Wrought iron - Knowledge

89: 65: 1377: 1406:

found that in puddled, forged, and piled iron, the working-over of the metal spread out copper, nickel, and tin impurities that produce electrochemical conditions that slow down corrosion. The slag inclusions have been shown to disperse corrosion to an even film, enabling the iron to resist pitting. Another study has shown that slag inclusions are pathways to corrosion. Other studies show that sulfur in the wrought iron decreases corrosion resistance, while phosphorus increases corrosion resistance. Chloride ions also decrease wrought iron's corrosion resistance.

1402:) to harden them. An advantage of its low carbon content is its excellent weldability. Furthermore, sheet wrought iron cannot bend as much as steel sheet metal when cold worked. Wrought iron can be melted and cast; however, the product is no longer wrought iron, since the slag stringers characteristic of wrought iron disappear on melting, so the product resembles impure, cast, Bessemer steel. There is no engineering advantage to melting and casting wrought iron, as compared to using cast iron or steel, both of which are cheaper. 45: 56: 3685: 36: 1193: 3495: 1216:, who was the first to add iron oxide to the charge. In that type of furnace, the metal does not come into contact with the fuel, and so is not contaminated by its impurities. The heat of the combustion products passes over the surface of the puddle and the roof of the furnace reverberates (reflects) the heat onto the metal puddle on the fire bridge of the furnace. 949:, was in use in China since ancient times but was not introduced into Western Europe until the 15th century; even then, due to its brittleness, it could be used for only a limited number of purposes. Throughout much of the Middle Ages, iron was produced by the direct reduction of ore in manually operated 1645:

Because of the large number of boiler explosions on steamboats in the early 1800s, the U.S. Congress passed legislation in 1830 which approved funds for correcting the problem. The treasury awarded a $ 1500 contract to the Franklin Institute to conduct a study. As part of the study, Walter R. Johnson

1015:

from the charcoal would reduce the ore to iron, which formed a spongy mass (called a "bloom") containing iron and also molten silicate minerals (slag) from the ore. The iron remained in the solid state. If the bloomery were allowed to become hot enough to melt the iron, carbon would dissolve into it

1658:

Various 19th century investigations of boiler explosions, especially those by insurance companies, found causes to be most commonly the result of operating boilers above the safe pressure range, either to get more power, or due to defective boiler pressure relief valves and difficulties of obtaining

529:

For several years after the introduction of Bessemer and open hearth steel, there were different opinions as to what differentiated iron from steel; some believed it was the chemical composition and others that it was whether the iron heated sufficiently to melt and "fuse". Fusion eventually became

1405:

Due to the variations in iron ore origin and iron manufacture, wrought iron can be inferior or superior in corrosion resistance, compared to other iron alloys. There are many mechanisms behind its corrosion resistance. Chilton and Evans found that nickel enrichment bands reduce corrosion. They also

1234:

and iron oxide. The mixture was subjected to a strong current of air and stirred with long bars, called puddling bars or rabbles, through working doors. The air, the stirring, and the "boiling" action of the metal helped the oxidizing agents to oxidize the impurities and carbon out of the pig iron.

636:

to prevent contamination of the iron from the sulfur in the coal or coke. The molten pig iron is manually stirred, exposing the iron to atmospheric oxygen, which decarburizes the iron. As the iron is stirred, globs of wrought iron are collected into balls by the stirring rod (rabble arm or rod) and

1351:

In the 1960s, the price of steel production was dropping due to recycling, and even using the Aston process, wrought iron production was labor-intensive. It has been estimated that the production of wrought iron is approximately twice as expensive as that of low-carbon steel. In the United States,

1320:

and pouring it into cooler liquid slag. The temperature of the steel is about 1500 °C and the liquid slag is maintained at approximately 1200 °C. The molten steel contains a large amount of dissolved gases so when the liquid steel hit the cooler surfaces of the liquid slag the gases were

1249:

There was still some slag left in the puddle balls, so while they were still hot they would be shingled to remove the remaining slag and cinder. That was achieved by forging the balls under a hammer, or by squeezing the bloom in a machine. The material obtained at the end of shingling is known as

1413:

will give defective results. The material has a rough surface, so it can hold platings and coatings better than smooth steel. For instance, a galvanic zinc finish applied to wrought iron is approximately 25–40% thicker than the same finish on steel. In Table 1, the chemical composition of wrought

1086:

consisted of balls of wrought iron, produced by melting pig iron and catching the droplets on a staff, which was spun in front of a blast of air so as to expose as much of it as possible to the air and oxidise its carbon content. The resultant ball was often forged into bar iron in a hammer mill.

1671:

In 2010, Gerry McDonnell demonstrated in England by analysis that a wrought iron bloom, from a traditional smelt, could be worked into 99.7% pure iron with no evidence of carbon. It was found that the stringers common to other wrought irons were not present, thus making it very malleable for the

1027:, water-power was applied to the process, probably initially for powering bellows, and only later to hammers for forging the blooms. However, while it is certain that water-power was used, the details remain uncertain. That was the culmination of the direct process of ironmaking. It survived in 1344:

for its manufacture was adopted (1865 on). Iron remained dominant for structural applications until the 1880s, because of problems with brittle steel, caused by introduced nitrogen, high carbon, excess phosphorus, or excessive temperature during or too-rapid rolling. By 1890 steel had largely

1019:

After smelting was complete, the bloom was removed, and the process could then be started again. It was thus a batch process, rather than a continuous one such as a blast furnace. The bloom had to be forged mechanically to consolidate it and shape it into a bar, expelling slag in the process.

1662:

By the late 19th century, when metallurgists were able to better understand what properties and processes made good iron, iron in steam engines was being displaced by steel. Also, the old cylindrical boilers with fire tubes were displaced by water tube boilers, which are inherently safer.

927: 1718:

The vast majority of wrought iron available today is from reclaimed materials. Old bridges and anchor chains dredged from harbors are major sources. The greater corrosion resistance of wrought iron is due to the siliceous impurities (naturally occurring in iron ore), namely ferrous

1418:. Although it appears that wrought iron and plain carbon steel have similar chemical compositions, that is deceptive. Most of the manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon in the wrought iron are incorporated into the slag fibers, making wrought iron purer than plain carbon steel. 1277:

or piling. They were then reheated to a welding state, forge welded, and rolled again into bars. The process could be repeated several times to produce wrought iron of desired quality. Wrought iron that has been rolled multiple times is called merchant bar or merchant iron.

338:

Wrought iron is highly refined, with a small amount of silicate slag forged out into fibers. It comprises around 99.4% iron by mass. The presence of slag can be beneficial for blacksmithing operations, such as forge welding, since the silicate inclusions act as a

1145:

in 1709 (or perhaps others a little earlier) initially had little effect on wrought iron production. Only in the 1750s was coke pig iron used on any significant scale as the feedstock of finery forges. However, charcoal continued to be the fuel for the finery.

480:

The word "wrought" is an archaic past participle of the verb "to work", and so "wrought iron" literally means "worked iron". Wrought iron is a general term for the commodity, but is also used more specifically for finished iron goods, as manufactured by a

1641:

For most purposes, ductility rather than tensile strength is a more important measure of the quality of wrought iron. In tensile testing, the best irons are able to undergo considerable elongation before failure. Higher tensile wrought iron is brittle.

1129:

was used. That employed two different hearths, a finery hearth for finishing the iron and a chafery hearth for reheating it in the course of drawing the bloom out into a bar. The finery always burnt charcoal, but the chafery could be fired with mineral

1653:

If made of such good iron as the makers claimed to have put into them "which worked like lead," they would, as also claimed, when ruptured, open by tearing, and discharge their contents without producing the usual disastrous consequences of a boiler

1646:

and Benjamin Reeves conducted strength tests on boiler iron using a tester they had built in 1832 based on a design by Lagerhjelm in Sweden. Because of misunderstandings about tensile strength and ductility, their work did little to reduce failures.

