980:. Similar waves can be generated between a layer of water and a layer of oil. When the interface between these two surfaces is not horizontal and the system is close to hydrostatic equilibrium, the gradient of the pressure is vertical but the gradient of the density is not. Therefore the baroclinic vector is nonzero, and the sense of the baroclinic vector is to create vorticity to make the interface level out. In the process, the interface overshoots, and the result is an oscillation which is an internal gravity wave. Unlike surface gravity waves, internal gravity waves do not require a sharp interface. For example, in bodies of water, a gradual gradient in temperature or salinity is sufficient to support internal gravity waves driven by the baroclinic vector.
142:
746:
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25:
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741:{\displaystyle {\frac {D{\vec {\omega }}}{Dt}}\equiv {\frac {\partial {\vec {\omega }}}{\partial t}}+\left({\vec {u}}\cdot {\vec {\nabla }}\right){\vec {\omega }}=\left({\vec {\omega }}\cdot {\vec {\nabla }}\right){\vec {u}}-{\vec {\omega }}\left({\vec {\nabla }}\cdot {\vec {u}}\right)+\underbrace {{\frac {1}{\rho ^{2}}}{\vec {\nabla }}\rho \times {\vec {\nabla }}p} _{\text{baroclinic contribution}}}
122:
146:
144:
149:
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327:. The Rossby number is a measure of the departure of the vorticity from that of solid body rotation. The Rossby number must be small for the concept of baroclinic instability to be relevant. When the Rossby number is large, other kinds of instabilities, often referred to as inertial, become more relevant.
361:
on baroclinic instability in the late 1940s, most theories trying to explain the structure of mid-latitude eddies took as their starting points the high Rossby number or small
Richardson number instabilities familiar to fluid dynamicists at that time. The most important feature of baroclinic
145:
395:
and twisting (as vortex tubes are pulled or twisted by the flow) and baroclinic vorticity generation, which occurs whenever there is a density gradient along surfaces of constant pressure. Baroclinic flows can be contrasted with
246:, where density surfaces and pressure surfaces are both nearly level, whereas in higher latitudes the flow is more baroclinic. These midlatitude belts of high atmospheric baroclinity are characterized by the frequent formation of
960:
as well as unstable
Rayleigh–Taylor modes can be analyzed from the perspective of the baroclinic vector. It is also of interest in the creation of vorticity by the passage of shocks through inhomogeneous media, such as in the
951:
837:
1032:, p. 179: ″In general, a barotropic situation is one in which surfaces of constant pressure and surfaces of constant density coincide; a baroclinic situation is one in which they intersect.″
403:
The study of the evolution of these baroclinic instabilities as they grow and then decay is a crucial part of developing theories for the fundamental characteristics of midlatitude weather.
391:
is generated. Vorticity is the curl of the velocity field. In general, the evolution of vorticity can be broken into contributions from advection (as vortex tubes move with the flow),
222:
340:
The strength of the stratification is measured by asking how large the vertical shear of the horizontal winds has to be in order to destabilize the flow and produce the classic
1077:
778:
1317:
Fujisawa, K.; Jackson, T. L.; Balachandar, S. (2019-02-22). "Influence of baroclinic vorticity production on unsteady drag coefficient in shock–particle interaction".
881:
377:
of the fluid is lowered. In growing waves in the atmosphere, cold air moving downwards and equatorwards displaces the warmer air moving polewards and upwards.
861:
956:
This vector, sometimes called the solenoidal vector, is of interest both in compressible fluids and in incompressible (but inhomogeneous) fluids. Internal
889:
1626:
3028:
259:
384:. The annulus is heated at the outer wall and cooled at the inner wall, and the resulting fluid flows give rise to baroclinically unstable waves.
