1471: 1459: 1457:, p. 332. 1442: 1407: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1373: 1363: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1349:Inclosure Acts 1299: 1296: 1284:An episode in 1229: 1226: 1184: 1181: 1130:duchy of Milan 1092: 1089: 1029: 1026: 978:Jean de Waurin 960: 957: 933:Ludford Bridge 873: 870: 784:Micklegate Bar 729: 728: 727:– other places 702: 701: 695: 694: 687: 686: 681: 680: 673: 672: 667: 666: 659: 658: 653: 652: 645: 644: 639: 638: 631: 630: 625: 624: 617: 616: 609: 608: 601: 600: 594: 593: 592: 584: 581: 552:City of London 469: 468: 466: 465: 460: 455: 453:Bosworth Field 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 428:Losecoat Field 425: 420: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 358:Ludford Bridge 355: 350: 344: 341: 340: 329: 328: 321: 314: 306: 298: 297: 294: 290: 289: 285: 284: 280: 279: 275: 274: 272: 271: 250: 228: 226:Duke of Exeter 216: 203: 201: 199: 198: 186: 174: 162: 149: 146: 145: 141: 140: 135: 129: 128: 124: 123: 120: 119: 116: 112: 111: 70: 68: 64: 63: 60: 52: 51: 34: 33: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4555: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4496: 4486: 4478: 4477: 4472: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4418:Act of Accord 4416: 4415: 4413: 4409: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4342:Hedgeley Moor 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4269: 4267: 4263: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 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3716: 3696: 3692: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3627: 3615: 3613:0-521-82433-8 3609: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3518:0-521-52353-2 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3432:0-85323-885-5 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3406: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3365:1-86239-065-7 3361: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3289: 3285: 3280: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3204: 3192: 3186: 3182: 3181:New Haven, CT 3178: 3174: 3173: 3167: 3163: 3161:0-7190-6754-5 3157: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3142:0-472-10084-X 3138: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3115: 3111: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3065:0-19-512319-0 3061: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3046:0-300-07372-0 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3029:Ross, Charles 3026: 3022: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2984:0-631-23593-0 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2962:0-521-37705-6 2958: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2921: 2920:Harriss, G.L. 2917: 2910: 2906: 2900: 2893: 2892: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2824: 2820: 2819: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2762: 2745: 2740: 2733: 2728: 2721: 2716: 2714: 2706: 2701: 2699: 2692:, p. 83. 2691: 2686: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2664: 2659: 2652: 2647: 2640: 2635: 2629:, p. 51. 2628: 2623: 2616: 2611: 2605:, p. 17. 2604: 2599: 2592: 2587: 2580: 2575: 2569:, p. 18. 2568: 2563: 2556: 2551: 2544: 2539: 2532: 2527: 2521:, p. 34. 2520: 2515: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2491: 2484: 2479: 2472: 2467: 2465: 2458:, p. 39. 2457: 2452: 2445: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2428: 2423: 2416: 2411: 2404: 2399: 2392: 2387: 2380: 2375: 2368: 2363: 2357:, p. 70. 2356: 2351: 2344: 2339: 2332: 2327: 2320: 2315: 2313: 2305: 2300: 2294:, p. 67. 2293: 2288: 2281: 2276: 2274: 2266: 2261: 2259: 2252:, p. 77. 2251: 2246: 2239: 2234: 2227: 2222: 2215: 2210: 2203: 2198: 2196: 2189:, p. 73. 2188: 2183: 2176: 2171: 2164: 2159: 2152: 2147: 2140: 2135: 2129:, p. 68. 2128: 2123: 2116: 2111: 2109: 2101: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2082: 2077: 2070: 2065: 2058: 2053: 2046: 2041: 2034: 2029: 2022: 2017: 2010: 2005: 1999:, p. 59. 1998: 1993: 1987:, p. 42. 1986: 1981: 1975:, p. 46. 1974: 1969: 1963:, p. 41. 1962: 1957: 1955: 1947: 1942: 1935: 1930: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1908: 1903: 1897:, p. 38. 