1257:

would skip the shingling process completely and roll the puddle balls. The only drawback to that is that the edges of the rough bars were not as well compressed. When the rough bar was reheated, the edges might separate and be lost into the furnace.

522:. Pig iron and cast iron have higher carbon content than wrought iron, but have a lower melting point than iron or steel. Cast and especially pig iron have excess slag which must be at least partially removed to produce quality wrought iron. At 1235:

As the impurities oxidize, they formed a molten slag or drifted off as gas, while the remaining iron solidified into spongy wrought iron that floated to the top of the puddle and was fished out of the melt as puddle balls, using puddle bars.

1272:

The bloom was passed through rollers and to produce bars. The bars of wrought iron were of poor quality, called muck bars or puddle bars. To improve their quality, the bars were cut up, piled and tied together by wires, a process known as

1787:"Quality problems with rails gave Bessemer steel such a bad reputation that engineers and architects refused to specify it for structural applications. Open hearth steel had a better reputation and displaced structural iron by 1889..." 1391:, in wrought iron give it properties not found in other forms of ferrous metal. There are approximately 250,000 inclusions per square inch. A fresh fracture shows a clear bluish color with a high silky luster and fibrous appearance. 850:

into music wires. Although at the time phosphorus was not an easily identified component of iron, it was hypothesized that the type of iron had been rejected for conversion to steel but excelled when tested for drawing ability.

964:

was the first of the indirect processes, developed by 1203, but bloomery production continued in many places. The process depended on the development of the blast furnace, of which medieval examples have been discovered at

549:

Bar iron is a generic term sometimes used to distinguish it from cast iron. It is the equivalent of an ingot of cast metal, in a convenient form for handling, storage, shipping and further working into a finished product.

1016:

and form pig or cast iron, but that was not the intention. However, the design of a bloomery made it difficult to reach the melting point of iron and also prevented the concentration of carbon monoxide from becoming high.

1121:

in England. With it, the finery forge spread. Those remelted the pig iron and (in effect) burnt out the carbon, producing a bloom, which was then forged into bar iron. If rod iron was required, a slitting mill was used.

637:

those are periodically removed by the puddler. Puddling was patented in 1784 and became widely used after 1800. By 1876, annual production of puddled iron in the UK alone was over 4 million tons. Around that time, the

846:, manufactured at a time when mass-produced carbon-steels were available, was found to have low carbon and high phosphorus; iron with high phosphorus content, normally causing brittleness when worked cold, was easily 3049: 1300:, which were quite different from any in Sweden. After his return to Sweden in the 1830s, he experimented and developed a process similar to puddling but used firewood and charcoal, which was widely adopted in the 1002:

Wrought iron was originally produced by a variety of smelting processes, all described today as "bloomeries". Different forms of bloomery were used at different places and times. The bloomery was charged with

834:

in the slag, and the deliberate use of wood with high phosphorus content during the smelting, induces a higher phosphorus content (typically <0.3%) than in modern iron (<0.02–0.03%). Analysis of the

1134:, since its impurities would not harm the iron when it was in the solid state. On the other hand, the German process, used in Germany, Russia, and most of Sweden used a single hearth for all stages. 796:

Wrought iron is a form of commercial iron containing less than 0.10% of carbon, less than 0.25% of impurities total of sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese, and less than 2% slag by weight.

537:

Historically, wrought iron was known as "commercially pure iron"; however, it no longer qualifies because current standards for commercially pure iron require a carbon content of less than 0.008

343:

and give the material its unique, fibrous structure. The silicate filaments in the slag also protect the iron from corrosion and diminish the effect of fatigue caused by shock and vibration.

823:, contains excessive phosphorus. It is very brittle when cold and cracks if bent. It may, however, be worked at high temperature. Historically, coldshort iron was considered sufficient for 1069:

steel, mainly used in swordmaking, was extinguished only in 1925, though in the late 20th century the production resumed on a low scale to supply the steel to the artisan swordmakers.

1672:

smith to work hot and cold. A commercial source of pure iron is available and is used by smiths as an alternative to traditional wrought iron and other new generation ferrous metals.

1154:

From the late 1750s, ironmasters began to develop processes for making bar iron without charcoal. There were a number of patented processes for that, which are referred to today as

88: 1230:

In the fully developed process (of Hall), this metal was placed into the hearth of the puddling furnace where it was melted. The hearth was lined with oxidizing agents such as

3018: 1659:

reliable indications of pressure and water levels. Poor fabrication was also a common problem. Also, the thickness of the iron in steam drums was low, by modern standards.

809:

if it contains sulfur in excess quantity. It has sufficient tenacity when cold, but cracks when bent or finished at a red heat. Hot short iron was considered unmarketable.

2976: 960:

The raw material produced by all indirect processes is pig iron. It has a high carbon content and as a consequence, it is brittle and cannot be used to make hardware. The

468:

are made of mild steel. They are described as "wrought iron" only because they have been made to resemble objects which in the past were wrought (worked) by hand by a

784: 864:

During the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), new iron smelting processes led to the manufacture of new wrought iron implements for use in agriculture, such as the

530:

generally accepted as relatively more important than composition below a given low carbon concentration. Another difference is that steel can be hardened by

1321:

liberated. The molten steel then froze to yield a spongy mass having a temperature of about 1370 °C. The spongy mass would then be finished by being

3527: 908:. Wagner writes that in addition to the Han dynasty hearths believed to be fining hearths, there is also pictorial evidence of the fining hearth from a 1348:

Sheet iron (Armco 99.97% pure iron) had good properties for use in appliances, being well-suited for enamelling and welding, and being rust-resistant.

3238:

Iron as a Material of Construction: Being the Substance of a Course of Lectures Delivered at the Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensington

1696:. However, cast iron and cheaper steel caused a gradual decline in wrought iron manufacture; the last wrought ironworks in Britain closed in 1974. 1734:

is used for manufacturing these "wrought iron" gates. This is mainly because of the limited availability of true wrought iron. Steel can also be

331:

because it was hammered, rolled, or otherwise worked while hot enough to expel molten slag. The modern functional equivalent of wrought iron is

2352: 1293: 2830:

Rydén, G. (2005). "Responses to Coal Technology without Coal: Swedish Iron Making in the Nineteenth Century". In Rydén, G.; Evans, C. (eds.).

2030: 1011:

to heat the bloomery to a temperature somewhat below the melting point of iron. In the course of the smelt, slag would melt and run out, and

896:(403–221 BC), due to the fact that there are wrought iron items from China dating to that period and there is no documented evidence of the 4033: 1292:

The advantage of puddling was that it used coal, not charcoal as fuel. However, that was of little advantage in Sweden, which lacked coal.

366:, and other edged tools, as well as springs and files. The demand for wrought iron reached its peak in the 1860s, being in high demand for 1916: 945:

Wrought iron has been used for many centuries, and is the "iron" that is referred to throughout Western history. The other form of iron,

1204:

began during the latter half of the 18th century. The most successful of those was puddling, using a puddling furnace (a variety of the

596:. The number of bars per ton gradually increased from 70 per ton in the 1660s to 75–80 per ton in 1685 and "near 92 to the ton" in 1731. 1876: 2471:

Needham, Joseph (1995). "Part 3: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Historical Survey from Cinnabar Elixirs to Synthetic Insulin".

3335: 1649:

The importance of ductility was recognized by some very early in the development of tube boilers, evidenced by Thurston's comment:

335:, also called low-carbon steel. Neither wrought iron nor mild steel contain enough carbon to be hardened by heating and quenching. 64: 830:

Phosphorus is not necessarily detrimental to iron. Ancient Near Eastern smiths did not add lime to their furnaces. The absence of

327:

and the availability of large quantities of steel, wrought iron was the most common form of malleable iron. It was given the name

3520: 3085: 2987: 1219:

Unless the raw material used is white cast iron, the pig iron or other raw product of the puddling first had to be refined into

499:

In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, wrought iron went by a wide variety of terms according to its form, origin, or quality.