3018:
2077:
783:
174:
a baroclinic flow is one in which the density depends on both temperature and pressure (the fully general case). A simpler case,
2934:
1020:, p. 122: ″The strict meaning of the term ′barotropic′ is that the pressure is constant on surfaces of constant density...″
3301:
2349:
2117:
1619:
170:) of a stratified fluid is a measure of how misaligned the gradient of pressure is from the gradient of density in a fluid. In
1768:
1590:
1567:
1541:
1514:
1487:
2581:
1122:
Houze, Robert A. (2014-01-01), Houze, Robert A. (ed.), "Chapter 11 - Clouds and
Precipitation in Extratropical Cyclones",
89:
2070:
319:, which is a measure of how close the flow is to solid body rotation. More precisely, a flow in solid body rotation has
137:
Visualization of a (fictive) formation of isotherms (red-orange) and isobars (blue) in a baroclinic atmospheric layering.
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61:
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108:
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1936:
412:
341:
68:
3211:
2197:
195:
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Boris, J. P.; Picone, J. M. (April 1988). "Vorticity generation by shock propagation through bubbles in a gas".
1180:
1155:
330:
The simplest example of a stably stratified flow is an incompressible flow with density decreasing with height.
3291:
2884:
2063:
1983:
350:. When the Richardson number is large, the stratification is strong enough to prevent this shear instability.
46:
3339:
1815:
1783:
1730:
75:
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2339:
42:
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flows in which density and pressure surfaces coincide and there is no baroclinic generation of vorticity.
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2399:
57:
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1978:
1735:
1582:
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instability is that it exists even in the situation of rapid rotation (small Rossby number) and strong
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2436:
1958:
1892:
1720:
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3201:
2576:
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2506:
2142:
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333:
In a compressible gas such as the atmosphere, the relevant measure is the vertical gradient of the
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3238:
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2416:
2354:
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2026:
1948:
1559:
1479:
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35:
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2556:
2451:
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1820:
1810:
1773:
1044:, p. 74: ″A barotropic atmosphere is one in which density depends only on the pressure,
381:
363:
996:
Marshall, J., and R.A. Plumb. 2007. Atmosphere, Ocean, and
Climate Dynamics. Academic Press,
380:
Baroclinic instability can be investigated in the laboratory using a rotating, fluid filled
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3086:
2789:
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2511:
2222:
2006:
1973:
1875:
1870:
1835:
1448:
1436:
1385:
1326:
1204:
1167:
866:
126:
304:(100 km or smaller) that play various roles in oceanic dynamics and the transport of
8:
3248:
3133:
3128:
2854:
2526:
2486:
2202:
1968:
1953:
1093:. Henderson-Sellers, A. (Second ed.). Oxfordshire, England: Routledge. p. 151.
439:
280:
Baroclinic instability is a fluid dynamical instability of fundamental importance in the
82:
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179:
1474:
Holton, James R. (2004). Dmowska, Renata; Holton, James R.; Rossby, H. Thomas (eds.).
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946:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\rho ^{2}}}{\vec {\nabla }}\rho \times {\vec {\nabla }}p}
370:
324:
301:
968:
Experienced divers are familiar with the very slow waves that can be excited at a
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2192:
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1533:
1269:
1579:
Atmospheric and
Oceanic Fluid Dynamics: Fundamentals and Large-Scale Circulation
1478:. International Geophysics Series. Vol. 88 (4th ed.). Burlington, MA:
16:
Measure of misalignment between the gradients of pressure and density in a fluid
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1963:
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1108:
426:
In a fluid that is not all of the same density, a source term appears in the
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435:
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which is proportional to the sine of the angle between surfaces of constant
133:
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2157:
2132:
1922:
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1707:
957:
354:
239:
fluid (which is defined by zero baroclinity), these surfaces are parallel.
1232:"A Tabletop Demonstration of Atmospheric Dynamics: Baroclinic Instability"
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2217:
2182:
1850:
1750:
969:
305:
293:
171:
2055:
337:, which must increase with height for the flow to be stably stratified.
242:
In Earth's atmosphere, barotropic flow is a better approximation in the
154:
A rotating tank experiment modelling baroclinic eddies in the atmosphere
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2899:
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2701:
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2319:
2314:
2212:
2016:
1988:
1902:
1697:
1682:
1662:
1427:
Brouillette, Martin (2002-01-01). "The richtmyer-meshkov instability".