1896: 1891: 1889: 1882:, p. 20. 1881: 1876: 1870:, p. 17. 1869: 1864: 1857: 1852: 1845: 1840: 1833: 1828: 1821: 1816: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1794: 1789: 1783:, p. 46. 1782: 1777: 1771:, p. 51. 1770: 1765: 1759:, p. 24. 1758: 1753: 1747:, p. 78. 1746: 1741: 1734: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1718:, p. 36. 1717: 1712: 1706:, p. 25. 1705: 1700: 1693: 1688: 1682:, p. 44. 1681: 1676: 1669: 1664: 1658:, p. 47. 1657: 1652: 1645: 1640: 1633: 1628: 1621: 1616: 1610:, p. 35. 1609: 1604: 1602: 1594: 1589: 1587: 1579: 1574: 1567: 1562: 1555: 1550: 1543: 1538: 1531: 1526: 1519: 1514: 1507: 1502: 1495: 1490: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1468: 1463: 1456: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1440:, p. 37. 1439: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1405:, p. 35. 1404: 1399: 1397: 1392: 1377: 1368: 1364: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1334: 1328: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1304: 1295: 1293: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1279: 1278:Geoffrey Hill 1274: 1271: 1265: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1247: 1239: 1234: 1225: 1223: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1205: 1201: 1199: 1189: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1097: 1088: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1069: 1062: 1061:Bodkin arrows 1058: 1054: 1051: 1046: 1039: 1034: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1005: 1001: 998: 994: 990: 986: 981: 979: 975: 965: 956: 954: 953:Lord Clifford 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 921: 919: 915: 911: 910:Walter Blount 907: 902: 900: 899:English peers 891: 887: 883: 881: 880: 869: 867: 863: 859: 855: 852:the river at 851: 845: 843: 842:Lord Clifford 839: 835: 832:crossing the 831: 826: 822: 816: 813: 808: 804: 795: 791: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 764: 762: 761:Act of Accord 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 709: 708: 705: 612: 598: 590: 580: 576: 573: 568: 564: 559: 557: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 536:Act of Accord 533: 529: 525: 521: 516: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 443:London (1471) 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 424: 421: 419: 416: 414: 413:Hedgeley Moor 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 393:2nd St Albans 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 368:London (1460) 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 348:1st St Albans 346: 345: 342: 337: 327: 322: 320: 315: 313: 308: 307: 304: 295: 292: 291: 286: 283:50,000–60,000 281: 276: 270: 268: 262: 251: 248: 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Retrieved 3731:the original 3699:. Retrieved 3695:the original 3690:The Guardian 3688: 3669:. Retrieved 3665:the original 3658: 3639:. Retrieved 3635: 3603: 3582: 3578: 3567:the original 3538: 3534: 3508: 3477: 3461:. Retrieved 3449: 3445: 3418: 3404: 3378: 3374: 3355: 3332:. Retrieved 3316: 3312: 3283: 3271:. Retrieved 3266: 3262: 3244:(3): 28–35. 3241: 3237: 3212: 3208: 3171: 3151: 3132: 3109: 3100: 3077: 3074:Sadler, John 3055: 3032: 3010: 2997: 2974: 2952: 2924: 2909:the original 2890: 2867: 2841: 2817: 2800: 2766: 2739: 2727: 2720:Salzman 1949 2685: 2670: 2658: 2651:Ransome 1889 2646: 2634: 2627:Gravett 2003 2622: 2615:NHLE 1000040 2610: 2598: 2586: 2574: 2562: 2550: 2545:, p. 7. 2538: 2526: 2514: 2502: 2490: 2485:, p. 3. 2478: 2456:Edelman 1992 2451: 2422: 2410: 2398: 2386: 2374: 2362: 2350: 2338: 2326: 2299: 2287: 2250:Gravett 2003 2245: 2233: 2221: 2209: 2202:Gravett 2003 2187:Gravett 2003 2182: 2175:Gravett 2003 2170: 2163:Gravett 2003 2158: 2151:Gravett 2003 2146: 2139:Gravett 2003 2134: 2127:Gravett 2003 2122: 2115:Harriss 2005 2102:, p. 6. 2081:Gravett 2003 2076: 2069:Gravett 2003 2064: 2057:Gravett 2003 2052: 2045:Gravett 2003 2040: 2028: 2023:, p. 4. 2016: 2009:Gravett 2003 2004: 1997:Gravett 2003 1992: 1985:Halsall 2000 1980: 1973:Gravett 2003 1968: 1961:Halsall 2000 1946:Gravett 2003 1941: 1936:, p. 2. 