1982: 1688:

in London, and wrought iron furniture seemed to reach its peak popularity in Britain in the 17th century, during the reign of

980:

processes, of which there were two versions, the German and Walloon. They were in turn replaced from the late 18th century by

3995: 2593:

Pollard, G.C. (1998). "Experimentation in 19th-century bloomery iron production: Evidence from the Adirondacks of New York".

2321: 2202: 2175: 1368:

for preservation. Some wrought iron is still being produced for heritage restoration purposes, but only by recycling scrap.

691:

Ames iron or amys iron—another variety of iron imported to England from northern Europe. Its origin has been suggested to be

777:

Iron put through several stages of piling and rolling to reach the stage regarded (in the 19th century) as the best quality.

1227:

and convert carbon within the raw material, found in the form of graphite, to a combination with iron called cementite.

3513: 2455: 1833: 3476: 3457: 3194: 3166: 2799: 2704: 2514: 2482: 2281: 2232: 2105: 1966: 641:

was able to produce steel of suitable quality for structural purposes, and wrought iron production went into decline.

1316:

developed a process for manufacturing wrought iron quickly and economically. It involved taking molten steel from a

1125:

The finery process existed in two slightly different forms. In Great Britain, France, and parts of Sweden, only the

892:

found at the early Han dynasty site at Tieshengguo. Pigott speculates that the finery forge existed in the previous

4013: 3074:

Harvey, L., The role of Slag Inclusions in the corrosion of wrought iron, dissertation University of Bradford, 1996

1747: 872:. In addition to accidental lumps of low-carbon wrought iron produced by excessive injected air in ancient Chinese 163: 4054: 2917:

The Useful Metals and Their Alloys, Including Mining Ventilation, Mining Jurisprudence, and Metallurgic Chemistry

492:

records, such manufactured iron was subject to a higher rate of duty than what might be called "unwrought" iron.

2366: 912:

tomb mural dated 1st to 2nd century AD, as well as a hint of written evidence in the 4th century AD Daoist text

3398: 2297:

Mutton, Norman (1976). "The marked bar association: price regulation in the Black Country wrought iron trade".

3210: 2986:(Spring 2007 ed.). Cambridge University Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy: 4. Archived from 300:(up to 2% by weight), which give it a wood-like "grain" that is visible when it is etched, rusted, or bent to 3499: 2609:

History of the British Iron and Steel Industry from 450 BC to AD 1775 (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London 1957)

1902: 1365: 632:

was the first large-scale process to produce wrought iron. In the puddling process, pig iron is refined in a

4023: 4003: 3795: 456:

Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale. Many products described as wrought iron, such as

3373:

McDonnell, G (9 September 2010). "Metallurgical Report on the Iron Smelted for the Master Crafts Series".

670:, but in the 18th century more probably the kind of iron (from eastern Sweden) that once came from Gdańsk. 606:

Charcoal iron—until the end of the 18th century, wrought iron was smelted from ore using charcoal, by the

472:(although many decorative iron objects, including fences and gates, were often cast rather than wrought). 4064: 4059: 3956: 2849:

Smith, Stuart B; Gale, W.K.V. (1987). "Wrought iron again: the Blists Hill Ironworks officially opened".

1381: 526:

it was common to blend scrap wrought iron with cast iron to improve the physical properties of castings.

588:

Voyage iron—narrow flat bar iron, made or cut into bars of a particular weight, a commodity for sale in

3832: 2346: 1361: 1213: 1329:

as described under puddling (above). Three to four tons could be converted per batch with the method.

4028: 3880: 3421: 332: 3971: 3769: 1353: 1274: 17: 2963:

Hudson, J.C., 1931–43, Reports of the Corrosion Committee's Field Tests, Iron and Steel institute.

2038: 900:

ever being used in China. The fining process involved liquifying cast iron in a fining hearth and

168: 4069: 4018: 4008: 3895: 3557: 930:

The puddling process of smelting iron ore to make wrought iron from pig iron, illustrated in the

3910: 3842: 3827: 3819: 3785: 2832:

The Industrial Revolution in Iron: The impact of British coal technology in 19th century Europe

1924: 1689: 1322: 1244: 418: 839:

gives 0.11% in the iron. The included slag in wrought iron also imparts corrosion resistance.

4089: 3652: 3649: 1205: 1201: 1187: 981: 893: 633: 629: 1398:, but in areas where steel was uncommon or unknown, tools were sometimes cold-worked (hence 1376: 4084: 4074: 3981: 3945: 3900: 3790: 3764: 3033: 2477:. Vol. 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. 2404: 1422:

Table 1: Chemical composition comparison of pig iron, plain carbon steel, and wrought iron

1155: 836: 593: 568:

Hoop iron—suitable for the hoops of barrels, made by passing rod iron through rolling dies.

3157:

Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Ryffel, Henry H. (2000). McCauley, Christopher J. (ed.).

1409:

Wrought iron may be welded in the same manner as mild steel, but the presence of oxide or

8: 3950: 3940: 3936: 3885: 3875: 3759: 3738: 3625: 3592: 1410: 1250:

bloom. The blooms are not useful in that form, so they were rolled into a final product.

988:. Those, too, are now obsolete, and wrought iron is no longer manufactured commercially. 660: 638: 450: 391: 297: 3339: 3037: 2408: 3655: 3552: 2428: 2270: 1757: 1715:, table bases, desks, gates, beds, candle holders, curtain rods, bars, and bar stools. 1693: 985: 824: 379: 301: 105: 1223:, or finers metal. That would be done in a refinery where raw coal was used to remove 3669: 3472: 3453: 3394: 3190: 3162: 3130: 3100: 2795: 2700: 2510: 2478: 2451: 2420: 2317: 2277: 2272:

The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: an economic history of eighteenth century Russia

2228: 2198: 2171: 2101: 2094: 2059: 1962: 1896: 1829: 1685: 1287: 1163: 652: 619: 340: 2432: 3754: 3733: 3041: 2656:

Hayman, R. (2004). "The Cranage brothers and eighteenth-century forge technology".

2412: 1990: 1849: 1341: 1317: 1200:

A number of processes for making wrought iron without charcoal were devised as the

1171: 1061: 1052: 976:

The bloomery and osmond processes were gradually replaced from the 15th century by

625: 519: 461: 422: 387: 367: 219: 214: 44: 3961: 3714: 3618: 3388: 3357: 3310: 3285: 3261: 3236: 2940: 2915: 2890: 2865: 2789: 2742: 2560: 2504: 2472: 2416: 2222: 2192: 2165: 2148: 2122: 1956: 1700: 1388: 1142: 1126: 1012: 901: 644: 406: 383: 209: 1360:, Great Britain, which closed in 1973. Its 1860s-era equipment was moved to the 3865: 3847: 3723: 3719: 3665: 1395: 1078: 961: 873: 674: 430: 260: 204: 184: 134: 96: 2637:

Morton, G.R.; Mutton, N. (1967). "The Transition to Cort's Puddling Process".

622:. The resulting metal was highly variable, both in chemistry and slag content. 4079: 4048: 3809: 3598: 3241:(Revised and Enlarged ed.). London: E. & F.N. Spon. pp. 136–137 3182: 2144: 1828:(Second ed.). London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. 1735: 1727: 1726:

Wrought iron has been used for decades as a generic term across the gate and

1313: 1175: 1167: 1102: 938: 761:

Also spelled "tuf", is not brittle and is strong enough to be used for tools.

562: 531: 486: 313: 3505: 2167:

Engineering materials science: properties, uses, degradation and remediation

1352:

the last plant closed in 1969. The last in the world was the Atlas Forge of

55: 3923: 3918: 3684: 3645: 2424: 1681: 1415: 1326: 1267: 1220: 1110: 1096: 977: 934: 914: 877: 847: 615: 554: 515: 496:, unlike wrought iron, is brittle and cannot be worked either hot or cold. 255: 194: 189: 3362:. Vol. 2: Steam Power. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. 581:—sheets, perhaps thinner than plate iron, from the black rolling stage of 35: 3966: 3870: 3727: 3693: 1138: 1083: 1024: 954: 745: 324: 199: 143: 2064:

Dictionary by Merriam Webster: America's most trusted on-line dictionary

3855: 3698: 3608: 3134: 2565:

The travels through England ... during 1750, 1751, and later years

2253:

Childs, W. R. (1981). "England's Iron trade in the Fifteenth Century".

