580:, seized Delphi (which was situated within the boundaries of Phocis), and asserted the ancient claim of Phocis to the presidency of the Amphictyonic League, intending to annul the judgment against themselves. There seems to have been some sympathy in Greece for the Phocians, since other states could see that "the Thebans ... had used the Amphictyony to pursue petty and destructive vendettas". The Phocians were supported by Athens (perennial enemies of Thebes) and unsurprisingly Sparta, who hoped to see their own fine wiped out when the Phocians seized Delphi. However, Philomelos plundered the treasury of Apollo to pay for mercenaries, thus raising a powerful army, but drastically altering the opinion of the other Greek states. In winter 356/355 BC, a "sacred war" was declared against the Phocians by the Amphictyonic council, with the Thebans being the major protagonists. The war started relatively well for the Phocians, but a severe defeat was inflicted on the Phocians at Neon by the Thebans in either 355 or 354 BC and Philomelos was killed. Undeterred,
41:
596:
of Pherae requested aid from the
Phocians, and Onomarchos dispatched his brother, Phayllos, with 7,000 men; however, Philip repulsed this force before it could join up with the Pheraeans. Onomarchos then abandoned the siege he was prosecuting, and brought his whole force into Thessaly to attack Philip. The exact details of the campaign that followed are unclear, but Onomarchos seems to have inflicted two defeats on Philip, with many Macedonians killed in the process. After these defeats, Philip retreated to Macedon for the winter. He is said to have commented that he "did not run away but, like a ram, I pulled back to butt again harder".
491:, which have survived intact. Since these speeches were never intended to be historical material, they must be treated with circumspection; Demosthenes and Aeschines have been described as "a couple of liars, neither of whom can be trusted to have told the truth in any matter in which it was remotely in his interest to lie". Nevertheless, their allusions to contemporary or past events indicates some of the gaps in Diodorus's account, and helps with the arrangement of the chronology. The accounts of Diodorus, Demosthenes and Aeschines can be further supplemented by fragments of otherwise lost histories (such as that by
671:, the gateway to central Greece. He probably intended to follow up his victory over the Phocians by invading Phocis itself, a prospect which greatly alarmed the Athenians, since once he was past Thermopylae he could also march on Athens. The Athenians therefore dispatched a force to Thermopylae and occupied the pass; there is some debate as to whether other contingents may have joined the Athenians at Thermopylae. Although it might have proved possible to force the pass, Philip did not attempt to do so, preferring not to risk a defeat after his great successes in Thessaly.
612:(effectively the harbour of Pherae) before the Battle of Crocus Field. By taking Pagasae, it is probable that Philip intended to prevent it being reinforced by sea; Buckler suggests that Philip had learnt his lesson from the previous campaign, and wanted to cut Pherae off from outside help before attacking it. Meanwhile, Onomarchos returned to Thessaly to try to preserve the Phocian ascendancy there, with approximately the same force as during the previous year. Furthermore, the Athenians dispatched
480:, written in the 1st century BC, which is therefore very much a secondary source. Diodorus is often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else. Diodorus worked primarily by epitomizing the works of other historians, omitting many details where they did not suit his purpose, which was to illustrate moral lessons from history; his account of the Third Sacred War therefore contains many gaps.
675:
were still in favour of continuing the war. Over the winter of that year, Phayllos engaged in diplomatic efforts to gather more support from
Phocian allies, and succeeding in widening the theatre of conflict in the next campaigning season. Uniquely in Greek history, the Phocians were able to absorb huge losses in manpower, thanks to their pillaging of Temple of Apollo, a factor which was to contribute to the war dragging on indecisively until 346 BC.
566:
646:
Onomarchos was either hanged or crucified and the other prisoners drowned, as ritual demanded for temple-robbers. These punishments were designed to deny the defeated an honourable burial; Philip thus continued to present himself as the pious avenger of the sacrilege committed by the
Phocians. Buckler states that: "Nor should one automatically assume that a mass-drowning ... would shock the Greek world. Even the mild-tempered
527:, which Diodorus (at one point) places in 354 BC. However, Diodorus's chronology for the sacred war is very confused – he dates the start and end of the war a year too late, variously says the war lasted 9, 10 or 11 years, and included the siege of Methone twice under different dates – and his dates cannot therefore be relied upon.
