Battle of Plataea - Knowledge

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on the slightly lower ground between. In response, Mardonius brought his men up to the Asopos and arrayed them for battle. However, neither the Persians nor the Greeks would attack; Herodotus claims this is because both sides received bad omens during sacrificial rituals. The armies thus stayed camped in their locations for eight days, during which new Greek troops arrived. Mardonius then sought to break the stalemate by sending his cavalry to attack the passes of Mount Cithaeron; this raid resulted in the capture of a convoy of provisions intended for the Greeks. Two more days passed, during which time the supply lines of the Greeks continued to be menaced. Mardonius then launched another cavalry raid on the Greek lines, which succeeded in blocking the Gargaphian Spring, which had been the only source of water for the Greek army, as they could not draw from the Asopos due to the threat posed by Persian archers. Coupled with the lack of food, the restriction of the water supply made the Greek position untenable, so they decided to retreat to a position in front of Plataea, from where they could guard the passes and have access to fresh water. To prevent the Persian cavalry from attacking during the retreat, it was to be performed that night.

2350: 2169: 864: 1881: 2043: 2419: 2106:. The Persian defensive weapon was a large wicker shield and they used short spears; by contrast, the hoplites were armoured in bronze, with a bronze-clad shield and a long spear. As shown at Marathon, it was a severe mismatch. The fight was fierce and long, but the Greeks (Spartans and Tegeans) continued to push into the Persian lines. The Persians tried to break the Greeks' spears by grabbing hold of them, but the Greeks responded by switching to swords. Mardonius was present at the scene, riding a white horse, and surrounded by a bodyguard of 1,000 men; while he remained, the Persians stood their ground. However, the Spartans closed in on Mardonius and a Spartan soldier named 896: 1524: 2224:: The leader of a battalion of Spartans, he refused to undertake the night-time retreat towards Plataea before the battle, since doing so would be shameful for a Spartan. Herodotus has an angry debate continuing between Pausanias and Amompharetus until dawn, whereupon the rest of the Spartan army finally began to retreat, leaving Amompharetus' division behind. Not expecting this, Amompharetus eventually led his men after the retreating Spartans. However, another tradition remembers Amompharetus as winning great renown at Plataea, and it has thus been suggested that Amompharetus, far from being insubordinate, had instead volunteered to guard the rear. 950: 2022:

to force the Allies into battle but as attempts to force the Allies into retreat (which indeed became the case). Mardonius may have felt he had little to gain in battle and that he could simply wait for the Greek alliance to fall apart (as it had nearly done over the winter). There can be little doubt from Herodotus' account that Mardonius was prepared to accept battle on his own terms, however. Regardless of the exact motives, the initial strategic situation allowed both sides to procrastinate, since food supplies were ample for both armies. Under these conditions, the tactical considerations outweighed the strategic need for action.

1972:, fronting the Ampraciots, Anactorians, Leucadians, Paleans, and Aeginetans; next to the Sacae, and over against the Athenians and Plataeans and Megarians, the Boeotian and Locrians and Malians and Thessalians and the thousand that came from Phocis ... Besides these, he arrayed against the Athenians Macedonians also and the dwellers about Thessaly. These that I have named were the greatest of the nations set in array by Mardonius that were of most note and account; but there was also in the army a mixed multitude of Phrygians, Thracians, Mysians, Paeonians, and the rest, besides Ethiopians and the Egyptian swordsmen. 1538: 2431: 2178: 1496: 1477:; it is probable that the other contingents also had their leaders. Herodotus tells us in several places that the Greeks held councils during the prelude to the battle, implying that decisions were consensual and that Pausanias did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the other contingents. This style of leadership contributed to the way events unfolded during the battle itself. For instance, in the period immediately before the battle, Pausanias was unable to order the Athenians to join up with his forces, and thus the Greeks fought the battle completely separated from each other. 4935: 1510: 2501:) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC). Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it. As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally". 2379:. The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear; it might, however, be a result of the circumstances in which the battle was fought. The fame of Thermopylae certainly lies in the doomed heroism of the Greeks in the face of overwhelming numbers; and Marathon and Salamis perhaps because they were both fought against the odds, and in dire strategic situations. Conversely, the Battles of Plataea and Mycale were both fought from a relative position of Greek strength, and against lesser odds; the Greeks, in fact, sought out battle on both occasions. 475: 2034:

from this retreat that finally ended the stalemate. Mardonius perceived this as a full-on retreat, in effect thinking that the battle was already over, and sought to pursue the Greeks. Since he did not expect the Greeks to fight, the tactical problems were no longer an issue and he tried to take advantage of the altered strategic situation he thought he had produced. Conversely, the Greeks had, inadvertently, lured Mardonius into attacking them on the higher ground and, despite being outnumbered, were thus at a tactical advantage.

2247:: Considered the "most beautiful man, not among the Spartans only, but in the whole Greek camp", Callicrates was eager to distinguish himself that day as a warrior but was deprived of the chance by a stray arrow that pierced his side while standing in formation. When the battle commenced he insisted on making the charge with the rest, but collapsed within a short distance. His last words, according to Herodotus, were, "I grieve not because I have to die for my country, but because I have not lifted my arm against the enemy." 1995: 1037: 2298:. An army of 60,000 men had been left there by Xerxes and the fleet joined with them, building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships. However, Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet's marines. Seeing the small size of the Greek force, the Persians emerged from the camp but the Greek hoplites again proved superior and destroyed much of the Persian force. The ships were abandoned to the Greeks, who burned them, crippling Xerxes' sea power and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet. 148: 1552: 1433: 803: 2026: 1458:

Lazenby accepts that hoplites from other Greek cities might have been accompanied by one lightly armoured retainer each, but rejects the number of seven helots per Spartiate. He further speculates that each Spartiate was accompanied by one armed helot, and that the remaining helots were employed in the logistical effort, transporting food for the army. Both Lazenby and Holland deem the lightly armed troops, whatever their number, as essentially irrelevant to the outcome of the battle.

2520:" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his 2131: 1109: 2075: 1017: 2063: 4974: 1129: 2278: 32: 2139:

them to escape without further losses. The Greeks, reinforced by the contingents who had not taken part in the main battle, then stormed the Persian camp. Although the Persians initially defended the wall vigorously, it was eventually breached; the Persians, packed tightly together in the camp, were slaughtered by the Greeks. Of the Persians who had retreated to the camp, scarcely 3,000 were left alive.

482: 1681:. Herodotus admits that no one counted the Greek allies of the Achaemenids, but he guesses that there were about 50,000 of them. Mardonius' troops consisted of not only Persians and Medes, but also Bactrians, Scythians, Indians, Boeotians, Locrians, Malians, Thessalians, Macedonians, Thracians, and 1,000 Phocians. Herodotus described the composition of the principal troops of Mardonius: 930:; the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city. Over the winter, there seems to have been some tension among the Allies. The Athenians in particular, who were not protected by the Isthmus but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnese, felt hard done by and demanded that an Allied army march north the following year. When the Allies failed to commit to this, the 2259:), who was allied to the Persians and present in their camp, secretly rode to the Greek camp with a warning that the Persians had decided to attack, and that before the main battle Mardonius issued a challenge to the Spartans to fight a special battle between equal numbers of Spartans and Persians, which was declined. Some historians have called these stories improbable. 1141:

division was thus left on the ridge to guard the rear, while the Spartans and Tegeans retreated uphill; Pausanias also instructed the Athenians to begin the retreat and if possible join up with the Spartans. However, the Athenians initially retreated directly towards Plataea, and thus the Allied battle line remained fragmented as the Persian camp began to stir.

1986:, who wrote a history of Persia based on Persian archives, claimed there were 120,000 Persian and 7,000 Greek soldiers, but his account is generally garbled. For instance, placing this battle before Salamis, he also says there were only 300 Spartans, 1000 perioeci and 6000 from the other cities at Plataea, perhaps confusing it with Thermopylae. 1872:, basing his calculations on the distance the Persians marched in a day when Athens was attacked, concluded that 75,000 was the upper limit for the size of the Persian army, including the supply personnel and other non-combatants. In his battle account of Plataea, Delbrück estimated the Persian army, including allied Greeks, totaled 40,000. 2537:, also provides an account of the Battle of Plataea. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's, but given that it was written much later, it may well have been derived from Herodotus's version. The Battle is also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, 2240:

because of an eye infection. However, his colleague had insisted on being led into battle, partially blind, by a helot. Preferring to return to Sparta, Aristodemus was branded a coward and suffered a year of reproach before Plataea. Anxious to redeem his name, he charged the Persian lines by himself,

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According to Herodotus, Pausanias refused to advance because good omens were not divined in the goat sacrifices that were performed. At this point, as Greek soldiers began to fall under the barrage of arrows, the Tegeans started to run at the Persian lines. Offering one last sacrifice and a prayer to

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Once the Persians discovered that the Greeks had abandoned their positions and appeared to be in retreat, Mardonius decided to set off in immediate pursuit with the elite Persian infantry. As he did so, the rest of the Persian army, unbidden, began to move forward. The Spartans and Tegeans had by now

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In the summer of 479 BC, the Greeks assembled a huge army and marched out of the Peloponnesus. The Persians retreated to Boeotia and built a fortified camp near Plataea. The Greeks, however, refused to be drawn into the prime cavalry terrain around the Persian camp, resulting in a stalemate that