1731: 1614: 1301: 1209: 1159: 1066: 966: 865: 843: 741: 578: 482: 469: 457: 446: 426: 414: 398: 375: 250: 224: 158: 120: 3045: 1394:

Wrought iron lacks the carbon content necessary for hardening through

3976: 3890: 3661: 3613: 3570: 3266:(2nd ed.). Philadelphia: P. Blakiston, Son & Co. p. 396 2835: 2395:

Goodway, Martha (May 1987). "Phosphorus in antique iron music wire".

1776:

Some but not all of these items are mentioned in Gordon, R. B. (1996)

1752: 1704: 1630: 1626: 1399: 1297: 1231: 1174:. Another important one was that of John Wright and Joseph Jesson of 1048: 946: 881: 715: 507: 493: 438: 309: 290: 245: 240: 115: 110: 2892:

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction

2037:. No. November/December 1993. NOMMA. p. 38. Archived from 1380:

The microstructure of wrought iron, showing dark slag inclusions in

667: 3860: 3602: 3588: 3580: 1720: 1708: 1606: 1254: 1192: 1114: 1044: 1004: 997: 950: 909: 897: 885: 801: 768: 696: 678: 648: 611: 607: 582: 511: 503: 442: 148: 125: 3065:

Chilton & Evens, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1955

711: 685: 2620:

A. den Ouden, 'The production of wrought iron in Finery Hearths'

2367:"Effect of Phosphorus on the Properties of Carbon Steels: Part 1" 1712: 1622: 1224: 1106: 1036: 970: 926: 734: 723: 700: 523: 489: 371: 355: 317: 305: 153: 3019:"The Production, Microstructure, and Properties of Wrought Iron" 787:

and marked with the maker's brand mark as a sign of its quality.

3494: 3161:(26th ed.). New York: Industrial Press, Inc. p. 476. 1618: 1610: 1357: 1032: 1008: 869: 738: 692: 656: 589: 572: 402: 359: 346:

Historically, a modest amount of wrought iron was refined into

286: 1738:

to prevent corrosion, which cannot be done with wrought iron.

3540: 3359:

A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930

2758:

Tylecote, R. F. (1991). "Iron in the Industrial Revolution".

1337: 1118: 1056: 1028: 905: 889: 730: 719: 704: 434: 351: 347: 293:(2.1% to 4.5%). It is a semi-fused mass of iron with fibrous 282: 2895:(1st ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 105 2311: 647:—a particularly pure grade of bar iron made ultimately from 3536: 3290:. Vol. 1. American Technical Society. 1916. p. 14 2549:. Leiden NL and Boston Mass.: Brill. pp. 251–255, 347. 2224:

Baltic Iron in the Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century

1605:

Amongst its other properties, wrought iron becomes soft at

1131: 538: 465: 410: 294: 279: 3086:"Delhi iron pillar and its relevance to modern technology" 2547:

Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology

2096:

A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925

1680:

Wrought iron furniture has a long history, dating back to

880:

at least by the 2nd century BC, the earliest specimens of

666:

Danks iron—originally iron imported to Great Britain from

2582:(manuscript at Cardiff Central Library). pp. iv, 76. 831: 659:. Its most important use was as the raw material for the 363: 3471:. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. 3315:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 318–319 3129:(52nd ed.). London: Morgan Brothers. p. 1278. 2945:(2nd ed.). New York: E. & F.N. Spon. p. 29 2794:. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Steel Company. pp. 173–174. 2532:

The Craft of a Chinese Commentator: Wang Bi on the Laozi

1961:. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1850:"Wrought Iron – Properties, Applications" 1340:

began to replace iron for railroad rails as soon as the

876:. The ancient Chinese created wrought iron by using the 3189:. MotorBooks / MBI Publishing Company. pp. 53–54. 2788:

Camp, James McIntyre; Francis, Charles Blaine (1920).

1047:

in England until about 1770; it was still in use with

1007:

and iron ore and then lit. Air was blown in through a

1109:

where it was improved. From there, it spread via the

2747:. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird. pp. 267, 287, 344. 2744:

The Manufacture of Iron, in All Its Various Branches

1684:

times. There are 13th century wrought iron gates in

3077: 2632: 2630: 1212:in 1784. It was later improved by others including 729:Sable iron (or Old Sable)—iron bearing the mark (a 374:use. However, as properties such as brittleness of 2819:. Newton Abbot: David and Charles. pp. 79–88. 2725:The Iron and Steel Industry: a Dictionary of Terms 2269: 2093: 1621:, but it cannot be magnetized permanently, and is 1166:, patented in 1763. Another was developed for the 2314:Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers 2153:(5th ed.). Houlston & Wright. p. 6. 1699:It is also used to make home decor items such as 506:process produced wrought iron directly from ore, 289:content (less than 0.05%) in contrast to that of 4046: 3156: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 2627: 2316:(8th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 6–18, 17. 2163: 3393:. Krishna Prakashan Media. 1991. p. 1645. 3260:Richter, Victor von; Smith, Edgar Fahs (1885). 3083: 2870:. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 21 2660:. No. 2 (28th ed.). pp. 113–120. 1883:. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019 565:provided the raw material for spikes and nails. 323:Before the development of effective methods of 3309:Timbie, William Henry; Bush, Vannevar (1922). 1819: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1158:. The earliest were developed by John Wood of 1035:as Catalan Forges to the mid 19th century, in 3535: 3521: 3336:"A history of the growth of the steam engine" 3141: 2853:. No. 1 (21st ed.). pp. 44–45. 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2597:. No. 1 (32nd ed.). pp. 33–40. 2498: 2496: 2494: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2194:Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys 2100:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1065:bloomeries used in production of traditional 610:process. Wrought iron was also produced from 401:, were produced from wrought iron, including 3452:. Edison, NJ: Castle Books. pp. 28–45. 3278: 3259: 2907: 2863: 2751: 2636: 2624:15(2) (1981), 63–87 and 16(1) (1982), 29–32. 2506:The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World 2216: 2214: 2184: 2157: 2137: 2127:Journal of the Cleveland Engineering Society 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1162:and his brother Charles Wood of Low Mill at 984:, with certain variants such as the Swedish 557:, but not necessarily made by that process: 3253: 2857: 2787: 2718: 2716: 2559: 2123:"Puddle Cinder as a Blast Furnace Iron Ore" 2087: 2085: 2083: 2081: 1874: 1802: 1345:replaced iron for structural applications. 767:Made using a mixture of different types of 397:Many items, before they came to be made of 3528: 3514: 3308: 3302: 3016: 2971: 2969: 2920:. London: Houlston and Wright. p. 328 2677: 2491: 2390: 2388: 2351:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2305: 2241: 2220: 2114: 2031:"Clearing the Confusion Over Wrought Iron" 695:, but it seems to have been imported from 3372: 3351: 3349: 3012: 3010: 3008: 2932: 2882: 2848: 2791:The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel 2312:Baumeister; Avallone; Baumeister (1978). 2211: 2164:McArthur, Hugh; Spalding, Duncan (2004). 2005: 1939: 1414:iron is compared to that of pig iron and 707:valley. Its origins remain controversial. 27:Iron alloy with a very low carbon content 3422:"Finding Out About Wrought Iron Fencing" 3333: 3228: 2913: 2864:Husband, Joseph; Harby, William (1911). 2757: 2713: 2580:The Chemical and Mineral History of Iron 2567:. Camden Soc. n.s. 42, 1888. p. 13. 2190: 2143: 2078: 1823: 1375: 1191: 925: 514:were the starting materials used in the 485:. It was used in that narrower sense in 3124: 3084:Balasubramaniam, R. (25 January 2003). 2966: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2740: 2639:Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 2592: 2470: 2394: 2385: 1983:"Wrought Iron: A Patio Furniture dream" 1196:Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace 1149: 553:The bars were the usual product of the 14: 4047: 3466: 3447: 3355: 3346: 3211:"Solids and Metals – Specific Gravity" 3005: 2694: 2655: 2529: 2502: 2341:(2009 Deluxe ed.). Chicago. 2009. 2296: 2252: 2120: 1954: 681:ore enabled tough iron to be produced. 571:Plate iron—sheets suitable for use as 3509: 3181: 2938: 2888: 2829: 2736: 2734: 2577: 2544: 2267: 1281: 561:Rod iron—cut from flat bar iron in a 3312:Principles of Electrical Engineering 3234: 2814: 2766: 2722: 2445: 2091: 1575:Modulus of elasticity (in tension) 1530:Table 2: Properties of wrought iron 394:, the use of wrought iron declined. 304:. Wrought iron is tough, malleable, 3175: 2817:The British Iron and Steel Industry 2760:The Industrial Revolution in Metals 2170:. Horwood Publishing. p. 338. 1617:. It can be used to form temporary 1181: 991: 703:later, suggesting an origin in the 544: 350:, which was used mainly to produce 24: 3440: 3263:A Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry 2731: 2727:. Newton Abbot: David and Charles. 2674:(The Metals Society, London 1983). 2197:. ASM International. p. 154. 2150:The useful metals and their alloys 2028: 957:had begun to be employed by 1104. 904:from the molten cast iron through 673:Forest iron—iron from the English 25: 4101: 3487: 3287:Cyclopedia of Applied Electricity 3017:Walker VII, Robert (April 2002). 2942:Handbook for Mechanical Engineers 2474:Science and Civilisation in China 1090: 1072: 710:Botolf iron or Boutall iron—from 445:, wagon tires, straps for timber 3683: 3493: 3055:from the original on 2007-09-24. 1748:Bronze and brass ornamental work 1307: 1141:for use in the blast furnace by 921: 384:steel became less costly to make 87: 73:Various examples of wrought iron 63: 54: 43: 34: 3414: 3381: 3366: 3327: 3203: 3118: 3068: 3059: 2957: 2842: 2823: 2808: 2664: 2649: 2614: 2601: 2586: 2571: 2553: 2538: 2523: 2509:. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. 2464: 2439: 2359: 2330: 2290: 2276:. University of Chicago Press. 2261: 1875:Alex Walter (31 October 2018). 1779: 1675: 1551:Ultimate compression strength 2762:. London: Institute of Metals. 2052: 1975: 1909: 1868: 1842: 1770: 1528: 1519:All units are percent weight. 1420: 1296:observed charcoal fineries at 744:, one of the better brands of 684:Lukes iron—iron imported from 475: 13: 1: 3553:History of ferrous metallurgy 3338:. p. 165. Archived from 3026:Journal of Chemical Education 2889:Byrne, Austin Thomas (1899). 2301:(9th ed.). pp. 2–8. 2221:Evans, C.; Rydén, G. (2007). 1795: 1371: 688:, whose Dutch name is "Luik". 3796:Argon oxygen decarburization 3127:Kempe's Engineer's Year-Book 3099:(2): 162–163. Archived from 2838:: Ashgate. pp. 121–124. 2670:R. A. Mott (ed. P. Singer), 2417:10.1126/science.236.4804.927 1856:. AZoNetwork. 13 August 2013 1636: 1598: 1593: 1585: 1577: 1569: 1561: 1553: 1545: 1312:In 1925, James Aston of the 1238: 888:fined into wrought iron and 7: 3957:Differential heat treatment 2977:"Dr. JP Chilton, 1929–2006" 2672:Henry Cort, The Great Finer 2503:Pigott, Vincent C. (1999). 2191:Campbell, Flake C. (2008). 2121:Imhoff, Wallace G. (1917). 1741: 1543:Ultimate tensile strength 453:, among many other things. 316:, but is more difficult to 10: 4106: 2741:Overman, Fredrick (1854). 2530:Wagner, Rudolf G. (2001). 1955:Gordon, Robert B. (1996). 1332: 1304:in the following decades. 1285: 1265: 1261: 1242: 1185: 1094: 1076: 995: 854: 791: 752: 233:Other iron-based materials 3994: 3932: 3909: 3881:Ferritic nitrocarburizing 3841: 3818: 3808: 3778: 3747: 3707: 3692: 3681: 3634: 3579: 3566: 3548: 3467:Gordon, Robert B (1996). 3424:. Lone Star. 8 April 2016 3356:Hunter, Louis C. (1985). 3334:Thurston, Robert (1878). 2699:. S. Chand. p. 223. 2563:. J.J. Cartwright (ed.). 1921:Iron Gates N Railings Ltd 1901:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 1666: 1590: 1559:Ultimate shear strength 1518: 1208:), which was invented by 1101:In the 15th century, the 600: 3972:Post weld heat treatment 3450:The Art of Blacksmithing 3448:Bealer, Alex W. (1995). 2448:A Short History of China 2227:. Boston, Mass.: Brill. 2092:Misa, Thomas J. (1995). 1763: 1570:23,000–32,000 (159–221) 1562:28,000–45,000 (193–310) 1554:34,000–54,000 (234–372) 1546:34,000–54,000 (234–372) 1387:The slag inclusions, or 1354:Thomas Walmsley and Sons 1105:spread into what is now 859: 699:in the 15th century and 169:Widmanstätten structures 3558:List of steel producers 3469:American Iron 1607–1900 3377:(Spring 2010 ed.). 