625:
Subsequent events are unclear, but a battle was fought between the
Macedonians and the Phocians, probably as Philip tried to prevent the Phocians joining forces with the Pheraeans, and crucially, before the Athenians had arrived. No ancient source names the battlefield, but according to Diodorus the
599:
Philip returned to
Thessaly the next summer (either 353 or 352 BC, depending on the chronology followed), having gathered a new army in Macedon. Philip formally requested that the Thessalians join him in the war against the Phocians. Philip now mustered all the Thessalian opponents of Pherae that he
530:
Disregarding the dates, most historians agree upon the same sequence of events for this part of the Sacred War. The principal question is therefore when that sequence started. Thus, Buckler (as well as Beloch and Cloche) dates Neon to 355 BC, Methone to 355–354 BC, Philip's first
Thessalian campaign
666:
of Pherae, rather than suffer the fate of
Onomarchos, struck a bargain with Philip and, in return for handing Pherae over to Philip, were allowed, along with 2,000 of their mercenaries, to go to Phocis. Philip spent some time reorganising Thessaly, and once satisfied he marched south to the pass of
595:
had allied itself with the
Phocians. In either 354 or 353 BC, the nobility of the Thessalian city of Larissa appealed to Philip to help them defeat the Pheraeans. Philip thus brought an army into Thessaly, probably with the intention of attacking Pherae. Under the terms of their alliance, Lycophron
674:
Meanwhile, the
Phocians regrouped under Onomarchos's brother, Phayllos. After the huge Phocian defeats at Neon and Crocus Field, Phayllos had to resort to doubling the pay for mercenaries, in order to attract enough to replenish his army. Despite their defeats however, the majority of the Phocians
561:
in bringing charges against the
Phocians, instigated by the Thebans. At this time, Thebes controlled a majority of the votes in the council, and at the autumn meeting in 357 BC, the Thebans were able to have both the Phocians (for the cultivation of the sacred land) and the Spartans (for occupying
502:
Modern historians' dates for the war have been hotly debated, and there is no clear consensus. It is generally accepted that the war lasted 10 years, and ended in summer 346 BC (one of the only firm dates), which yields a date of 356 BC for the beginning of the war, with Philomelos's seizure of
645:
Fleeing from defeat, the Phocians ran to the sea, where Chares' fleet had arrived during the battle, but many men were killed during the pursuit, or drowned as they tried to reach the ships. In total, 6,000 Phocian troops had been killed, including Onomarchos, and another 3,000 taken prisoner.
641:
Philip sent his men into battle wearing crowns of laurel, the symbol of Apollo, "as if he was the avenger ... of sacrilege, and he proceeded to battle under the leadership, as it were, of the god". Some of the Phocian mercenaries supposedly threw down their arms, troubled by their guilty
616:
with a substantial fleet to help their Phocian allies, seeing the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against Philip. The Phocians and Athenians probably intended to rendezvous at Pagasae, since it was the only harbour the Athenian fleet could use, and since Philip was there anyway.
543:(often just called 'the' Sacred War) broke out in 356 BC, and would present Philip with his first real opportunity to expand his influence into the affairs of central and southern Greece. The war was caused by the refusal of the
642:
consciences. In the ensuing battle, the bloodiest recorded in ancient Greek history, Philip won a decisive victory over the Phocians. The battle seems to have been won by superior numbers and by the valour of Philip's cavalry.
519:, in 355 BC, presumably on his outward journey to Asia. Buckler, the only historian to produce a systematic study of the sacred war, therefore places Neon earlier in 355 BC. Other historians have placed Neon in 354 BC, since
562:
Thebes some 25 years previously) denounced and fined. Since the fines for both parties were "unjustifiably harsh", the Thebans probably expected neither party to pay, and thus to be able to declare a "sacred war" on either.