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Beginning with the equation of motion for a frictionless fluid (the
24:
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2965:
2824:
2716:
2706:
2651:
2127:
2036:
1998:
1912:
1657:
1126:, Cloud Dynamics, vol. 104, Academic Press, pp. 329–367,
1079:, so that isobaric surfaces are also surfaces of constant density.″
228:
178:
flow, allows for density dependence only on pressure, so that the
121:
1577:
Vallis, Geoffrey K. (2007) . "Vorticity and
Potential Vorticity".
832:{\displaystyle {\vec {\omega }}={\vec {\nabla }}\times {\vec {u}}}
366:(large Richardson's number) typically observed in the atmosphere.
254:, although these are not really dependent on the baroclinity term
3112:
3102:
2272:
2242:
1907:
1505:. International Geophysical Series. Vol. 30. San Diego, CA:
1263:"Lab demos from MIT's Programmes in Atmosphere, Ocean and Climate
1262:
334:
297:
289:
251:
243:
232:
2819:
2232:
285:
288:. In the atmosphere it is the dominant mechanism shaping the
3181:
3000:
2779:
2734:
1715:
1156:"The dynamics of long waves in a baroclinic westerly current"
883:
is the density). The baroclinic contribution is the vector:
2613:
1692:
1195:
Eady, E. T. (August 1949). "Long Waves and
Cyclone Waves".
1181:
10.1175/1520-0469(1947)004<0136:TDOLWI>2.0.CO;2
1316:
373:
in the environmental flow. As the instability grows, the
1725:
300:
in mid-latitudes. In the ocean it generates a field of
387:
The term "baroclinic" refers to the mechanism by which
1274:
1634:
1298:
1050:
1023:
892:
869:
849:
786:
757:
451:
417:
equation of motion for the curl of the fluid velocity
198:
369:
The energy source for baroclinic instability is the
262:
iso-surfaces where that term has no contribution to
1286:
1035:
999:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1525:
1498:
1071:
1011:
945:
875:
855:
831:
772:
740:
216:
3029:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
3326:
1497:Gill, Adrian E. (1982). Donn, William L. (ed.).
3019:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
2071:
1620:
434:surfaces) and surfaces of constant pressure (
258:: for instance, they are commonly studied on
1769:Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
1229:
1426:
1375:
217:{\displaystyle \nabla p\times \nabla \rho }
2078:
2064:
1627:
1613:
415:) and taking the curl, one arrives at the
2085:
1247:
1179:
269:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1523:
1280:
1088:
140:
132:
120:
1550:
1153:
1029:
430:whenever surfaces of constant density (
129:cross vertically in a baroclinic fluid.
3327:
2350:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
1576:
1476:An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology
1473:
1449:10.1146/annurev.fluid.34.090101.162238
1304:
1041:
1005:
2059:
1608:
1230:Nadiga, B. T.; Aurnou, J. M. (2008).
1121:
315:is determined in this context by the
3297:
1496:
1292:
1194:
1017:
442:of the local vorticity is given by:
406:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1731:Convective condensation level (CCL)
13:
3177:National Oceanographic Data Center
2604:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
2492:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
1937:Equivalent potential temperature (
1217:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1949.tb01265.x
1132:10.1016/b978-0-12-374266-7.00011-1
931:
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696:
640:
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539:
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208:
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14:
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3024:Global Sea Level Observing System
1789:Conditional symmetric instability
1635:Meteorological data and variables
1600:
3307:
3296:
3287:
3286:
2482:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
2398:
2387:
1736:Lifting condensation level (LCL)
1429:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
189:Baroclinity is proportional to:
23:
3212:Ocean thermal energy conversion
2935:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
1721:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
1467:
1420:
1369:
1310:
1256:
1223:
438:surfaces) are not aligned. The
34:needs additional citations for
1984:Wet-bulb potential temperature
1826:Level of free convection (LFC)
1558:(2nd ed.). New York, NJ:
1188:
1147:
1115:
1082:
1072:{\displaystyle \rho =\rho (p)}
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1:
2027:Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
1949:Sea surface temperature (SST)
1784:Convective momentum transport
983:
963:Richtmyer–Meshkov instability
344:. This measure is called the
2472:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
2442:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
2198:Luke's variational principle
1841:Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
342:Kelvin–Helmholtz instability
323:that is proportional to its
7:
2045:Maximum potential intensity
1811:Free convective layer (FCL)
1774:Convective inhibition (CIN)
353:Before the classic work of
10:
3356:
2537:Ocean dynamical thermostat
2385:
1979:Wet-bulb globe temperature
1836:Maximum parcel level (MPL)
1583:Cambridge University Press
1532:(2nd ed.). New York:
1528:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
1524:Pedlosky, Joseph (1987) .