3125:Pendred, Lough (1945). 2914:Scoffern, John (1861). 2815:Gale, W. K. V. (1967). 2723:Gale, W. K. V. (1971). 2339:Encyclopædia Britannica 2255:Economic History Review 1958:American Iron 1607–1900 1917:"What is wrought iron?" 1877:"What is wrought iron?" 1826:A History of Metallurgy 1824:Tylecote, R.F. (1992). 1785:From Misa, T.J. (1995): 1366:Ironbridge Gorge Museum 783:Made by members of the 4055:Architectural elements 3786:Electro-slag remelting 3235:Pole, William (1872). 2867:Structural Engineering 2695:Rajput, R. K. (2000). 2257:. 2nd. pp. 25–47. 1923:. 2017. Archived from 1730:industry, even though 1656: 1384: 1245:Shingling (metallurgy) 1197: 942: 785:Marked Bar Association 392:Siemens–Martin process 312:resistant, and easily 3996:Production by country 2939:Adams, Henry (1891). 2851:Historical Metallurgy 2697:Engineering Materials 2658:Historical Metallurgy 2622:Historical Metallurgy 2595:Historical Metallurgy 2450:. Pocket Essentials. 2446:Kerr, Gordon (2013). 1651: 1578:28,000,000 (193,100) 1379: 1206:reverberatory furnace 1202:Industrial Revolution 1195: 1188:Puddling (metallurgy) 929: 894:Warring States period 866:multi-tube seed drill 634:reverberatory furnace 427:water and steam pipes 378:improved with better 3982:Superplastic forming 3901:Quench polish quench 3791:Vacuum arc remelting 3770:Basic oxygen process 3765:Electric arc furnace 3502:at Wikimedia Commons 3390:Industrial Chemistry 3159:Machinery's Handbook 2299:West Midland Studies 1156:potting and stamping 1150:Potting and stamping 1137:The introduction of 1059:the last of the old 941:, published in 1637. 837:Iron Pillar of Delhi 815:iron, also known as 594:Atlantic slave trade 3937:Cryogenic treatment 3760:Open hearth furnace 3748:Primary (Post-1850) 3739:Cementation process 3626:Direct reduced iron 3215:Engineering Toolbox 3038:2002JChEd..79..443W 2993:on 1 September 2012 2409:1987Sci...236..927G 1531: 1423: 1253:Sometimes European 1113:on the boundary of 661:cementation process 639:open hearth furnace 451:ornamental ironwork 164:Tempered martensite 4065:Chinese inventions 4060:Building materials 3708:Primary (Pre-1850) 2578:Lewis, W. (1775). 2545:Lucas, A. (2006). 2268:Kahan, A. (1985). 1993:on 23 January 2010 1927:on 7 February 2023 1758:Semi-steel casting 1736:hot-dip galvanised 1609:and can be easily 1529: 1421: 1385: 1318:Bessemer converter 1282:Lancashire process 1198: 1043:to 1775, and near 986:Lancashire process 943: 380:ferrous metallurgy 4042: 4041: 3990: 3989: 3804: 3803: 3679: 3678: 3670:Induction furnace 3498:Media related to 3046:10.1021/ed079p443 2534:. pp. 80–83. 2403:(4804): 927–932. 2347:cite encyclopedia 2323:978-0-07-004123-3 2204:978-0-87170-867-0 2177:978-1-898563-11-2 2066:. Merriam-Webster 1686:Westminster Abbey 1603: 1602: 1591:Specific gravity 1527: 1526: 1288:Lancashire hearth 1055:in the 1880s. In 620:Lancashire hearth 423:railway couplings 368:ironclad warships 273: 272: 16:(Redirected from 4097: 3816: 3815: 3755:Bessemer process 3705: 3704: 3687: 3577: 3576: 3530: 3523: 3516: 3507: 3506: 3497: 3482: 3463: 3434: 3433: 3431: 3429: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3409: 3407: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3353: 3344: 3343: 3342:on 29 June 1997. 3331: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3282: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3232: 3226: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3154: 3139: 3138: 3122: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3105: 3090: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3063: 3057: 3056: 3054: 3023: 3014: 3003: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2992: 2981: 2973: 2964: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2952: 2950: 2936: 2930: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2911: 2905: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2861: 2855: 2854: 2846: 2840: 2839: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2785: 2764: 2763: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2738: 2729: 2728: 2720: 2711: 2710: 2692: 2675: 2668: 2662: 2661: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2634: 2625: 2618: 2612: 2607:H. R. Schubert, 2605: 2599: 2598: 2590: 2584: 2583: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2500: 2489: 2488: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2392: 2383: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2350: 2342: 2337:"wrought iron". 2334: 2328: 2327: 2309: 2303: 2302: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2275: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2250: 2239: 2238: 2218: 2209: 2208: 2188: 2182: 2181: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2099: 2089: 2076: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2056: 2050: 2049: 2047: 2046: 2026: 2003: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1989:. Archived from 1979: 1973: 1972: 1952: 1937: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1913: 1907: 1906: 1900: 1892: 1890: 1888: 1872: 1866: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1846: 1840: 1839: 1821: 1789: 1783: 1777: 1774: 1532: 1424: 1362:Blists Hill site 1342:Bessemer process 1182:Puddling process 1172:Cranage brothers 1117:and then to the 992:Bloomery process 969:, Sweden and in 799:Wrought iron is 630:puddling process 545:Types and shapes 520:puddling furnace 462:garden furniture 388:Bessemer process 285:with a very low 220:Weathering steel 215:High-speed steel 91: 79: 78: 67: 58: 47: 38: 21: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4095: 4094: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4038: 3986: 3962:Decarburization 3928: 3905: 3846: 3837: 3800: 3774: 3743: 3715:Pattern welding 3696: 3688: 3675: 3630: 3619:Anthracite iron 3568: 3567:Iron production 3562: 3544: 3534: 3490: 3485: 3479: 3460: 3443: 3441:Further reading 3438: 3437: 3427: 3425: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3371: 3367: 3354: 3347: 3332: 3328: 3318: 3316: 3307: 3303: 3293: 3291: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3269: 3267: 3258: 3254: 3244: 3242: 3233: 3229: 3219: 3217: 3209: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3187:Engineer to Win 3180: 3176: 3169: 3155: 3142: 3123: 3119: 3109: 3107: 3106:on 4 March 2009 3103: 3093:Current Science 3088: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3052: 3021: 3015: 3006: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2979: 2975: 2974: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2948: 2946: 2937: 2933: 2923: 2921: 2912: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2871: 2862: 2858: 2847: 2843: 2828: 2824: 2813: 2809: 2802: 2786: 2767: 2756: 2752: 2739: 2732: 2721: 2714: 2707: 2693: 2678: 2669: 2665: 2654: 2650: 2635: 2628: 2619: 2615: 2606: 2602: 2591: 2587: 2576: 2572: 2561:Richard Pococke 2558: 2554: 2543: 2539: 2528: 2524: 2517: 2501: 2492: 2485: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2444: 2440: 2393: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2365: 2364: 2360: 2344: 2343: 2336: 2335: 2331: 2324: 2310: 2306: 2295: 2291: 2284: 2266: 2262: 2251: 2242: 2235: 2219: 2212: 2205: 2189: 2185: 2178: 2162: 2158: 2142: 2138: 2119: 2115: 2108: 2090: 2079: 2069: 2067: 2058: 2057: 2053: 2044: 2042: 2027: 2006: 1996: 1994: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1969: 1953: 1940: 1930: 1928: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1894: 1893: 1886: 1884: 1881:Mechanical Site 1873: 1869: 1859: 1857: 1848: 1847: 1843: 1836: 1822: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1792: 1784: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1766: 1744: 1678: 1669: 1639: 1583:Melting point 1520: 1374: 1335: 1310: 1290: 1284: 1270: 1264: 1247: 1241: 1190: 1184: 1170:Company by the 1152: 1127:Walloon process 1099: 1093: 1081: 1075: 1013:carbon monoxide 1000: 994: 924: 902:removing carbon 874:cupola furnaces 862: 857: 794: 780:Marked bar iron 755: 663:of steelmaking. 