662:
of Thessaly. This was an appointment for life, and gave Philip control over all the revenues of the Thessalian Confederation, and furthermore made Philip leader of the united Thessalian army. The
638:
region) seems the most suitable location, and the battle is therefore known to modern scholars as the Battle of Crocus Field; however, firmly identifying the battle-site has proved impossible.
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felt that the Phocian mercenaries were better off dead than alive...Dreadful indeed was the punishment, but it was entirely consistent with Philip's role as Apollo's champion".
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297:
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40:
1393:
357:
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233:
448:. The Phocians were decisively defeated by Philip's forces. Philip's victory secured his appointment as ruler of Thessaly, marking an important step in the
363:
999:
327:
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to 354 BC, and his second to 353 BC. Conversely, Cawkwell, Sealey, Hammond and others lower all these dates by one year, beginning with Neon in 354 BC.
470:
The ancient sources for the Third Sacred War are scant, and generally lacking in firm chronological information. The main source for the period is
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were in general staunch supporters of the Amphictyonic League, and had an ancient hatred of the Phocians. Conversely, the-city state of
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483:
Beyond Diodorus, further details of the Sacred War can be found in the orations of Athenian statesmen, primarily
456:. Opinion amongst historians is divided as to the year of the battle; some favour 353 BC, and others 352 BC.
399:
438:
1383:
658:
It was probably in the aftermath of his victory (if not before) that the Thessalians appointed Philip
1313:
Diodorus Siculus – Greek history 480–431 BC: the alternative version (translated by Peter Green)
631:
544:
511:
to Asia with 5,000 hoplites. A combination of evidence suggests that Pammenes met with Philip at
441:
426:
551:, a pan-Greek religious organisation which governed the most sacred site in Ancient Greece, the
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1201:
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could, and according to Diodorus, his final army numbered 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry.
476:
445:
249:
137:
626:
two armies met near the sea. The Krokion/Krokoton Pedion or 'Crocus Plain' (around modern
8:
548:
211:
691:
1206:
587:
The Sacred War appears to have paved the way for renewed conflict within Thessaly. The
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28:
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took over the Phocian effort, and raised new mercenaries to carry on the fight.
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453:
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Both Buckler and Cawkwell suggest that Philip besieged the strategic port of
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Bust of Philip II of Macedon, whose army was victorious in the battle.
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101:
81:
555:. Behind the religious element, there probably lay a display of
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122:
117:
70:
1245:
Aspects of Greek history, 750-323 BC: a source-based approach
241:
693:
Philip and Alexander of Macedon: two essays in biography
421:(Krokion pedion) (353 BC or 352 BC) was a battle in the
523:
says that the battle took place while Philip besieged
1353:
A history of the Greek city states, ca. 700-338 B.C.
576:In response, the Phocians, under the leadership of
1350:
507:, the Thebans thought it safe to send the general
1375:
547:to pay a fine imposed on them in 357 BC by the
1394:Battles involving Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
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1294:Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age
739:Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age
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407:* indicates dates disputed by historians
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16:353/52 BC Macedonian victory in Greece
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13:
1357:. University of California Press.
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466:Third Sacred War § Chronology
14:
1420:
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1389:Battles involving ancient Greece
39:
1399:Battles of Philip II of Macedon
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425:, fought between the armies of
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1:
1315:. University of Texas Press.
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1226:Philip II and the Sacred War
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7:
1409:Battles in ancient Thessaly
1332:The Greek world, 479-323 BC
696:. C. Scribner's Sons, 1897.
503:Delphi. After Philomelos's
452:to political ascendancy in
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1425:
1330:Hornblower, Simon (2002).
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553:Temple of Apollo at Delphi
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21:
1349:Sealey, Raphael (1976).
756:Greek History 480–431 BC
589:Thessalian Confederation
107:Thessalian Confederation
1243:Buckley, Terry (1996).
690:Hogarth, David George.
1224:Buckler, John (1989).