1378:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
1319:Journal of Applied Physics
773:{\displaystyle {\vec {u}}}
311:Whether a fluid counts as
273:
3282:
3121:
3095:
3072:Ocean acoustic tomography
3057:
3009:
2948:
2885:Mohorovičić discontinuity
2843:
2715:
2612:
2477:General circulation model
2407:
2113:Benjamin–Feir instability
2093:
2035:
1997:
1959:Thermodynamic temperature
1893:Forest fire weather index
1849:
1759:
1706:
1640:
1501:Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics
1398:10.1017/S0022112088000904
231:and surfaces of constant
3202:Ocean surface topography
2577:Thermohaline circulation
2567:Subsurface ocean current
2507:Hydrothermal circulation
2340:Wave–current interaction
2118:Boussinesq approximation
1881:Equivalent temperature (
1794:Convective temperature (
1678:Surface weather analysis
1124:International Geophysics
1091:Contemporary climatology
1089:Robinson, J. P. (1999).
3239:Sea surface temperature
3222:Outline of oceanography
2417:Atmospheric circulation
2355:shallow water equations
2345:Waves and shallow water
2238:Significant wave height
1928:Potential temperature (
1673:Surface solar radiation
1560:Oxford University Press
1556:Physical Fluid Dynamics
1480:Elsevier Academic Press
1249:10.5670/oceanog.2008.24
1154:Charney, J. G. (1947).
734:baroclinic contribution
184:pressure-gradient force
3234:Sea surface microlayer
2599:Wind generated current
1918:Relative humidity (RH)
1806:Equilibrium level (EL)
1779:Convective instability
1160:Journal of Meteorology
1073:
947:
877:
857:
833:
774:
742:
419:, that is to say, the
270:Baroclinic instability
218:
155:
138:
130:
3067:Deep scattering layer
3049:World Geodetic System
2557:Princeton Ocean Model
2437:Coriolis–Stokes force
2087:Physical oceanography
1074:
976:, which are known as
948:
878:
876:{\displaystyle \rho }
863:is the pressure, and
858:
834:
775:
743:
364:stable stratification
219:
153:
136:
124:
3340:Atmospheric dynamics
3087:Underwater acoustics
2647:Perigean spring tide
2512:Langmuir circulation
2223:Rossby-gravity waves
2007:Atmospheric pressure
1974:Wet-bulb temperature
1876:Dry-bulb temperature
1871:Dew point depression
1048:
890:
867:
847:
784:
780:is the velocity and
755:
449:
196:
43:improve this article
3249:Science On a Sphere
2855:Convergent boundary
2527:Modular Ocean Model
2487:Geostrophic current
2203:Mild-slope equation
1969:Virtual temperature
1954:Temperature anomaly
1648:Adiabatic processes
1441:2002AnRFM..34..445B
1390:1988JFM...189...23P
1331:2019JAP...125h4901F
1209:1949Tell....1c..33E
1172:1947JAtS....4..136C
440:material derivative
260:pressure coordinate
2905:Seafloor spreading
2895:Outer trench swell
2860:Divergent boundary
2760:Continental margin
2745:Carbonate platform
2642:Lunitidal interval
1741:Precipitable water
1268:2011-05-26 at the
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428:vorticity equation
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125:Density lines and
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3314:Oceans portal
3274:World Ocean Atlas
3264:Underwater glider
3207:Ocean temperature
2870:Hydrothermal vent
2835:Submarine volcano
2770:Continental shelf
2750:Coastal geography
2740:Bathymetric chart
2622:Amphidromic point
2310:Wave nonlinearity
2168:Infragravity wave
2053:
2052:
2022:Pressure gradient
1831:Lifted index (LI)
1592:978-0-521-84969-2
1569:978-0-19-854493-7
1543:978-0-387-96387-7
1516:978-0-12-283522-3
1489:978-0-12-354015-7
1339:10.1063/1.5055002
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856:{\displaystyle p}
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407:Baroclinic vector
347:Richardson number
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3229:Pelagic sediment
3167:Marine pollution
2961:Deep ocean water
2830:Submarine canyon
2765:Continental rise
2657:Rule of twelfths
2572:Sverdrup balance
2502:Humboldt Current