645:Oregrounds iron 603: 547: 478: 210:Stainless steel 135:Microstructures 77: 76: 75: 74: 70: 69: 68: 60: 59: 50: 49: 48: 40: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4103: 4093: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4072: 4070:Ferrous alloys 4067: 4062: 4057: 4040: 4039: 4037: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3948: 3943: 3933: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3921: 3915: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3866:Carbonitriding 3863: 3858: 3852: 3850: 3848:Case-hardening 3839: 3838: 3836: 3835: 3830: 3824: 3822: 3813: 3810:Heat treatment 3806: 3805: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3773: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3734:Tatara furnace 3731: 3724:Damascus steel 3720:Crucible steel 3717: 3711: 3709: 3702: 3690: 3689: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3666:Cupola furnace 3659: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3631: 3629: 3628: 3623: 3622: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3596: 3585: 3583: 3574: 3564: 3563: 3561: 3560: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3545: 3533: 3532: 3525: 3518: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3489: 3488:External links 3486: 3484: 3483: 3477: 3464: 3458: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3435: 3413: 3399: 3380: 3365: 3345: 3326: 3301: 3277: 3252: 3227: 3202: 3195: 3183:Smith, Carroll 3174: 3167: 3140: 3117: 3076: 3067: 3058: 3032:(4): 443–447. 3004: 2965: 2956: 2931: 2906: 2881: 2856: 2841: 2822: 2807: 2800: 2765: 2750: 2730: 2712: 2705: 2676: 2663: 2648: 2626: 2613: 2600: 2585: 2570: 2552: 2537: 2522: 2515: 2490: 2483: 2463: 2457:978-1842439692 2456: 2438: 2384: 2373:. October 2007 2358: 2329: 2322: 2304: 2289: 2282: 2260: 2240: 2233: 2210: 2203: 2183: 2176: 2156: 2145:Scoffern, John 2136: 2133:(621.76): 332. 2113: 2106: 2077: 2051: 2029:Daniel, Todd. 2004: 1974: 1967: 1938: 1908: 1867: 1841: 1835:978-0901462886 1834: 1800: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1778: 1768: 1767: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1743: 1740: 1677: 1674: 1668: 1665: 1638: 1635: 1601: 1600: 1596: 1595: 1592: 1588: 1587: 1586:2,800 (1,540) 1584: 1580: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1563: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1525: 1524: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1493: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1470: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1396:heat treatment 1373: 1370: 1334: 1331: 1309: 1306: 1286:Main article: 1283: 1280: 1266:Main article: 1263: 1260: 1243:Main article: 1240: 1237: 1186:Main article: 1183: 1180: 1151: 1148: 1095:Main article: 1092: 1091:Finery process 1089: 1079:Osmond process 1077:Main article: 1074: 1073:Osmond process 1071: 996:Main article: 993: 990: 962:osmond process 932:Tiangong Kaiwu 923: 920: 861: 858: 856: 853: 793: 790: 789: 788: 781: 778: 775: 772: 765: 762: 759: 754: 751: 750: 749: 727: 708: 689: 682: 675:Forest of Dean 671: 664: 642: 623: 602: 599: 598: 597: 586: 576: 569: 566: 546: 543: 477: 474: 386:thanks to the 320:electrically. 271: 270: 269: 268: 263: 261:Malleable iron 258: 253: 248: 243: 235: 234: 230: 229: 228: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 205:Maraging steel 202: 197: 192: 187: 185:Crucible steel 179: 178: 174: 173: 172: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 138: 137: 131: 130: 129: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 100: 99: 93: 92: 84: 83: 72: 71: 62: 61: 53: 52: 51: 42: 41: 33: 32: 31: 30: 29: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4102: 4091: 4088: 4086: 4083: 4081: 4078: 4076: 4073: 4071: 4068: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4058: 4056: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4035: 4034:United States 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4001: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3938: 3935: 3934: 3931: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3896:Precipitation 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3853: 3851: 3849: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3833:Short circuit 3831: 3829: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3814: 3811: 3807: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3732: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3706: 3703: 3700: 3695: 3691: 3686: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3660: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3650:Reverberatory 3647: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3627: 3624: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3606: 3604: 3600: 3599:Blast furnace 3597: 3594: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3575: 3572: 3565: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3531: 3526: 3524: 3519: 3517: 3512: 3511: 3508: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3491: 3480: 3478:0-8018-6816-5 3474: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3459:0-7858-0395-5 3455: 3451: 3446: 3445: 3423: 3417: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3391: 3384: 3376: 3369: 3361: 3360: 3352: 3350: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3314: 3313: 3305: 3289: 3288: 3281: 3265: 3264: 3256: 3240: 3239: 3231: 3216: 3212: 3206: 3198: 3196:0-87938-186-8 3192: 3188: 3184: 3178: 3170: 3168:0-8311-2666-3 3164: 3160: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3080: 3071: 3062: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2989: 2985: 2984:Material Eyes 2978: 2972: 2970: 2960: 2944: 2943: 2935: 2919: 2918: 2910: 2894: 2893: 2885: 2869: 2868: 2860: 2852: 2845: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2818: 2811: 2803: 2801:1-147-64423-3 2797: 2793: 2792: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2761: 2754: 2746: 2745: 2737: 2735: 2726: 2719: 2717: 2708: 2706:81-219-1960-6 2702: 2698: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2673: 2667: 2659: 2652: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2631: 2623: 2617: 2610: 2604: 2596: 2589: 2581: 2574: 2566: 2562: 2556: 2548: 2541: 2533: 2526: 2518: 2516:9780924171345 2512: 2508: 2507: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2486: 2484:9780521210287 2480: 2476: 2475: 2467: 2459: 2453: 2449: 2442: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2391: 2389: 2372: 2371:Total Materia 2368: 2362: 2354: 2348: 2340: 2333: 2325: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2300: 2293: 2285: 2283:9780226422534 2279: 2274: 2273: 2264: 2256: 2249: 2247: 2245: 2236: 2234:9789004161535 2230: 2226: 2225: 2217: 2215: 2206: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2187: 2179: 2173: 2169: 2168: 2160: 2152: 2151: 2146: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2117: 2109: 2107:9780801849671 2103: 2098: 2097: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2065: 2061: 2055: 2041:on 2020-11-24 2040: 2036: 2032: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1978: 1970: 1968:0-8018-6816-5 1964: 1960: 1959: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1943: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1904: 1898: 1882: 1878: 1871: 1855: 1851: 1845: 1837: 1831: 1827: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1788: 1782: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1745: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1722: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1701:baker's racks 1697: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1673: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1650: 1647: 1643: 1634: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1597: 1589: 1582: 1581: 1574: 1573: 1567:Yield point 1566: 1565: 1558: 1557: 1550: 1549: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1533: 1523: 1517: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1425: 1419: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1392: 1390: 1383: 1378: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1315: 1314:United States 1308:Aston process 1305: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1289: 1279: 1276: 1269: 1259: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1236: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1194: 1189: 1179: 1177: 1176:West Bromwich 1173: 1169: 1168:Coalbrookdale 1165: 1161: 1157: 1147: 1144: 1143:Abraham Darby 1140: 1135: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1103:blast furnace 1098: 1088: 1085: 1080: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1031:and southern 1030: 1026: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1006: 999: 989: 987: 983: 979: 974: 972: 