573:
495:) and by contemporary
460:Sources and chronology
419:Battle of Crocus Field
245:Expansion of Macedonia
132:Commanders and leaders
22:Battle of Crocus Field
1311:Green, Peter (2006).
1292:Green, Peter (2008).
1202:Bibliotheca historica
802:Buckler, pp. 148–195.
569:The ruins of ancient
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545:Phocian Confederation
477:Bibliotheca historica
464:Further information:
199:Casualties and losses
1271:Philip II of Macedon
1023:Sealey, pp. 447–448.
446:Philip II of Macedon
138:Philip II of Macedon
1209: – Epitome of
1057:Buckler, pp. 73–74.
937:Hornblower, p. 272.
549:Amphictyonic League
433:, and the combined
324:(355–354* BC)
316:Maroneia and Abdera
574:
378:(342–340 BC)
360:(349–348 BC)
1384:350s BC conflicts
1303:978-0-7538-2413-9
1275:Faber & Faber
1228:. Brill Archive.
1213:Philippic History
1211:Pompeius Trogus's
896:Buckler, p. 26–29
844:Buckler, p. 20–22
811:Cawkwell, p. 185.
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728:Buckler, p. 148.
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1334:. Routledge.
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57:353 or 352 BC
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712:Buckler, p.
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340:Crocus Field
339:
179:3,000 horse
151:
93:Belligerents
27:Part of the
1296:. Phoenix.
758:, pp. 1–13.
669:Thermopylae
558:realpolitik
485:Demosthenes
370:3rd Illyria
298:2nd Illyria
274:1st Illyria
188:20,000 foot
176:20,000 foot
1378:Categories
679:References
582:Onomarchos
578:Philomelos
535:Background
497:epigraphic
493:Theopompus
439:Macedonian
435:Thessalian
431:Onomarchos
376:5th Thrace
364:4th Thrace
358:Chalcidice
352:3rd Thrace
346:2nd Thrace
310:1st Thrace
280:Amphipolis
146:Onomarchos
82:Macedonian
1249:Routledge
998:Diodorus
654:Aftermath
648:Isocrates
499:sources.
489:Aeschines
400:Chaeronea
388:Byzantion
382:Perinthos
342:(353* BC)
336:(353* BC)
330:(354* BC)
318:(355* BC)
250:Philip II
191:500 horse
1269:(1978).
1200: –
636:Thessaly
632:Magnesia
521:Diodorus
513:Maroneia
509:Pammenes
429:, under
402:(338 BC)
396:(339 BC)
390:(340 BC)
384:(340 BC)
372:(345 BC)
366:(346 BC)
354:(352 BC)
348:(353 BC)
328:Thessaly
312:(355 BC)
306:(356 BC)
304:Krinides
300:(356 BC)
294:(356 BC)
288:(356 BC)
282:(357 BC)
276:(358 BC)
270:(358 BC)
264:(359 BC)
168:Strength
84:victory.
67:Thessaly
62:Location
1000:XVI, 35
754:Green,
737:Green,
664:tyrants
628:Almyros
610:Pagasae
604:Prelude
525:Methone
394:Scythia
334:Pagasae
292:Potidea
268:Paionia
152:†
102:Macedon
1404:354 BC
1361:
1338:
1319:
1300:
1281:
1255:
1232:
1207:Justin
660:archon
621:Battle
614:Chares
593:Pherae
571:Delphi
517:Thrace
444:under
427:Phocis
248:under
159:Chares
148:
123:Athens
118:Phocis
78:Result
71:Greece
741:. p.
286:Pydna
1359:ISBN
1336:ISBN
1317:ISBN
1298:ISBN
1279:ISBN
1253:ISBN
1230:ISBN
743:xxiv
539:The
487:and
442:army
437:and
54:Date
31:and
714:xiv
630:in
515:in
474:'s
1380::
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1169:^
1146:^
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634:,
69:,
1367:.
1344:.
1325:.
1306:.
1287:.
1261:.
1238:.
745:.
716:.
235:e
228:t
221:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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