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Plataea and Mycale have great significance in ancient history as the battles that decisively ended the second Persian invasion of Greece, thereby swinging the balance of the Greco-Persian Wars in favour of the Greeks. They kept Persia from conquering all of Greece, although they paid a high price by

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On the opposite side of the battlefield the Athenians had triumphed in a tough battle against the Thebans. The other Greeks fighting for the Persians had deliberately fought badly, according to Herodotus. The Thebans retreated from the battle, but in a different direction from the Persians, allowing

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began to withdraw from the ridge, under pressure from Persian cavalry, to join them. Pausanias sent a messenger to the Athenians, asking them to join up with the Spartans. However, the Athenians had been engaged by the Theban phalanx and were unable to assist Pausanias. The Spartans and Tegeans were

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for the Persian invasion at around 250,000. According to this consensus, Herodotus' 300,000 Persians at Plataea would self-evidently be impossible. One approach to estimating the size of the Persian army has been to estimate how many men might feasibly have been accommodated within the Persian camp;

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Their morale boosted by this small victory, the Greeks moved forward, still remaining on higher ground, to a new position more suited for encampment and better watered. The Spartans and Tegeans were on a ridge to the right of the line, the Athenians on a hillock on the left and the other contingents

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According to Herodotus, the Battle of Mycale occurred on the same afternoon as Plataea. A Greek fleet under the Spartan king Leotychides had sailed to Samos to challenge the remnants of the Persian fleet. The Persians, whose ships were in a poor state of repair, had decided not to risk fighting and

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According to Herodotus, both sides wished for a decisive battle that would tip the war in their favor. However, Lazenby believed that Mardonius' actions during the Plataea campaign were not consistent with an aggressive policy. He interprets the Persian operations during the prelude not as attempts

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A further complication is that a certain proportion of the Allied manpower was needed to man the fleet, which amounted to at least 110 triremes, and thus approximately 22,000 men. Since the Battle of Mycale was fought at least near-simultaneously with the Battle of Plataea, then this was a pool of

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According to Herodotus, only 43,000 Persians survived the battle. The number who died, of course, depends on how many there were in the first place; there would be 257,000 dead by Herodotus' reckoning. Herodotus claims that the Greeks as a whole lost only 159 men. Furthermore, he claims that only

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When Mardonius' raids disrupted the Allied supply chain, it forced the Allies to rethink their strategy. Rather than now moving to attack, however, they instead looked to retreat and secure their lines of communication. Despite this defensive move by the Greeks, it was in fact the chaos resulting

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and Bactrians and Indians, alike their footmen and the rest of the horsemen. He chose these nations entire; of the rest of his allies he picked out a few from each people, the goodliest men and those that he knew to have done some good service ... Thereby the whole number, with the horsemen,

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at Salamis, manned by approximately 36,000 rowers and fighters. Thus 69,500 light troops could easily have been sent to Plataea. Nevertheless, the number of light troops is often rejected as exaggerated, especially in view of the ratio of seven helots to one Spartiate. For instance, the historian

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in 499–494 BC. The Achaemenid Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts by its subject peoples. Moreover, Darius was a usurper and had to spend considerable time putting down revolts against his rule. The Ionian Revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and he thus vowed to

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In some ways the run-up to Plataea resembled that at the Battle of Marathon; there was a prolonged stalemate in which neither side risked attacking the other. The reasons for this stalemate were primarily tactical, and similar to the situation at Marathon; the Greek hoplites did not want to risk

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killed him. According to Plutarch, Arimnestus killed him by a blow to the head with a stone, a form of death which had been foretold to Mardonius by an oracle; some modern historians have called it unlikely that a Spartan would use such a weapon. With Mardonius dead, the Persians began to flee;

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According to Herodotus, there were a total of 69,500 lightly armed troops – 35,000 helots and 34,500 troops from the rest of Greece; roughly one per hoplite. The number of 34,500 has been suggested to represent one light skirmisher supporting each non-Spartan hoplite (33,700), together with 800

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However, the retreat went awry. The Allied contingents in the centre missed their appointed position and ended up scattered in front of Plataea itself. The Athenians, Tegeans and Spartans, who had been guarding the rear of the retreat, had not even begun to retreat by daybreak. A single Spartan

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With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale, the second Persian invasion of Greece was over. Moreover, the threat of future invasion was abated; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again, over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much

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Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he intended to completely subjugate Greece. However, he died before the invasion could begin. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes I, who quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece, including the task of building two

2313:, though losing many men to Thracian attacks, weariness and hunger. After the victory at Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this had already been done. The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the 2127:), had disagreed with Mardonius about attacking the Greeks, and he had not fully engaged the forces under his command. As the rout commenced, he led these men (40,000, according to Herodotus) away from the battlefield, on the road to Thessaly, hoping to escape eventually to the Hellespont. 911:. Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season; conversely, the Allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese. The ensuing naval 922:, this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges, thereby trapping his army in Europe. He left Mardonius with is hand-picked troops to complete the conquest of Greece the following year. Mardonius evacuated 1100:, the Greeks took up position opposite the Persian lines but remained on high ground. Knowing that he had little hope of successfully attacking the Greek positions, Mardonius sought to either sow dissension among the Allies or lure them down into the plain. 702:

lasted 11 days. While attempting a retreat after their supply lines were disrupted, the Greek battle line fragmented. Thinking that the Greeks were in full retreat, Mardonius ordered his forces to pursue them, but the Greeks, particularly the Spartans,

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over the more lightly armed Persian infantry, as had first been demonstrated at Marathon. Taking on this lesson, after the Greco-Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries. One such mercenary expedition, the

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Mardonius also initiated hit-and-run cavalry attacks against the Greek lines, possibly trying to lure the Greeks down to the plain in pursuit. Although begetting some initial success, this strategy backfired when the Persian cavalry commander

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reports that a conspiracy was discovered among some prominent Athenians, who were planning to betray the Allied cause; although this account is not universally accepted, it may indicate Mardonius' attempts of intrigue within the Greek ranks.

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as a gesture of their submission, while making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta, both of whom were at open war with Persia. Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at

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although his bodyguard remained, they were annihilated. Herodotus claims that the reason for their discomfort was a lack of armour. Quickly the rout became general, with many Persians fleeing in disorder to their camp. However,

995:, who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered. When the Athenian emissaries delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans the next day, they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already 860:, consisting of a series of naval encounters, was up to that point a stalemate; however, when news of the defeat at Thermopylae reached them, the Greeks also retreated, since holding the straits was now inconsequential. 2241:

killing in a savage fury before being cut down. Although the Spartans agreed that he had redeemed himself, they awarded him no special honour, because he failed to fight in the disciplined manner expected of a Spartan.

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The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention. We are already well aware of it. But even so, such is our love of liberty, that we will never

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and Plataea, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance and threatening to accept the Persian terms if it was not provided. According to Herodotus, the Spartans, who were at that time celebrating the festival of

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The number of hoplites is accepted as reasonable and possible; the Athenians alone had fielded 10,000 hoplites at the Battle of Marathon. Some historians have accepted the number of light troops and used them as a

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According to modern estimates based on the order of battle described by Herodotus, the Achaemenid army consisted of about 40,000 Persian troops on the left of the battle line, facing the Spartans; about 20,000

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Athenian archers, whose presence in the battle Herodotus later notes. Herodotus tells us that there were also 1,800 Thespians (but does not say how they were equipped), giving a total strength of 108,200 men.

2524:, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with scepticism. Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story. 848:. Famously, the massively outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae for three days before being outflanked by the Persians, who used a little-known mountain path. Although much of the Greek army retreated, the 2366:

be defeated, and the Battle of Salamis saved Greece from immediate conquest, but it was Plataea and Mycale that effectively ended that threat. However, neither of these battles is nearly as well known as

2321:, the strongest town in the region, and the Athenians laid siege to them there. After a protracted siege Sestos fell to the Athenians, marking the beginning of a new phase in the Greco-Persian Wars, the 832:

was formed, generally referred to as the Allies. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.

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The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking land and sea approaches to southern Greece. Thus, in August 480 BC, after hearing of Xerxes' approach, a small Allied army led by Spartan King

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first assaulted by the Persian cavalry, while the Persian infantry made their way forward. They then planted their shields and began shooting arrows at the Greeks, while the cavalry withdrew.

2463:. It commemorated all the Greek city-states that had participated in the battle, listing them on the column, and thus confirming some of Herodotus' claims. Most of it still survives in the 1170:(seven per Spartiate). This was probably the largest Spartan force ever assembled. The Greek army had also been reinforced by contingents of hoplites from the other Allied city-states. 2071:

the heavens in front of the Temple of Hera, Pausanias finally received favourable omens and gave the command for the Spartans to advance, whereupon they also charged the Persian lines.

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punish those involved, especially those who weren't part of his empire. Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire by conquering the fragmented polities of Ancient Greece.

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Reconstitution of the column. An inscription reads "This is the gift the saviors of far-flung Hellas upraised here, Having delivered their states from loathsome slavery's bonds".