1929: 1922:Gravett 2003 1902: 1880:Gravett 2003 1875: 1863: 1856:Goodman 1990 1851: 1844:Gravett 2003 1839: 1827: 1815: 1808:Goodman 1990 1788: 1776: 1769:Goodman 1990 1764: 1752: 1740: 1711: 1704:Gravett 2003 1699: 1694:, p. 1. 1687: 1680:Gravett 2003 1675: 1663: 1656:Gravett 2003 1651: 1644:Gravett 2003 1639: 1627: 1615: 1573: 1561: 1554:Harriss 2005 1549: 1537: 1525: 1513: 1501: 1489: 1469:, p. 7. 1467:Gravett 2003 1462: 1376: 1367: 1338: 1332: 1329: 1325: 1313: 1309: 1290: 1286:C. 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Sansom 1283: 1275: 1266: 1261: 1257: 1251: 1243: 1237: 1218: 1214:Earl of Kent 1206: 1202: 1194: 1146: 1141: 1122:Charles Ross 1119: 1115: 1111: 1102: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1047: 1043: 1010:John Wenlock 1006: 1002: 982: 970: 922: 903: 896: 884: 877: 875: 865: 846: 817: 800: 765: 733: 610: 577: 560: 512: 475: 473: 402: 266: 244: 127:Belligerents 43: 29:Part of the 18: 4402:Stoke Field 4327:Ferrybridge 4302:Northampton 4282:Blore Heath 3928:Richard III 3882:Key figures 3873:Family tree 3701:25 November 3671:25 November 3541:(1): 1–25. 3463:11 November 3452:: 460–466. 3334:17 December 3323:: 173–195. 3273:14 December 2744:Gibson 1936 2705:Harris 1935 2679:Kettle 2007 2663:Catton 2010 2639:Fallow 1889 2555:Sherry 1987 2531:Sherry 1987 2495:Warren 2003 2483:Wolffe 2001 2471:Saccio 2000 2444:Berlin 2000 2403:Wolffe 2001 1745:Sadler 2011 1733:Wolffe 2001 1668:Morgan 2000 1620:Wolffe 2001 1593:Wolffe 2001 1530:Wolffe 2001 1482:Wolffe 2001 1455:Wolffe 2001 1353:common land 1316:Richard III 1014:John Dinham 976:chronicler 945:Lord de Ros 906:Ferrybridge 862:Palm Sunday 830:Ferrybridge 707:Locations: 640:Northampton 534:passed the 500:Lancastrian 492:Palm Sunday 463:Stoke Field 398:Ferrybridge 373:Northampton 353:Blore Heath 102: / 4502:Categories 4377:Tewkesbury 4143:Owen Tudor 3868:Tudor rose 3651:Gill, A.A. 3636:York Press 3579:Landscapes 3313:Oxoniensia 2732:Askew 1935 2415:Hicks 2002 2379:Hicks 2002 2226:Hinds 1912 2214:Hinds 1912 1832:Hicks 2002 1820:Hicks 2002 1757:Scott 2010 1632:Hicks 2002 1578:Hicks 2002 1518:Hicks 2002 1388:References 1238:3 Henry VI 1228:Literature 1163:, and Sir 1106:no quarter 974:Burgundian 959:Deployment 949:Lord Dacre 854:Castleford 834:River Aire 668:St. Albans 532:Parliament 438:Tewkesbury 90:01°16′25″W 87:53°50′10″N 4543:Edward IV 4312:Wakefield 3953:Lancaster 3938:Henry VII 3908:Edward IV 3563:159544440 3555:1574-0773 3395:1471-6941 3329:0308-5562 3229:1471-6941 3033:Edward IV 3031:(1997) . 2973:(2002) . 2815:(2002) . 2675:Gill 2008 2427:Ross 1997 2391:Ross 1997 2355:Ross 1997 2331:Ross 1997 2304:Ross 1997 2292:Ross 1997 2265:Ross 1997 1895:Ross 1997 1868:Ross 1997 1781:Penn 2019 1716:Ross 1997 1608:Ross 1997 1566:Ross 1997 1542:Ross 1997 1494:Ross 1997 1438:Ross 1997 1403:Dean 2015 1291:Sovereign 1224:in 1471. 1198:attainted 1183:Aftermath 1173:Wiltshire 997:Cock Beck 805:, in the 740:Lancaster 626:Wakefield 548:Wakefield 504:Edward IV 383:Wakefield 160:Edward IV 79:, England 77:Yorkshire 4485:Category 4411:See also 4292:Sandwich 3918:Edward V 3898:Henry VI 3890:Monarchs 3304:(1936). 3250:48578453 3172:Henry VI 3076:(2011). 2922:(2005). 2888:(2003). 2795:(1857). 1262:familial 1258:national 1254:, Part 3 1252:Henry VI 1151:, lords 1028:Fighting 744:Henry VI 520:Beaufort 508:Henry VI 363:Sandwich 278:Strength 67:Location 4352:Edgcote 4337:Piltown 4307:Worksop 3591:3805936 3507:(ed.). 2753:Sources 1210:peerage 1050:archers 985:plateau 918:Channel 583:Setting 515:Henry V 496:Yorkist 482:, near 423:Edgcote 408:Piltown 378:Worksop 267:† 245:† 4372:Barnet 4347:Hexham 4332:Towton 4265:Events 3765:22 May 3740:21 May 3641:22 May 3610: 3589: 3561: 3553: 3515: 3488: 3429: 3393: 3362: 3327: 3290: 3248: 3227: 3187: 3158: 3139: 3116: 3084: 3062: 3043: 3017: 2981: 2959: 2936: 2901: 2874: 2848: 2825: 2781: 1298:Legacy 1270:asides 1157:Mauley 1153:Welles 1136:) and 1134:Elphin 993:Towton 989:Saxton 788:Edward 682:London 611:Towton 556:Edward 544:Edmund 494:, the 484:Towton 433:Barnet 418:Hexham 403:Towton 263: 241: 115:Result 73:Towton 50:(1922) 3964:Tudor 3734:(PDF) 3723:(PDF) 3587:JSTOR 3585:(2). 3570:(PDF) 3559:S2CID 3531:(PDF) 3503:. 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