2427:Boundary current
2402:
2391:
2208:Radiation stress
2178:Iribarren number
2153:Equatorial waves
2108:Ballantine scale
2103:Airy wave theory
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607:
604:
600:
599:
598:
590:
584:
583:
575:
564:
563:
555:
552:
548:
547:
546:
538:
532:
531:
523:
512:
510:
502:
501:
500:
492:
485:
480:
478:
470:
469:
468:
460:
453:
371:potential energy
325:angular velocity
313:rapidly rotating
302:mesoscale eddies
223:
221:
220:
215:
152:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3355:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3318:
3306:
3278:
3117:
3091:
3053:
3034:Sea-level curve
3005:
2944:
2930:Transform fault
2880:Mid-ocean ridge
2846:
2839:
2805:Oceanic plateau
2711:
2697:Tidal resonance
2667:Theory of tides
2608:
2517:Longshore drift
2467:Ekman transport
2403:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2383:
2335:Wave turbulence
2268:Trochoidal wave
2193:Longshore drift
2089:
2084:
2054:
2049:
2031:
1993:
1943:
1887:
1865:
1845:
1800:
1755:
1702:
1636:
1633:
1603:
1593:
1570:
1544:
1534:Springer-Verlag
1517:
1490:
1470:
1465:
1464:
1425:
1421:
1374:
1370:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1287:
1281:Pedlosky (1987)
1279:
1275:
1270:Wayback Machine
1261:
1257:
1228:
1224:
1193:
1189:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1120:
1116:
1101:
1087:
1083:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1012:
1004:
1000:
995:
991:
986:
929:
928:
911:
910:
902:
898:
893:
891:
888:
887:
868:
865:
864:
848:
845:
844:
818:
817:
803:
802:
788:
787:
785:
782:
781:
759:
758:
756:
753:
752:
732:
712:
711:
694:
693:
685:
681:
676:
675:
673:
653:
652:
638:
637:
636:
632:
621:
620:
606:
605:
589:
588:
574:
573:
572:
568:
554:
553:
537:
536:
522:
521:
520:
516:
503:
491:
490:
486:
484:
471:
459:
458:
454:
452:
450:
447:
446:
413:Euler equations
409:
278:
272:
197:
194:
193:
141:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3353:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3335:Fluid dynamics
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3304:
3294:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3254:Stratification
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3146:
3144:Color of water
3141:
3139:Benthic lander
3136:
3131:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3063:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3044:Sea level rise
3041:
3039:Sea level drop
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3015:
3013:
3007:
3006:
3004:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2875:Marine geology
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2851:
2849:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2815:Passive margin
2812:
2810:Oceanic trench
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2721:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2618:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2542:Ocean dynamics
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2432:Coriolis force
2429:
2424:
2419:
2413:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2352:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2253:Stokes problem
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2188:Kinematic wave
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2068:
2060:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2041:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1964:Vapor pressure
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1934:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1855:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1632:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1602:
1601:External links
1599:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1574:
1568:
1548:
1542:
1521:
1515:
1507:Academic Press
1494:
1488:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1435:(1): 445–468.