2395:, further proved to the Greeks that the Persians were militarily vulnerable even well within their own territory, and paved the way for the destruction of the Persian Empire by 721:. Although Plataea is considered a highly decisive victory, it has historically, even contemporarily, not been attributed the same significance like the Athenian victory at the 2491:. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History', was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek – 907:

and Thespiae, the Boeotian cities that had not surrendered, before taking possession of the now-evacuated city of Athens. The Allied army, meanwhile, prepared to defend the

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A large portion of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and killed. The destruction of this army, and the remnants of the Persian navy allegedly on the same day at the

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When Mardonius learned of the Spartan force, he completed the destruction of Athens, tearing down whatever was left standing. He then retreated towards the city of

969:, offering peace, self-government and territorial expansion. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer, and rejected it: 1065:, hoping to lure the Greek army into territory that would be suitable for the Persian cavalry. Mardonius created a fortified encampment on the north bank of the 511: 4901: 1945:), positioned on the right wing facing the Athenians. The cavalry, which also consisted of Persians, Bactrians, Indians and Sakae, would total about 5,000. 4514: 4459: 4260: 3969: 3371: 3243: 53: 46: 3295: 3149: 3014: 2897: 2829: 2816: 2693: 717:, decisively ended the invasion. After Plataea and Mycale, the Greek allies would take the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of the 2349: 1868:

derives a number of 120,000 from the same-sized camp. Indeed, most estimates for the total Persian force are generally in this range. The historian

5734: 1856: 3582: 2337:, would expel (or help expel) the Persians from Macedon, Thrace, the Aegean islands and Ionia. Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the 5673: 3956: 187: 978:

Upon this refusal, the Persians marched south again. Athens was again evacuated and left to the enemy, leading to the second phase of the

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The figure of 300,000 has been doubted, along with many of Herodotus' numbers, by many historians; modern consensus estimates the total

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manpower which could not have contributed to Plataea, and further reduces the likelihood that 110,000 Greeks assembled before Plataea.

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their general, who said that he would not quit the king's person; and next, the Persian cuirassiers, and the thousand horse, and the

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Militarily, the major lesson of both Plataea and Mycale (since both were fought on land) was to re-emphasise the superiority of the

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being outflanked by the Persian cavalry and the lightly armed Persian infantry could not hope to assault well-defended positions.

2013:) that delaying the encounter with the Persians would help further diminish their already low supplies. Battle of Plataea, 479 BC. 5234: 1712:

Diodorus Siculus claims in his work Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Persian troops was some five hundred thousand.

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The prospect of reconstructing ancient battlefields in the 21st Century: a case study using the Battle of Plataea (479 B.C.E.)

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The main phase of the battle at Plataea. The Greek retreat becomes disorganised, and the Persians cross the Asopus to attack.

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to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia; the latter had been a Persian vassal as early as the late 6th century

2309:. Travelling through the lands of Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace by the shortest road, Artabazus eventually made it back to 474: 5390: 490: 75: 2322: 5547: 5542: 5239: 4756:. ARCA, classical and medieval texts, papers, and monographs. Vol. 21. Translated by Howie, J. G. Francis Cairns. 863: 5729: 4958: 4865: 4846: 4819: 4791: 4761: 4739: 4720: 4697: 4675: 4645: 4623: 4499: 4473: 3994: 2954: 2272: 1465:

The Greek forces were, as agreed at the Allied congress, under the overall command of Spartan royalty represented by

1088:, along with 600 Plataean exiles to join the Allied army. The army then marched through Boeotia across the passes of 738: 601: 535: 139: 115: 4532: 1880: 965:

Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of

5304: 5156: 2512:), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. 2042: 1669:

numbered 300,000 and were accompanied by troops from Greek city states that supported the Persian cause, including

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in the decade following the Battle of Plataea and the departure of Achaemenid forces (struck in 480/79–470 BC).

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this approach gives figures of between 70,000 and 120,000 men. Lazenby, for instance, by comparison with later

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Following the defeat of his navy at Salamis, Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of his army. According to

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Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with

5195: 2464: 1964:, fronting men of Epidaurus, Troezen, Lepreum, Tiryns, Mycenae, and Phlius. After the Bactrians he set the 829: 934:

refused to join the Allied navy in the spring. The latter navy, now under the command of the Spartan king

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military camps, calculates the number of troops at 70,000, including 10,000 cavalry. The historian

1305: 1159: 799:, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia. 5436: 5344: 5262: 5031: 4655: 4510: 1112:

The initial movements at the Battle of Plataea. The Greek line moves forward to the Asopos ridge.

690:, the allied Greek navy had won an unlikely but decisive victory, preventing the conquest of the 42: 5657: 5429: 5415: 5401: 4953: 2354: 2252: 2215:

Herodotus recounts several anecdotes about the conduct of specific Spartans during the battle.

2112: 2006: 1537: 966: 372: 339: 89: 2944: 2430: 2330: 2177: 1495: 5621: 5290: 5141: 3641: 2533: 2497: 2472: 2368: 2233: 2079: 1960:, fronting the men of Corinth and Potidaea and Orchomenus and Sicyon; next to the Medes, the 1767: 1607: 1509: 1175: 979: 961:: "As long as the sun holds to its present course, we shall never come to terms with Xerxes". 663: 549: 2516:

criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "

1096:, above the Persian position on the Asopos. Under the guidance of their commanding general, 5683: 5297: 5151: 5087: 4685: 2305:

The remnants of the Persian army, under the command of Artabazus, tried to retreat back to

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in the centre, facing various Greek states, and about 20,000 Greek allies of the Persians (

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180 triremes times 200 men; 170 rowers plus 30 fighters was the usual crew. See Herodotus

2194:, around the time of the Battle of Plataea (the "Ionians with shield-hats" on the tomb of 931: 8: 5601: 5479: 5443: 5052: 4889: 4556: 4552: 2396: 2388: 2314: 2256: 1930: 1779: 1619: 1022:

View of the battlefield from above. The battle took place on the hilly plain between the

4388: 5649: 5615: 5591: 5534: 5283: 5249: 4998: 4564: 3452: 2508:. Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the 2376: 908: 796: 722: 718: 1473:, his cousin. Diodorus tells us that the Athenian contingent was under the command of 5607: 5596: 5358: 5352: 5311: 5214: 4939: 4934: 4861: 4842: 4815: 4809: 4787: 4767: 4757: 4749: 4735: 4716: 4693: 4671: 4641: 4619: 4495: 4469: 4315: 2950: 2877: 2538: 2372: 2317:, still held by the Persians. The Persians in the region, and their allies, made for 2103: 1801: 1643: 1583: 1543: 1450: 915:

ended in a decisive victory for the Allies, marking a turning point in the conflict.

912: 868: 767:

in 492 BC to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re-conquest of

687: 636: 624: 564: 264: 503: 5678: 5629: 5474: 5408: 5377: 5366: 5325: 5276: 5207: 5136: 5097: 4834: 4708: 4663: 4595: 4465: 4303: 2528: 2268: 2152: 2116: 2098:

The numerically superior Persian infantry were of the heavy (by Persian standards)

1885: 1171: 1074: 1066: 1023: 714: 584: 365: 330: 317: 293: 5513: 4633: 1994: 1869: 5714: 5643: 5469: 5422: 5188: 5110: 4896: 3649: 2871: 2565: 2509: 1089: 820: 147: 2143:

Spartans, Tegeans and Athenians died, since they were the only ones who fought.

1551: 5371: 5269: 5229: 5182: 5166: 5117: 5082: 5077: 4779: 4455: 2546: 2456: 2445: 2437: 2408: 2199: 2091: 1957: 1953: 1942: 1905: 1865: 1805: 1678: 1666: 1651: 1595: 1575: 1571: 1515: 1501: 1432: 1062: 1036: 876: 812: 613: 256: 222: 5698: 5558: 5255: 5072: 5004: 4993: 4771: 4319: 2334: 2025: 991:, delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest, Chileos of 752: 202: 189: 2147:, who had access to other sources, gives 1,360 Greek casualties, while both 802: 4801: 4599: 2220: 2130: 2055: 1861: 1470: 1108: 1042:

The battlefield of Plataea seen from the south, i.e. from the hills of the

1000: 691: 289: 4838: 4667: 2362:

losing many of their men. The Battle of Marathon showed that the Persians

2074: 819:. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors to Greek city-states asking for 5146: 1934: 1771: 1611: 935: 841: 694:

region. Xerxes then retreated with much of his army, leaving his general

648: 3456: 856:

contingents, was surrounded and annihilated. The simultaneously ongoing

706:

and Athenians halted and gave battle, routing the lightly armed Persian

5552: 5499: 5103: 5039: 4805: 4227: 2505: 2306: 2237: 2107: 1627: 1393: 1278: 845: 837: 816: 658:

The previous year, the Persian invasion force, led by the Persian king

616: 284: 259: 2333:. Over the next 30 years the Greeks, primarily the Athenian-dominated 2062: 1016: 5161: 4451: 2542: 2488: 2476: 2310: 2277: 2099: 2087: 2002: 1998: 1961: 1901: 1793: 1789: 1698: 1635: 1631: 1623: 1474: 1293: 1178:

that the number of the Greek troops approached one hundred thousand.

1155: 1133: 1128: 1118: 1085: 1043: 954: 919: 849: 795:

and Eretria, before moving to attack Athens. However, at the ensuing

644: 440: 358: 326: 302: 152:

Persians and Spartans fighting at Plataea. 19th century illustration.

4973: 4833:. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons. 4108:

A history of Greece to the death of Alexander the Great, 3rd edition

2662: 31: 5565: 5506: 4542: 4528: 4255: 2513: 2468: 2441: 2392: 2195: 2144: 2120: 1938: 1909: 1820: 1763: 1726: 1690: 1674: 1603: 1591: 1385: 1344: 1163: 1101: 1070: 1047: 927: 903:

Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack

872: 853: 792: 756: 707: 671: 659: 640: 433: 426: 4754:

Herodotus and His 'sources': Citation, Invention and Narrative Art

4230:, or the number of books written specifically about those battles. 2873:

Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power

2487:

The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian

2281:

Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting on an ancient

1948:

Herodotus described in detail the dispositions of the two armies:

779:

BC. An amphibious task force was then sent out under the admirals

5572: 5059: 5045: 4487: 2674: 2383: 2191: 2148: 2124: 1983: 1965: 1922: 1918: 1897: 1828: 1824: 1759: 1755: 1740: 1736: 1599: 1590:, illustrated in the list of troops by ethnicity, on the tomb of 1587: 1557: 1454: 1401: 1375: 1362: 1354: 1328: 1313: 1270: 1226: 1093: 1081: 1051: 1027: 904: 888: 828:

in the late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of

825: 772: 748: 628: 609: 605: 422: 240: 177: 16:

Land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece (479 BC)

4690:

Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West

5528: 5011: 2460: 2318: 2291: 2232:: The lone Spartan survivor of the slaughter of the 300 at the 2187: 2083: 2029:

The battlefield of Plataea from the Achaemenid (northern) side.

1889: 1888:

at the beginning of the Battle of Plataea. From left to right:

1775: 1647: 1615: 1453:

of Greece at the time. Athens allegedly fielded a fleet of 180

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had, with a fellow Spartiate, been dismissed from the army by

5635: 5018: 4492:

Ctesias' Persian History: Introduction, text, and translation

2295: 2086:. The scene on the right may show the fight over the body of 1969: 1893: 1797: 1694: 1639: 1318: 1252: 1154:

According to Herodotus, the Spartans sent 45,000 men – 5,000

992: 943: 939: 788: 780: 703: 461:

Five to ten times the losses of the Greeks (modern consensus)

4860:. Osprey Campaign Series. Vol. 239. Osprey Publishing. 3443:

Tola, Fernando (1986). "India and Greece before Alexander".

899:

Movements of the Persian and Greek armies in 480–479 BC

844:, while an Athenian-dominated navy sailed to the straits of 5520: 2579: 2577: 1926: 1832: 1744: 1579: 1529: 2541:, and is alluded by other authors, such as the playwright 2102:

formation, but this was still much lighter than the Greek

2078:

Scene of the Battle of Plataea on the south frieze of the

2066:

Scene of the Battle of Plataea. 19th century illustration.

393:

300,000 plus 50,000 Greek allies (estimation by Herodotus)

3534: 3532: 3530: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3421: 3419: 3402: 3400: 2594: 2592: 2574: 2455:

A bronze column in the shape of intertwined snakes (the

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instead drew their ships up on the beach at the feet of

1989: 1685:

Mardonius there chose out first all the Persians called

2475:

during the founding of his city on the Greek colony of

2186:

Macedonian soldier of the Achaemenid Army, wearing the

942:, while the remnants of the Persian fleet remained off 806:

A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle

4885:

Livius Picture Archive: the battle of Plataea (479 BC)

3800: 3544: 3527: 3506: 3416: 4811:

The History of the Peloponnesian War: Revised Edition

3409:

LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book VIII: Chapters 97‑144

3397: 2589: 2549:, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims. 2440:

dedicated by the victorious Greeks, today located in

533: 3445:

Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

1121:

was killed; after his death, the cavalry retreated.

4858:

Plataea 479 BC: The most glorious victory ever seen

4348:Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. 2054:reached the Temple of Demeter. The rearguard under 867:

The Achaemenid Empire and its allied Greek states (

4828: 3238: 3236: 2680: 2668: 1875: 662:in person, had scored victories at the battles of 3483:LacusCurtius • Herodotus — Book IX: Chapters 1‑89 5696: 2049:offering sacrifice to the gods before the battle 1069:river in Boeotia, thus covering the ground from 4439: 3865:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 314. 3233: 4706: 4385:"Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies" 1469:, who was the regent for Leonidas' young son, 791:as an intermediate base, successfully sacking 4917: 1956: ... Next to the Persians he posted the 1598:. Smaller contingents included Greek allies: 698:to finish off the Greeks the following year. 519: 5674:2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire 4508: 2341:, finally ending a half-century of warfare. 1884:Disposition of Achaemenid troops beyond the 612:, and was fought between an alliance of the 2968: 2966: 2155:tally the Greek casualties to over 10,000. 725:or the allied Greek defeat at Thermopylae. 604:. It took place in 479 BC near the city of 4924: 4910: 4829:Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). 4519:. Harvard University Press. Archived from 4308:"17.05.02, Stephenson, The Serpent Column" 4285: 4283: 2158: 526: 512: 4360: 4358: 4189: 4187: 3583:"The Battle of Plataea — August, 479 BCE" 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 481: 116:Learn how and when to remove this message 4855: 4778: 4632: 4407: 4405: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4164: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4134: 4132: 4120: 3860: 3806: 3756: 3550: 3538: 3521: 3438: 3436: 3434: 3425: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3043: 2963: 2598: 2583: 2348: 2276: 2129: 2073: 2061: 2041: 2024: 1993: 1879: 1718:Nations under the Achaemenids at Plataea 1431: 1127: 1107: 948: 894: 862: 801: 5735:Battles involving the Achaemenid Empire 4748: 4729: 4684: 4382: 4280: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3890: 3888: 3874: 3872: 3817: 3815: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3768: 3766: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3722: 3720: 3698: 3696: 3673: 3671: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3495: 3493: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3380: 3335: 3333: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3222: 3220: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3173: 3171: 3144: 3142: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 2997: 2995: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2545:. Archaeological evidence, such as the 2531:, writing in the 1st century BC in his 891:) at the time of the Battle of Plataea. 5697: 4800: 4583: 4569:: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( 4355: 4302: 4184: 4125:. Vol. v. 2. Oxford. p. 392. 3618: 3616: 3580: 3314: 3288: 2869: 2743: 2643: 2641: 1488:Main Achaemenid troops under Mardonius 52:Please improve this article by adding 19:For the battle of the Lamian War, see 4905: 4654: 4589: 4450: 4402: 4233: 4226:For instance, based on the number of 4200: 4171: 4159: 4145: 4129: 4068: 3431: 2865: 2863: 2609: 2607: 2482: 1990:Strategic and tactical considerations 1158:(full citizen soldiers), 5,000 other 600:was the final land battle during the 507: 4613: 4541: 4527: 4105: 3927: 3914: 3901: 3885: 3869: 3828: 3812: 3778: 3763: 3733: 3717: 3693: 3684: 3668: 3654: 3634: 3490: 3463: 3442: 3377: 3330: 3249: 3217: 3197: 3184: 3168: 3139: 3126: 3078: 3020: 2992: 2921: 2844: 2835: 2787: 2765: 2756: 2721: 2567:Justinus: Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 25: 4890:Mardonius and the battle of Plataea 4594:(Thesis). University of Newcastle. 4486: 3613: 3565: 2870:Hanson, Victor Davis (2007-12-18). 2638: 1702:grew to three hundred thousand men. 1003:was marching to meet the Persians. 13: 5720:Military history of Central Greece 5548:Persepolis Administrative Archives 4732:The Defence of Greece, 490-479 B.C 4662:. University of California Press. 4444: 3982:Darius I, DNa inscription, Line 29 2860: 2604: 2251:Herodotus also recounts that King 1952:He posted the Persians facing the 1622:. There were also troops from the 1566:Main troops of Achaemenid general 1440:commanded the Allied Greek troops. 1144: 14: 5751: 4878: 4578: 4110:. London: MacMillan. p. 294. 2949:. Penguin UK. 2013. p. 484. 2273:Second Persian invasion of Greece 755:against the Achaemenid Empire of 739:Second Persian invasion of Greece 602:second Persian invasion of Greece 494:Location of the battle of Plataea 140:Second Persian invasion of Greece 5725:Battles involving ancient Athens 4972: 4933: 4831:A Companion to Ancient Macedonia 4423: 4414: 4376: 4367: 4342: 4326: 4296: 4267: 4249: 4220: 4114: 4099: 4090: 4081: 2429: 2417: 2176: 2167: 1550: 1536: 1522: 1508: 1494: 1077:and up to the lands of Plataea. 1035: 1015: 735:First Persian invasion of Greece 480: 473: 446:low thousands (modern consensus) 146: 30: 4055: 4042: 4029: 4016: 4003: 3987: 3975: 3962: 3949: 3854: 3841: 3708: 3625: 3604: 3574: 3556: 3364: 3355: 3342: 3301: 3275: 3266: 3155: 3007: 2979: 2937: 2912: 2903: 2890: 2822: 2809: 2796: 2774: 2730: 2712: 2699: 2686: 2344: 2115:(who had earlier commanded the 1876:Composition and order of battle 763:A preliminary expedition under 751:had supported the unsuccessful 4989:Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton 4730:Lazenby, John Francis (1993). 4490:(2010). Stronk, Jan P. (ed.). 3861:How, W. W.; Wells, J. (1964). 3412:. p. Herodotus VIII, 113. 2681:Roisman & Worthington 2011 2669:Roisman & Worthington 2011 2650: 2625: 2616: 2558: 1480: 1: 5245:Scythian campaign of Darius I 5157:Xerxes I's inscription at Van 4713:The Battle of Plataiai 479 BC 4616:The Pelican History of Greece 4590:Jones, Robert Thomas (2020). 4121:How, W. W.; Wells, J (1964). 2203: 728: 670:and conquered the regions of 399: 378: 54:secondary or tertiary sources 5235:Conquest of the Indus Valley 5196:Battle of the Persian Border 4614:Burn, Andrew Robert (1966). 4440:General and cited references 2552: 2465:Hippodrome of Constantinople 2262: 1665:According to Herodotus, the 852:, formed of the Spartan and 7: 5396:Wars of Alexander the Great 4804:(1954). "Introduction". In 4468:. Oxford University Press. 3581:Martin, Jon Edward (2004). 2471:), where it was carried by 10: 5756: 5451:Battle of the Persian Gate 5093:Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 4856:Shepherd, William (2012). 2406: 2266: 1570:, according to Herodotus: 1006: 732: 686:. However, at the ensuing 455:257,000 killed (Herodotus) 21:Battle of Plataea (323 BC) 18: 5666: 5584: 5488: 5462: 5339:Wars of the Delian League 5175: 5129: 5030: 4981: 4970: 4946: 4537:. Loeb Classical Library. 4509:Diodorus Siculus (1967). 4123:A commentary on Herodotus 3863:A commentary on Herodotus 2402: 2037: 1149: 1080:The Athenians sent 8,000 743:The Greek city-states of 545: 468: 412: 348: 270: 250: 156: 145: 137: 132: 5730:Battles involving Sparta 5391:Second conquest of Egypt 5222:Siege of Sardis (547 BC) 5068:Palace of Darius in Susa 4715:. Wien: Phoibos Verlag. 4607: 4511:Oldfather, Charles Henry 1050:, near the ruins of old 235:Persia loses control of 5543:Districts of the Empire 5345:Battle of the Eurymedon 5263:Siege of Naxos (499 BC) 5240:First conquest of Egypt 4734:. Aris & Phillips. 3587:Military History Online 2527:The Sicilian historian 2159:Accounts of individuals 2011:ally of the Achaemenids 938:, stationed itself off 710:and killing Mardonius. 5658:Seven Achaemenid clans 5430:Siege of Tyre (332 BC) 5416:Siege of Halicarnassus 5402:Battle of the Granicus 4784:Greece and Rome at War 4660:The Greco-Persian Wars 4246:Holland, pp. xvi–xvii. 2389:Anabasis of the 10,000 2358: 2355:Alexander I of Macedon 2325:. Herodotus ended his 2286: 2253:Alexander I of Macedon 2135: 2095: 2067: 2050: 2030: 2014: 2007:Alexander I of Macedon 1982:The ancient historian 1980: 1913: 1710: 1441: 1137: 1113: 1046:Range. Modern city of 976: 967:Alexander I of Macedon 962: 957:to the ambassadors of 900: 892: 807: 787:in 490 BC, using 643:(allied with Greece's 271:Commanders and leaders 41:relies excessively on 5386:Great Satraps' Revolt 5305:Destruction of Athens 5291:Battle of Thermopylae 5142:Old Persian cuneiform 4839:10.1002/9781444327519 4668:10.1525/9780520917064 4534:The Life of Aristides 3760:Holland, pp. 350–355. 3714:Lazenby, pp. 254–257. 3665:Lazenby, pp. 217–219. 3123:Holland, pp. 343–349. 2934:Holland, pp. 336–338. 2909:Holland, pp. 327–329. 2857:Holland, pp. 333–335. 2793:Holland, pp. 292–294. 2771:Holland, pp. 255–257. 2727:Holland, pp. 208–211. 2718:Holland, pp. 206–208. 2534:Bibliotheca Historica 2473:Constantine the Great 2352: 2280: 2234:Battle of Thermopylae 2133: 2080:Temple of Athena Nike 2077: 2065: 2045: 2028: 1997: 1950: 1883: 1683: 1435: 1176:Bibliotheca historica 1131: 1111: 980:Destruction of Athens 971: 952: 898: 866: 805: 413:Casualties and losses 5684:Cappadocian calendar 5298:Battle of Artemisium 5203:Lydian-Persian Wars 5152:Behistun Inscription 4964:History of democracy 4553:Dakyns, Henry Graham 4335:Cicero, On the Laws 4217:Holland, pp. 359–63. 4168:Holland, pp. 358–59. 4156:Holland, pp. 357–58. 4106:Bury, J. B. (1956). 3690:Lazenby, pp. 221–22. 3486:. pp. IX–31/32. 3327:Lazenby, pp. 227–28. 2399:some decades later. 2323:Greek counter-attack 1814:Smaller contingents 1707:Herodotus VIII, 113. 1436:The Spartan general 1302:Arcadian Orchomenans 1136:in early skirmishes. 858:Battle of Artemisium 840:blocked the pass of 491:class=notpageimage| 382: 75,000–85,000 5480:Peace of Antalcidas 5444:Battle of Gaugamela 5053:Gate of All Nations 4786:. Frontline Books. 