1419:
1368:
1309:
1307:, p. 166.
1297:
1295:, p. 238.
1285:
1273:
1255:
1242:(4): 196–201.
1222:
1187:
1166:(5): 136–162.
1146:
1140:
1114:
1099:
1081:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1034:
1030:Tritton (1988)
1022:
1010:
998:
988:
987:
985:
982:
978:internal waves
954:
953:
942:
936:
933:
927:
924:
918:
915:
905:
901:
897:
872:
852:
825:
822:
816:
810:
807:
801:
795:
792:
766:
763:
749:
748:
729:
725:
719:
716:
710:
707:
701:
698:
688:
684:
680:
671:
667:
660:
657:
651:
645:
642:
635:
628:
625:
619:
613:
610:
603:
596:
593:
587:
581:
578:
571:
567:
561:
558:
551:
544:
541:
535:
529:
526:
519:
515:
509:
506:
498:
495:
489:
483:
477:
474:
466:
463:
457:
408:
405:
375:center of mass
296:that dominate
271:
268:
235:. Thus, in a
225:
224:
213:
210:
207:
204:
201:
166:(often called
160:fluid dynamics
117:
116:
99:September 2009
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3352:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3303:
3295:
3293:
3285:
3284:
3281:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3162:Marine energy
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3129:Acidification
3127:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3082:SOFAR channel
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2890:Oceanic crust
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2865:Fracture zone
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2800:Oceanic basin
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2730:Abyssal plain
2728:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2637:Internal tide
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2532:Ocean current
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2390:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2330:Wave shoaling
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2290:Ursell number
2288:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2173:Internal wave
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2123:Breaking wave
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2076:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2017:Barotropicity
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1746:Precipitation
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1643:
1639:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1618:
1616:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1594:
1588:
1584:
1581:. Cambridge:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1552:Tritton, D.J.
1549:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1502:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1325:(8): 084901.
1324:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1305:Vallis (2007)
1301:
1294:
1289:
1283:, p. 22.
1282:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1264:
1259:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1143:
1141:9780123742667
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1100:9781315842660
1096:
1092:
1085:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1043:
1042:Holton (2004)
1038:
1031:
1026:
1019:
1014:
1008:, p. 77.
1007:
1006:Holton (2004)
1002:
993:
989:
981:
979:
975:
971:
966:
964:
959:
958:gravity waves
940:
925:
922:
903:
899:
895:
886:
885:
884:
870:
850:
842:
820:
814:
799:
790:
761:
727:
723:
708:
705:
686:
682:
678:
669:
665:
655:
649:
633:
623:
617:
608:
601:
585:
576:
569:
565:
556:
549:
533:
524:
517:
513:
507:
493:
481:
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58:"Baroclinity"
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3269:Water column
3217:Oceanography
3192:Observations
3187:Explorations
3157:Marginal sea
3150:
3108:OSTM/Jason-2
2940:Volcanic arc
2915:Slab suction
2632:Head of tide
2522:Loop Current
2462:Ekman spiral
2421:
2248:Stokes drift
2158:Gravity wave
2133:Cnoidal wave
2011:
1938:
1929:
1923:Mixing ratio
1898:Haines Index
1882:
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1795:
1708:Condensation
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1468:Bibliography
1432:
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1236:Oceanography
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1203:(3): 33–52.