4584:Journals and theses 4420:Fehling, pp. 1–277. 4391:on January 27, 2008 4312:The Medieval Review 3999:. pp. 343–344. 3610:Green, pp. 240–260. 2876:. Knopf Doubleday. 2671:, pp. 342–345. 2613:Holland, pp. 47–55. 2397:Alexander the Great 2257:Alexander the Great 2001:, commander of the 1977:Herodotus IX-31/32. 1092:, and arrived near 678:, Boeotia, Athens, 199: / 65:"Battle of Plataea" 5334:Babylonian revolts 5284:Battle of Marathon 5250:Greco-Persian Wars 4999:Achaemenid coinage 4895:2014-03-06 at the 4707:Konecny, Andreas; 4482:on 11 August 2024. 4096:Herodotus 9.48-49. 3648:2016-12-05 at the 2483:Historical sources 2359: 2287: 2285:. Fifth century BC 2136: 2096: 2068: 2051: 2031: 2015: 1914: 1442: 1138: 1114: 963: 909:Isthmus of Corinth 901: 893: 808: 797:Battle of Marathon 723:Battle of Marathon 719:Greco-Persian Wars 538:invasion of Greece 458:100,000 (Diodorus) 405:(modern consensus) 396:500,000 (Diodorus) 384:(modern consensus) 5710:470s BC conflicts 5705:Battle of Plataea 5692: 5691: 5359:Battle of Cyzicus 5353:Peloponnesian War 5319:Battle of Plataea 5312:Battle of Salamis 5215:Battle of Thymbra 5088:Ka'ba-ye Zartosht 4940:Achaemenid Empire 4709:Sekunda, Nicholas 4618:. Penguin Books. 4494:. Wellem Verlag. 4466:Waterfield, Robin 4373:Holland, p. xxiv. 4304:Madden, Thomas F. 3996:Ancient Macedonia 3849:Life of Aristides 3631:Delbrück, p. 112. 2883:978-0-307-42518-8 2586:, pp. 34–36. 2539:Ctesias of Cnidus 2391:" as narrated by 1853: 1852: 1659: 1451:population census 1430: 1429: 913:Battle of Salamis 830:Greek city-states 688:Battle of Salamis 637:Achaemenid Empire 598:Battle of Plataea 593: 592: 502: 501: 265:Achaemenid Empire 246: 245: 133:Battle of Plataea 126: 125: 118: 100: 5747: 5679:Xanthian Obelisk 5652: 5638: 5624: 5610: 5575: 5568: 5561: 5537: 5523: 5516: 5509: 5502: 5475:Peace of Callias 5453: 5446: 5439: 5432: 5425: 5418: 5411: 5409:Siege of Miletus 5404: 5380: 5378:Battle of Cnidus 5367:Battle of Cunaxa 5361: 5347: 5328: 5326:Battle of Mycale 5321: 5314: 5307: 5300: 5293: 5286: 5279: 5277:Siege of Eretria 5272: 5265: 5258: 5224: 5217: 5210: 5208:Battle of Pteria 5198: 5191: 5137:Achaemenid music 5120: 5113: 5106: 5098:Tombs at Xanthos 5062: 5055: 5048: 5021: 5014: 5007: 4976: 4938: 4937: 4926: 4919: 4912: 4903: 4902: 4871: 4852: 4825: 4797: 4775: 4745: 4726: 4703: 4681: 4651: 4638:Medieval Warfare 4629: 4603: 4574: 4568: 4560: 4555:. Archived from 4551:. Translated by 4538: 4524: 4523:on 11 July 2024. 4505: 4483: 4478:. Archived from 4464:. Translated by 4434: 4427: 4421: 4418: 4412: 4411:Holland, p. 377. 4409: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4396: 4387:. Archived from 4380: 4374: 4371: 4365: 4362: 4353: 4346: 4340: 4334: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4300: 4294: 4287: 4278: 4271: 4265: 4253: 4247: 4244: 4231: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4198: 4191: 4182: 4175: 4169: 4166: 4157: 4154: 4143: 4136: 4127: 4126: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4103: 4097: 4094: 4088: 4085: 4079: 4072: 4066: 4059: 4053: 4046: 4040: 4033: 4027: 4020: 4014: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3991: 3985: 3979: 3973: 3966: 3960: 3953: 3947: 3940: 3925: 3918: 3912: 3905: 3899: 3892: 3883: 3876: 3867: 3866: 3858: 3852: 3845: 3839: 3832: 3826: 3819: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3791: 3776: 3770: 3761: 3758: 3731: 3724: 3715: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3691: 3688: 3682: 3675: 3666: 3663: 3652: 3638: 3632: 3629: 3623: 3622:Delbrück, p. 35. 3620: 3611: 3608: 3602: 3601: 3599: 3598: 3589:. Archived from 3578: 3572: 3571:Connolly, p. 29. 3569: 3563: 3562:Holland, p. 237. 3560: 3554: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3525: 3519: 3504: 3497: 3488: 3487: 3478: 3461: 3460: 3440: 3429: 3423: 3414: 3413: 3404: 3395: 3388: 3375: 3368: 3362: 3361:Holland, p. 357. 3359: 3353: 3346: 3340: 3339:Holland, p. 400. 3337: 3328: 3325: 3312: 3305: 3299: 3292: 3286: 3279: 3273: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3247: 3240: 3231: 3224: 3215: 3208: 3195: 3188: 3182: 3175: 3166: 3159: 3153: 3146: 3137: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3076: 3069: 3018: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2990: 2983: 2977: 2970: 2961: 2960: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2919: 2918:Holland, p. 330. 2916: 2910: 2907: 2901: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2867: 2858: 2855: 2842: 2841:Holland, p. 303. 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2813: 2807: 2800: 2794: 2791: 2785: 2778: 2772: 2769: 2763: 2762:Holland, p. 226. 2760: 2754: 2747: 2741: 2734: 2728: 2725: 2719: 2716: 2710: 2703: 2697: 2690: 2684: 2678: 2672: 2666: 2660: 2654: 2648: 2647:Holland, 171–178 2645: 2636: 2629: 2623: 2622:Holland, p. 203. 2620: 2614: 2611: 2602: 2596: 2587: 2581: 2572: 2571: 2562: 2529:Diodorus Siculus 2433: 2421: 2339:Peace of Callias 2269:Battle of Mycale 2255:(an ancestor of 2208: 2205: 2180: 2171: 2153:Diodorus Siculus 1978: 1857:number of troops 1715: 1714: 1708: 1618:(1000 men), and 1565: 1554: 1540: 1526: 1512: 1498: 1181: 1180: 1172:Diodorus Siculus 1054:slightly beyond. 1039: 1026:river (top) and 1019: 926:and wintered in 778: 715:Battle of Mycale 540: 528: 521: 514: 505: 504: 484: 483: 477: 404: 401: 383: 380: 335: 322: 298: 214: 213: 211: 210: 209: 204: 200: 197: 196: 195: 192: 167: 158: 157: 150: 130: 129: 121: 114: 110: 107: 101: 99: 58: 34: 26: 5755: 5754: 5750: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5744: 5740:Ancient Boeotia 5695: 5694: 5693: 5688: 5662: 5648: 5634: 5620: 5606: 5580: 5571: 5564: 5557: 5533: 5519: 5512: 5505: 5498: 5484: 5470:Earth and water 5458: 5449: 5442: 5435: 5428: 5423:Battle of Issus 5421: 5414: 5407: 5400: 5376: 5357: 5343: 5324: 5317: 5310: 5303: 5296: 5289: 5282: 5275: 5268: 5261: 5254: 5220: 5213: 5206: 5194: 5189:Battle of Hyrba 5187: 5171: 5125: 5116: 5111:Nereid Monument 5109: 5102: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5026: 5017: 5010: 5003: 4977: 4968: 4942: 4932: 4930: 4897:Wayback Machine 4881: 4875: 4868: 4849: 4822: 4794: 4780:Connolly, Peter 4764: 4750:Fehling, Detlev 4742: 4723: 4700: 4678: 4648: 4626: 4610: 4600:1959.13/1410875 4586: 4581: 4562: 4561: 4559:on 5 July 2024. 4502: 4476: 4456:Dewald, Carolyn 4447: 4445:Ancient sources 4442: 4437: 4428: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4403: 4394: 4392: 4381: 4377: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4356: 4347: 4343: 4332: 4331: 4327: 4301: 4297: 4288: 4281: 4272: 4268: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4234: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4201: 4192: 4185: 4176: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4155: 4146: 4137: 4130: 4119: 4115: 4104: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087:Herodotus 9.45. 4086: 4082: 4073: 4069: 4060: 4056: 4047: 4043: 4034: 4030: 4021: 4017: 4008: 4004: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3980: 3976: 3967: 3963: 3954: 3950: 3941: 3928: 3919: 3915: 3906: 3902: 3893: 3886: 3877: 3870: 3859: 3855: 3846: 3842: 3833: 3829: 3820: 3813: 3805: 3801: 3792: 3779: 3771: 3764: 3759: 3734: 3725: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3701: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3676: 3669: 3664: 3655: 3650:Wayback Machine 3639: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3614: 3609: 3605: 3596: 3594: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3557: 3549: 3545: 3537: 3528: 3520: 3507: 3498: 3491: 3480: 3479: 3464: 3441: 3432: 3424: 3417: 3406: 3405: 3398: 3389: 3378: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3331: 3326: 3315: 3306: 3302: 3293: 3289: 3280: 3276: 3272:Lazenby, p. 277 3271: 3267: 3259: 3250: 3241: 3234: 3225: 3218: 3209: 3198: 3189: 3185: 3176: 3169: 3160: 3156: 3147: 3140: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3079: 3070: 3021: 3012: 3008: 3000: 2993: 2984: 2980: 2971: 2964: 2957: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2922: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2895: 2891: 2884: 2868: 2861: 2856: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2827: 2823: 2814: 2810: 2801: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2748: 2744: 2735: 2731: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2704: 2700: 2691: 2687: 2679: 2675: 2667: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2639: 2630: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2605: 2597: 2590: 2582: 2575: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2510:Siege of Sestos 2485: 2453: 2452: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2434: 2426: 2425: 2422: 2411: 2405: 2347: 2331:Siege of Sestos 2275: 2267:Main articles: 2265: 2213: 2212: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2183: 2182: 2181: 2173: 2172: 2161: 2040: 1992: 1979: 1976: 1878: 1709: 1706: 1663: 1662: 1661: 1660: 1562: 1561: 1560: 1555: 1547: 1546: 1541: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1519: 1518: 1513: 1505: 1504: 1499: 1490: 1489: 1483: 1366: 1317: 1304: 1282: 1204: 1196: 1188: 1152: 1147: 1145:Order of battle 1090:Mount Cithaeron 1059: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1040: 1032: 1031: 1030:(center right). 1020: 1009: 821:earth and water 813:pontoon bridges 776: 741: 733:Main articles: 731: 594: 589: 541: 537: 536:Second Persian 534: 532: 498: 497: 496: 495: 493: 487: 486: 485: 464: 449: 408: 402: 387: 381: 344: 331: 318: 307: 294: 231: 207: 205: 203:38.21°N 23.29°E 201: 198: 193: 190: 188: 186: 185: 184: 165: 151: 122: 111: 105: 102: 59: 57: 51: 47:primary sources 35: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5753: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5670: 5668: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5660: 5655: 5654: 5653: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5599: 5594: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5569: 5562: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5539: 5538: 5526: 5525: 5524: 5517: 5510: 5503: 5492: 5490: 5489:Administration 5486: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5460: 5459: 5457: 5456: 5455: 5454: 5447: 5440: 5433: 5426: 5419: 5412: 5405: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5382: 5381: 5372:Corinthian War 5369: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5350: 5349: 5348: 5336: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5322: 5315: 5308: 5301: 5294: 5287: 5280: 5273: 5270:Battle of Lade 5266: 5259: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5232: 5230:Battle of Opis 5227: 5226: 5225: 5218: 5211: 5201: 5200: 5199: 5192: 5183:Persian Revolt 5179: 5177: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5167:Cyrus Cylinder 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5126: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5121: 5118:Tomb of Payava 5114: 5107: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5083:Naqsh-e Rostam 5080: 5078:Persian column 5075: 5070: 5065: 5064: 5063: 5056: 5049: 5036: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5015: 5008: 4996: 4991: 4985: 4983: 4979: 4978: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4943: 4929: 4928: 4921: 4914: 4906: 4900: 4899: 4887: 4880: 4879:External links 4877: 4873: 4872: 4866: 4853: 4847: 4826: 4820: 4798: 4792: 4776: 4762: 4746: 4740: 4727: 4721: 4704: 4698: 4682: 4676: 4652: 4646: 4634:Delbrück, Hans 4630: 4624: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4604: 4585: 4582: 4580: 4579:Modern sources 4577: 4576: 4575: 4539: 4525: 4506: 4500: 4484: 4474: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4435: 4422: 4413: 4401: 4375: 4366: 4364:Finley, p. 15. 4354: 4341: 4325: 4295: 4289:See Herodotus 4279: 4266: 4248: 4232: 4219: 4199: 4183: 4170: 4158: 4144: 4128: 4113: 4098: 4089: 4080: 4067: 4054: 4041: 4028: 4015: 4002: 3986: 3974: 3961: 3957:Aristides 19.4 3948: 3926: 3913: 3900: 3884: 3868: 3853: 3840: 3827: 3811: 3799: 3777: 3762: 3732: 3716: 3707: 3692: 3683: 3667: 3653: 3633: 3624: 3612: 3603: 3573: 3564: 3555: 3543: 3526: 3505: 3489: 3462: 3430: 3415: 3396: 3376: 3363: 3354: 3341: 3329: 3313: 3300: 3287: 3274: 3265: 3248: 3232: 3216: 3196: 3183: 3167: 3154: 3138: 3125: 3077: 3019: 3006: 2991: 2978: 2962: 2955: 2936: 2920: 2911: 2902: 2889: 2882: 2859: 2843: 2834: 2821: 2808: 2795: 2786: 2773: 2764: 2755: 2742: 2729: 2720: 2711: 2698: 2685: 2683:, p. 343. 2673: 2661: 2649: 2637: 2624: 2615: 2603: 2588: 2573: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2547:Serpent Column 2498:(The Histories 2484: 2481: 2457:Serpent column 2446:Constantinople 2438:Serpent Column 2435: 2428: 2427: 2423: 2416: 2415: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2409:Serpent Column 2407:Main article: 2404: 2401: 2346: 2343: 2264: 2261: 2249: 2248: 2242: 2225: 2200:Naqsh-e Rustam 2185: 2184: 2175: 2174: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2163: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2092:British Museum 2039: 2036: 2005:, informed by 1991: 1988: 1974: 1954:Lacedaemonians 1877: 1874: 1866:Peter Connolly 1851: 1850: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1835: 1816: 1815: 1812: 1786: 1785: 1782: 1754:Greek allies: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1733: 1732: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1704: 1596:Naqsh-e Rostam 1564: 1563: 1556: 1549: 1548: 1542: 1535: 1534: 1528: 1521: 1520: 1514: 1507: 1506: 1500: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1428: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1391: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1378: 1373: 1370: 1360: 1357: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1342: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1321: 1311: 1308: 1299: 1296: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1276: 1273: 1268: 1265: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1250: 1247: 1242: 1239: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1224: 1221: 1216: 1213: 1207: 1206: 1201: 1198: 1193: 1190: 1185: 1174:claims in his 1151: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1041: 1034: 1033: 1021: 1014: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1008: 1005: 932:Athenian fleet 730: 727: 591: 590: 588: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 546: 543: 542: 531: 530: 523: 516: 508: 500: 499: 489: 488: 479: 478: 472: 471: 470: 469: 466: 465: 463: 462: 459: 456: 452: 450: 448: 447: 444: 437: 430: 418: 415: 414: 410: 409: 407: 406: 403: 100,000 397: 394: 390: 388: 386: 385: 376: 369: 362: 354: 351: 350: 346: 345: 343: 342: 337: 324: 310: 308: 306: 305: 300: 287: 282: 276: 273: 272: 268: 267: 262: 253: 252: 248: 247: 244: 243: 233: 227: 226: 220: 216: 215: 176: 174: 170: 169: 162: 154: 153: 143: 142: 135: 134: 124: 123: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5752: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5665: 5659: 5656: 5651: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5632: 5631: 5628: 5623: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5614: 5609: 5605: 5604: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5574: 5570: 5567: 5563: 5560: 5559:Chapar Khaneh 5556: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5536: 5532: 5531: 5530: 5527: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5461: 5452: 5448: 5445: 5441: 5438: 5437:Siege of Gaza 5434: 5431: 5427: 5424: 5420: 5417: 5413: 5410: 5406: 5403: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5379: 5375: 5374: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5360: 5356: 5355: 5354: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5299: 5295: 5292: 5288: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5260: 5257: 5256:Ionian Revolt 5253: 5252: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5216: 5212: 5209: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5197: 5193: 5190: 5186: 5185: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5174: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5128: 5119: 5115: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5101: 5100: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5073:Tomb of Cyrus 5071: 5069: 5066: 5061: 5057: 5054: 5050: 5047: 5043: 5042: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5033: 5029: 5020: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5006: 5005:Apadana hoard 5002: 5001: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4994:Oxus Treasure 4992: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4975: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4936: 4927: 4922: 4920: 4915: 4913: 4908: 4907: 4904: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4876: 4869: 4867:9781849085540 4863: 4859: 4854: 4850: 4848:9781444351637 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4821:9780140440393 4817: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4803: 4802:Finley, Moses 4799: 4795: 4793:9781848326095 4789: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4763:9780905205700 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4741:9780856685910 4737: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4722:9783851612714 4718: 4714: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4699:9780349117171 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4677:9780520203136 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4647:9780803265851 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4625:9780140207927 4621: 4617: 4612: 4611: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4588: 4587: 4572: 4566: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4501:9783941820012 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4475:9780199535668 4471: 4467: 4463: 4462: 4461:The Histories 4457: 4453: 4449: 4448: 4432: 4426: 4417: 4408: 4406: 4390: 4386: 4383:David Pipes. 4379: 4370: 4361: 4359: 4351: 4345: 4338: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4292: 4286: 4284: 4276: 4270: 4263: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4229: 4223: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4196: 4190: 4188: 4180: 4174: 4165: 4163: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4141: 4135: 4133: 4124: 4117: 4109: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4032: 4025: 4019: 4012: 4006: 3998: 3997: 3990: 3983: 3978: 3971: 3965: 3958: 3952: 3945: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3923: 3917: 3910: 3904: 3897: 3891: 3889: 3881: 3875: 3873: 3864: 3857: 3850: 3844: 3837: 3831: 3824: 3818: 3816: 3809:, p. 55. 3808: 3807:Shepherd 2012 3803: 3796: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3775: 3769: 3767: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3729: 3723: 3721: 3711: 3705: 3699: 3697: 3687: 3680: 3674: 3672: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3637: 3628: 3619: 3617: 3607: 3593:on 2012-05-10 3592: 3588: 3584: 3577: 3568: 3559: 3553:, p. 35. 3552: 3551:Shepherd 2012 3547: 3541:, p. 51. 3540: 3539:Shepherd 2012 3535: 3533: 3531: 3524:, p. 36. 3523: 3522:Shepherd 2012 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3502: 3496: 3494: 3485: 3484: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3437: 3435: 3428:, p. 25. 