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41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3259:Thermocline
2976:Mesopelagic
2949:Ocean zones
2920:Slab window
2785:Hydrography
2725:Abyssal fan
2692:Tidal range
2682:Tidal power
2677:Tidal force
2562:Rip current
2497:Gulf Stream
2457:Ekman layer
2447:Downwelling
2422:Baroclinity
2409:Circulation
2305:Wave height
2295:Wave action
2278:megatsunami
2258:Stokes wave
2218:Rossby wave
2183:Kelvin wave
2163:Green's law
2012:Baroclinity
1859:Dew point (
1851:Temperature
1751:Water vapor
1293:Gill (1982)
1018:Gill (1982)
970:thermocline
284:and in the
172:meteorology
164:baroclinity
3329:Categories
3197:Reanalysis
3096:Satellites
3077:Sofar bomb
2925:Subduction
2900:Ridge push
2795:Ocean bank
2775:Contourite
2702:Tide gauge
2687:Tidal race
2672:Tidal bore
2662:Slack tide
2627:Earth tide
2547:Ocean gyre
2367:Wind setup
2362:Wind fetch
2325:Wave setup
2320:Wave radar
2315:Wave power
2213:Rogue wave
2143:Dispersion
1989:Wind chill
1903:Heat index
1761:Convection
1698:Wind shear
1683:Visibility
1663:Lapse rate
984:References
398:barotropic
393:stretching
282:atmosphere
276:Eady model
274:See also:
237:barotropic
186:vanishes.
176:barotropic
69:newspapers
3059:Acoustics
3011:Sea level
2910:Slab pull
2847:tectonics
2755:Cold seep
2717:Landforms
2594:Whirlpool
2589:Upwelling
2372:Wind wave
2300:Wave base
2228:Sea state
2148:Edge wave
2138:Cross sea
1688:Vorticity
1668:Lightning
1653:Advection
1554:(1988) .
1457:0066-4189
1414:121116029
1406:1469-7645
1384:: 23–51.
1363:127387592
1347:0021-8979
1109:893676683
1058:ρ
1052:ρ
974:halocline
935:→
932:∇
926:×
923:ρ
917:→
914:∇
900:ρ
871:ρ
841:vorticity
824:→
815:×
809:→
806:∇
794:→
791:ω
765:→
728:⏟
718:→
715:∇
709:×
706:ρ
700:→
697:∇
683:ρ
659:→
650:⋅
644:→
641:∇
627:→
624:ω
618:−
612:→
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586:⋅
580:→
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560:→
557:ω
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540:∇
534:⋅
528:→
505:∂
497:→
494:ω
488:∂
482:≡
465:→
462:ω
432:isopycnic
421:vorticity
389:vorticity
359:Eric Eady
321:vorticity
264:vorticity
212:ρ
209:∇
206:×
200:∇
3292:Category
3244:Seawater
2971:Littoral
2966:Deep sea
2825:Seamount
2707:Tideline
2652:Rip tide
2582:shutdown
2552:Overflow
2285:Undertow
2128:Clapotis
2037:Velocity
1999:Pressure
1913:Humidity
1816:Helicity
1658:Buoyancy
1266:Archived
436:isobaric
290:cyclones
252:cyclones
248:synoptic
229:pressure
3302:Commons
3172:Mooring
3122:Related
3113:Jason-3
3103:Jason-1
2986:Pelagic
2981:Oceanic
2956:Benthic
2273:Tsunami
2243:Soliton
1908:Humidex
1821:K Index
1641:General
1437:Bibcode
1386:Bibcode
1355:1614518
1327:Bibcode
1205:Bibcode
1168:Bibcode
839:is the
751:(where
382:annulus
335:entropy
306:tracers
298:weather
250:-scale
244:tropics
233:density
182:of the
127:isobars
83:scholar
2991:Photic
2820:Seabed
2233:Seiche
1589:
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1197:Tellus
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286:oceans
256:per se
162:, the
85:
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3182:Ocean
3151:Alvin
3001:Swash
2845:Plate
2790:Knoll
2780:Guyot
2735:Atoll
2614:Tides
2377:model
2263:Swell
2095:Waves
1716:Cloud
1410:S2CID
1359:S2CID
972:or a
90:JSTOR
76:books
3149:DSV
3134:Argo
2996:Surf
2452:Eddy
1693:Wind
1587:ISBN
1564:ISBN
1538:ISBN
1511:ISBN
1484:ISBN
1453:ISSN
1402:ISSN
1351:OSTI
1343:ISSN
1136:ISBN
1105:OCLC
1095:ISBN
357:and
292:and
180:curl
62:news
1726:Fog
1445:doi
1394:doi
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158:In
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