3427: 3426:Shepherd 2012 3422: 3420: 3411: 3410: 3403: 3401: 3393: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3373: 3367: 3358: 3351: 3345: 3336: 3334: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3310: 3304: 3297: 3291: 3284: 3278: 3269: 3263: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3245: 3239: 3237: 3229: 3223: 3221: 3213: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3193: 3187: 3180: 3174: 3172: 3164: 3158: 3151: 3145: 3143: 3135: 3129: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3074: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2996: 2988: 2982: 2975: 2969: 2967: 2958: 2956:9780141393773 2952: 2948: 2947: 2946:The Histories 2940: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2915: 2906: 2899: 2893: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2874: 2866: 2864: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2838: 2831: 2825: 2818: 2812: 2805: 2799: 2790: 2783: 2777: 2768: 2759: 2752: 2746: 2739: 2733: 2724: 2715: 2708: 2702: 2695: 2694:VI.99.1–101.3 2689: 2682: 2677: 2670: 2665: 2659: 2658:VI, 43.1–44.1 2653: 2644: 2642: 2634: 2628: 2619: 2610: 2608: 2601:, p. 78. 2600: 2599:Shepherd 2012 2595: 2593: 2585: 2584:Shepherd 2012 2580: 2578: 2569: 2568: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2523: 2519: 2518:Philobarbaros 2515: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2500: 2499: 2494: 2490: 2480: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2467:(present-day 2466: 2462: 2458: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2432: 2420: 2410: 2400: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2356: 2351: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2335:Delian League 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 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Penguin. 4806:Warner, Rex 4273:Herodotus, 4228:Google hits 3702:Herodotus, 3677:Herodotus, 3177:Herodotus, 3161:Herodotus, 3148:Herodotus, 2817:VIII.21.1–2 2782:VII.205–233 2369:Thermopylae 2315:Chersonesos 2245:Callicrates 2229:Aristodemus 2009:(a nominal 1935:Thessalians 1931:Macedonians 1780:Macedonians 1772:Thessalians 1620:Macedonians 1612:Thessalians 1481:Achaemenids 1197:of hoplites 1189:of hoplites 936:Leotychides 842:Thermopylae 815:across the 785:Artaphernes 771:and forced 664:Thermopylae 653:Macedonians 649:Thessalians 635:), and the 619:(including 617:city-states 550:Thermopylae 260:city-states 230:Territorial 206: / 5699:Categories 5622:Cappadocia 5616:Ariarathid 5592:Achaemenid 5553:Royal Road 5500:Pasargadae 5104:Harpy Tomb 5040:Persepolis 4692:. Abacus. 4395:2008-01-18 4333:(in Latin) 4193:Herodotus 4177:Herodotus 4138:Herodotus 4074:Herodotus 4061:Herodotus 4048:Herodotus 4035:Herodotus 4022:Herodotus 4009:Herodotus 3955:Plutarch, 3942:Herodotus 3920:Herodotus 3907:Herodotus 3894:Herodotus 3878:Herodotus 3847:Plutarch, 3834:Herodotus 3821:Herodotus 3793:Herodotus 3772:Herodotus 3726:Herodotus 3597:2006-05-16 3499:Herodotus 3390:Herodotus 3348:Herodotus 3294:Herodotus 3281:Herodotus 3260:Herodotus 3226:Herodotus 3210:Herodotus 3190:Herodotus 3132:Herodotus 3071:Herodotus 3015:IX. 15.1–3 3013:Herodotus 3001:Herodotus 2985:Herodotus 2972:Herodotus 2896:Herodotus 2828:Herodotus 2815:Herodotus 2802:Herodotus 2780:Herodotus 2749:Herodotus 2736:Herodotus 2705:Herodotus 2692:Herodotus 2656:Herodotus 2631:Herodotus 2506:Thucydides 2444:, ancient 2329:after the 2307:Asia Minor 2238:Leonidas I 2108:Arimnestus 1806:Ethiopians 1652:Ethiopians 1628:Asia Minor 1394:Cephalonia 1279:Anactorion 1162:hoplites ( 1156:Spartiates 989:Hyacinthus 974:surrender. 953:Answer of 846:Artemisium 838:Leonidas I 817:Hellespont 729:Background 668:Artemisium 555:Artemisium 285:Arimnestos 164:August 479 76:newspapers 43:references 5597:Pharnacid 5585:Dynasties 5529:Satrapies 5495:Capitals 5463:Diplomacy 5162:Ganjnameh 4772:0309-5541 4565:cite book 4452:Herodotus 4429:Diodorus 4320:1096-746X 4293:, note 1. 3968:Diodorus 3640:Ctesias, 3370:Diodorus 3311:, note 1. 3296:VIII.44.1 3242:Diodorus 3150:IX.25.1–3 3134:IX.22.1–3 2898:VIII.97.1 2830:VIII.71.1 2804:VIII.19.1 2751:VII.145.1 2553:Citations 2543:Aeschylus 2489:Herodotus 2477:Byzantium 2327:Histories 2311:Byzantium 2263:Aftermath 2113:Artabazus 2100:sparabara 2088:Masistius 2047:Pausanias 2003:Athenians 1999:Aristides 1962:Bactrians 1919:Bactrians 1902:Bactrians 1825:Bactrians 1819:Cavalry: 1810:Egyptians 1802:Paeonians 1794:Thracians 1790:Phrygians 1756:Boeotians 1737:Bactrians 1687:Immortals 1671:Macedonia 1656:Egyptians 1644:Paeonians 1636:Thracians 1632:Phrygians 1624:Black Sea 1600:Boeotians 1584:Bactrians 1568:Mardonius 1544:Bactrians 1475:Aristides 1467:Pausanias 1438:Pausanias 1306:Arcadians 1294:Epidaurus 1134:Masistius 1132:Death of 1119:Masistius 1098:Pausanias 1086:Aristides 1084:, led by 1044:Cithaeron 959:Mardonius 955:Aristides 920:Herodotus 869:Macedonia 850:rearguard 765:Mardonius 696:Mardonius 645:Boeotians 441:Herodotus 421:10,000+ ( 371:100,000 ( 364:100,000 ( 359:Herodotus 357:110,000 ( 340:Artabazos 327:Masistius 314:Mardonius 303:Aristides 280:Pausanias 5630:Lygdamid 5566:Angarium 5507:Ecbatana 4959:Timeline 4893:Archived 4782:(2012). 4752:(1989). 4711:(2022). 4688:(2005). 4658:(1996). 4636:(1990). 4548:Anabasis 4543:Xenophon 4531:(1914). 4529:Plutarch 4454:(2008). 4431:XI.28–34 4306:(2017). 4261:Anabasis 4256:Xenophon 3836:IX.63–64 3795:IX.62–63 3646:Archived 3457:41693244 3392:IX.60–61 3350:VIII.131 3228:IX.54–55 3212:IX.51–52 3179:IX.39–41 3073:IX.28–29 2738:VII.32.1 2522:Historia 2514:Plutarch 2493:Historia 2469:Istanbul 2442:Istanbul 2393:Xenophon 2377:Marathon 2353:Coin of 2196:Xerxes I 2145:Plutarch 2121:Olynthus 1975:— 1943:Thebeans 1939:Beotians 1910:Persians 1892:allies, 1821:Persians 1776:Phocians 1764:Locrians 1727:Persians 1705:— 1691:Hydarnes 1675:Thessaly 1667:Persians 1650:troops: 1616:Phocians 1604:Locrians 1592:Xerxes I 1572:Persians 1502:Persians 1455:triremes 1386:Potidaea 1376:Hermione 1345:Ambracia 1164:perioeci 1102:Plutarch 1082:hoplites 1071:Erythrae 1048:Plataies 997:en route 928:Thessaly 873:Thessaly 854:Thespian 793:Karystos 757:Darius I 708:infantry 672:Thessaly 660:Xerxes I 641:Xerxes I 575:Olynthus 570:Potidaea 434:Plutarch 427:Diodorus 366:Diodorus 349:Strength 173:Location 5667:Related 5650:Armenia 5644:Orontid 5573:Angarum 5535:Armenia 5514:Babylon 5176:Warfare 5130:Culture 5060:Tachara 5046:Apadana 4947:History 4808:(ed.). 4516:Library 4513:(ed.). 4488:Ctesias 4458:(ed.). 4050:VII.229 3970:XI.33.1 3642:Persica 3372:XI.29.4 3309:VII.184 3244:XI.30.1 2570:. 2.14. 2384:hoplite 2373:Salamis 2192:petasos 2149:Ephorus 2125:Potidea 2104:phalanx 1984:Ctesias 1966:Indians 1923:Indians 1898:Indians 1848:100,000 1829:Indians 1798:Mysians 1784:20,000 1768:Malians 1760:Thebans 1749:20,000 1741:Indians 1731:40,000 1721:Number 1648:African 1640:Mysians 1608:Malians 1588:Indians 1576:Medians 1558:Indians 1516:Medians 1402:Lepreum 1363:Mycenae 1355:Chalcis 1329:Plataea 1314:Eretria 1271:Troezen 1227:Corinth 1187:Number 1094:Plataea 1052:Plataea 1028:Plataea 1007:Prelude 905:Plataea 889:Boeotia 826:Corinth 773:Macedon 749:Eretria 704:Tegeans 629:Corinth 610:Boeotia 606:Plataea 580:Plataea 565:Salamis 432:1,360 ( 423:Ephorus 333:† 320:† 296:† 241:Boeotia 232:changes 225:victory 194:23°17′E 191:38°13′N 178:Plataea 90:scholar 5715:479 BC 5608:Pontus 5012:Danake 4864: 4845: 4818: 4790: 4770: 4760: 4738: 4719: 4696: 4674: 4644: 4622: 4498: 4472: 4318: 4195:IX.114 3896:IX, 67 3455: 2974:IX.7–9 2953: 2880: 2707:VI.113 2461:Delphi 2403:Legacy 2319:Sestos 2188:kausia 2117:Sieges 2084:Athens 2038:Battle 1837:5,000 1679:Thebes 1425:38,700 1368:Tiryns 1337:Aegina 1284:Leukas 1263:Phlius 1257:1,500 1245:Sicyon 1237:Megara 1231:5,000 1219:Athens 1215:10,000 1211:Sparta 1203:Number 1195:Number 1168:helots 1150:Greeks 1075:Hysiae 1067:Asopos 1063:Thebes 1024:Asopos 999:; the 984:Megara 924:Attica 885:Phocis 881:Locris 777: 769:Thrace 745:Athens 684:Attica 680:Euboea 676:Phocis 651:, and 633:Megara 625:Athens 621:Sparta 585:Mycale 560:Athens 373:Trogus 329: 316: 292: 237:Attica 219:Result 182:Greece 166: 92: 85: 78: 71: 63: 5636:Caria 5019:Daric 4608:Books 4291:IX.81 4275:IX.81 4179:IX.89 4140:IX.96 4076:IX.72 4063:IX.71 4037:IX.97 4024:IX.56 4011:IX.53 3944:IX.70 3922:IX.69 3909:IX.68 3880:IX.66 3823:IX.65 3774:IX.61 3728:IX.59 3704:IX.58 3679:IX.41 3501:IX.32 3453:JSTOR 3283:IX.30 3192:IX.49 3163:IX.33 3003:IX.13 2987:IX.11 2633:V.105 2364:could 2296:Ionia 2283:kylix 1970:Sacae 1958:Medes 1927:Sakae 1906:Medes 1894:Sacae 1890:Greek 1862:Roman 1843:Total 1833:Sakae 1745:Sakae 1699:Sacae 1695:Medes 1580:Sakas 1530:Sakas 1420:Total 1365:& 1319:Styra 1316:& 1281:& 1275:1,000 1267:1,000 1253:Tegea 1249:3,000 1241:3,000 1223:8,000 1073:past 993:Tegea 944:Samos 940:Delos 877:Malis 789:Delos 781:Datis 614:Greek 439:159 ( 257:Greek 223:Greek 97:JSTOR 83:books 5521:Susa 4862:ISBN 4843:ISBN 4816:ISBN 4788:ISBN 4768:ISSN 4758:ISBN 4736:ISBN 4717:ISBN 4694:ISBN 4672:ISBN 4642:ISBN 4620:ISBN 4571:link 4496:ISBN 4470:ISBN 4350:I.22 4316:ISSN 2951:ISBN 2878:ISBN 2436:The 2271:and 2151:and 2123:and 1925:and 1908:and 1697:and 1677:and 1654:and 1626:and 1586:and 1406:200 1380:300 1349:500 1323:600 1288:800 1200:City 1192:City 1184:City 887:and 783:and 747:and 737:and 682:and 666:and 631:and 596:The 425:and 239:and 161:Date 69:news 4982:Art 4835:doi 4664:doi 4596:hdl 4337:I.5 3851:19. 2375:or 2294:in 2198:at 2190:or 2119:of 1762:), 1594:at 1398:200 1390:300 1372:400 1359:400 1341:500 1333:600 1310:600 1298:800 655:). 639:of 608:in 45:to 5701:: 4841:. 4766:. 4670:. 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