968: 963: 958: 956: 952: 948: 940: 939:Song Yingxing 936: 933: 928: 922:Western world 919: 917: 916: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 852: 849: 845: 840: 838: 833: 832:calcium oxide 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 808: 804: 803: 797: 786: 782: 779: 776: 773: 770: 766: 763: 760: 757: 756: 747: 743: 740: 736: 732: 728: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 687: 683: 680: 676: 672: 669: 665: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 643: 640: 635: 631: 627: 624: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 604: 595: 591: 587: 584: 580: 577: 574: 570: 567: 564: 563:slitting mill 560: 559: 558: 556: 551: 542: 540: 535: 533: 532:heat treating 527: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 500: 497: 495: 491: 488: 484: 473: 471: 467: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 395: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 344: 342: 336: 334: 330: 326: 321: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 296: 292: 288: 284: 281: 277: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 238: 237: 236: 232: 231: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 182: 181: 180: 176: 175: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 141: 140: 139: 136: 133: 132: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 103: 102: 101: 98: 95: 94: 90: 86: 85: 81: 80: 66: 57: 46: 37: 19: 4090:Metalworking 3924:Martempering 3919:Austempering 3828:Low hydrogen 3646:Finery forge 3642:Wrought iron 3641: 3500:Wrought iron 3468: 3449: 3426:. Retrieved 3416: 3404:. Retrieved 3389: 3383: 3374: 3368: 3358: 3340:the original 3329: 3317:. Retrieved 3311: 3304: 3292:. Retrieved 3286: 3280: 3268:. Retrieved 3262: 3255: 3243:. Retrieved 3237: 3230: 3218:. Retrieved 3214: 3205: 3186: 3177: 3158: 3126: 3120: 3108:. Retrieved 3101:the original 3096: 3092: 3079: 3070: 3061: 3029: 3025: 2995:. Retrieved 2988:the original 2983: 2959: 2947:. Retrieved 2941: 2934: 2922:. Retrieved 2916: 2909: 2897:. Retrieved 2891: 2884: 2872:. Retrieved 2866: 2859: 2850: 2844: 2831: 2825: 2816: 2810: 2790: 2759: 2753: 2743: 2724: 2696: 2671: 2666: 2657: 2651: 2642: 2638: 2621: 2616: 2608: 2603: 2594: 2588: 2579: 2573: 2564: 2555: 2546: 2540: 2531: 2525: 2505: 2473: 2466: 2447: 2441: 2400: 2396: 2375:. Retrieved 2370: 2361: 2338: 2332: 2313: 2307: 2298: 2292: 2271: 2263: 2254: 2223: 2193: 2186: 2166: 2159: 2149: 2139: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2095: 2068:. Retrieved 2063: 2054: 2043:. Retrieved 2039:the original 2034: 1997:29 September 1995:. Retrieved 1991:the original 1987:cnet reviews 1986: 1977: 1957: 1929:. Retrieved 1925:the original 1920: 1911: 1885:. Retrieved 1880: 1870: 1858:. Retrieved 1853: 1844: 1825: 1786: 1781: 1772: 1725: 1717: 1698: 1679: 1676:Applications 1670: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1615:forge welded 1604: 1521: 1496:Wrought iron 1473:Carbon steel 1416:carbon steel 1408: 1404: 1393: 1386: 1350: 1347: 1336: 1311: 1294:Gustaf Ekman 1291: 1271: 1268:Rolling mill 1252: 1248: 1229: 1221:refined iron 1218: 1199: 1153: 1136: 1124: 1111:Pays de Bray 1100: 1097:Finery forge 1082: 1060: 1040: 1022: 1018: 1001: 975: 959: 944: 935:encyclopedia 931: 915:Taiping Jing 913: 878:finery forge 863: 841: 829: 820: 816: 812: 811: 806: 800: 798: 795: 746:Russian iron 626:Puddled iron 616:finery forge 555:finery forge 552: 548: 536: 528: 516:finery forge 501: 498: 479: 455: 447:roof trusses 396: 345: 337: 328: 322: 314:forge welded 276:Wrought iron 275: 274: 266:Wrought iron 265: 256:Ductile iron 195:Spring steel 190:Carbon steel 4085:Ironmongery 4075:Han dynasty 3967:Forming gas 3871:Carburizing 3728:Wootz steel 3694:Steelmaking 3593:sponge iron 3375:Transmitted 3319:21 February 3294:21 February 3270:21 February 3245:20 February 3220:20 February 3110:29 November 2997:29 November 2949:20 February 2924:20 February 2899:22 February 2874:22 February 2070:27 November 1690:William III 1214:Joseph Hall 1084:Osmond iron 1025:Middle Ages 1023:During the 955:water power 953:, although 870:iron plough 742:ironmasters 585:production. 476:Terminology 458:guard rails 325:steelmaking 200:Alloy steel 144:Spheroidite 4049:Categories 4024:Luxembourg 4004:Bangladesh 3946:Deflashing 3856:Ausforming 3699:Steel mill 3609:Cold blast 3601:(produces 3591:(produces 3543:production 3400:8187224991 3135:B0033RUEVW 2611:, 299–304. 2377:27 October 2045:2019-10-27 2035:Fabricator 1931:27 October 1887:27 October 1860:27 October 1796:References 1732:mild steel 1705:wine racks 1654:explosion. 1491:0.005–0.5 1442:Phosphorus 1411:inclusions 1372:Properties 1302:Bergslagen 1210:Henry Cort 1160:Wednesbury 1067:tamahagane 967:Lapphyttan 951:bloomeries 844:music wire 813:Cold short 764:Blend iron 758:Tough iron 737:family of 579:Blackplate 502:While the 483:blacksmith 470:blacksmith 439:horseshoes 399:mild steel 376:mild steel 333:mild steel 298:inclusions 251:White iron 225:Tool steel 159:Ledeburite 121:Martensite 3977:Quenching 3951:Hardening 3941:Deburring 3911:Tempering 3891:Nitriding 3886:Induction 3876:Cryogenic 3843:Hardening 3820:Annealing 3779:Secondary 3662:Cast iron 3635:Secondary 3614:Hot blast 3571:Ironworks 2836:Aldershot 2060:"Wrought" 1753:Cast iron 1709:pot racks 1637:Ductility 1627:malleable 1514:0.02–0.2 1502:0.05–0.25 1488:0.002–0.1 1485:0.02–0.06 1476:98.1–99.5 1468:0.25–3.5 1462:0.018–0.1 1436:Manganese 1400:cold iron 1389:stringers 1298:Ulverston 1275:faggoting 1255:ironworks 1239:Shingling 1232:haematite 1049:hot blast 1041:stuckofen 947:cast iron 906:oxidation 817:coldshear 807:hot short 774:Best iron 733:) of the 716:Pomerania 679:haematite 653:Dannemora 651:from the 524:foundries 508:cast iron 494:Cast iron 443:handrails 310:corrosion 291:cast iron 246:Gray iron 241:Cast iron 116:Cementite 111:Austenite 3861:Boriding 3653:Puddling 3603:pig iron 3589:Bloomery 3581:Smelting 3185:(1984). 3050:Archived 2433:45929352 2425:17812747 2147:(1869). 1897:cite web 1854:Azom.com 1742:See also 1721:silicate 1713:etageres 1607:red heat 1599:7.5–7.8 1594:7.6–7.9 1535:Property 1511:0.05–0.2 1508:0.02–0.1 1505:0.01–0.1 1479:0.07–1.3 1465:0.03–0.1 1450:Pig iron 1445:Silicon 1427:Material 1323:shingled 1164:Egremont 1115:Normandy 1053:New York 1045:Garstang 1005:charcoal 998:Bloomery 982:puddling 910:Shandong 898:bloomery 886:pig iron 842:Antique 821:colshire 802:redshort 769:pig iron 722:(Polish 714:(Polish 697:Flanders 677:, where 655:mine in 649:iron ore 618:or in a 614:using a 612:pig iron 608:bloomery 592:for the 583:tinplate 512:pig iron 504:bloomery 390:and the 149:Pearlite 126:Graphite 18:Bar iron 4029:Nigeria 3812:methods 3656:Furnace 3428:12 July 3406:22 July 3034:Bibcode 2405:Bibcode 2397:Science 1728:fencing 1694:Mary II 1623:ductile 1619:magnets 1522:Source: 1499:99–99.8 1482:0.3–1.0 1459:0.5–2.5 1456:3.5–4.5 1382:ferrite 1333:Decline 1262:Rolling 1225:silicon 1107:Belgium 1039:as the 1037:Austria 971:Germany 855:History 792:Defects 753:Quality 739:Russian 735:Demidov 724:Silesia 701:Holland 490:Customs 487:British 382:and as 372:railway 360:chisels 356:cutlery 329:wrought 306:ductile 302:failure 177:Classes 154:Bainite 106:Ferrite 3475: 3456: 3397: 3193: 3165: 3133: 2798: 2703: 2513: 2481: 2454: 2431: 2423: 2320: 2280: 2231: 2201: 2174: 2104: 1965: 1832: 1667:Purity 1629:, and 1611:forged 1538:Value 1439:Sulfur 1433:Carbon 1358:Bolton 1327:rolled 1062:tatara 1033:France 1009:tuyere 978:finery 693:Amiens 668:Gdańsk 657:Sweden 601:Origin 590:Africa 575:plate. 573:boiler 464:, and 449:, and 415:chains 403:rivets 352:swords 287:carbon 278:is an 97:Phases 82:Steels 4019:Italy 4014:India 4009:China 3664:(via 3644:(via 3541:steel 3104:(PDF) 3089:(PDF) 3053:(PDF) 3022:(PDF) 2991:(PDF) 2980:(PDF) 2429:S2CID 1764:Notes 1682:Roman 1631:tough 1453:91–94 1338:Steel 1119:Weald 1057:Japan 1029:Spain 890:steel 860:China 848:drawn 825:nails 731:sable 720:Bytom 718:) or 712:Bytów 705:Rhine 686:Liège 628:—the 466:gates 435:bolts 419:rails 407:nails 348:steel 283:alloy 4080:Iron 3648:or 3539:and 3537:Iron 3473:ISBN 3454:ISBN 3430:2019 3408:2019 3395:ISBN 3321:2008 3296:2008 3272:2008 3247:2008 3222:2008 3191:ISBN 3163:ISBN 3131:ASIN 3112:2008 2999:2008 2951:2008 2926:2008 2901:2008 2876:2008 2796:ISBN 2701:ISBN 2511:ISBN 2479:ISBN 2452:ISBN 2421:PMID 2379:2019 2353:link 2318:ISBN 2278:ISBN 2229:ISBN 2199:ISBN 2172:ISBN 2102:ISBN 2072:2020 1999:2009 1963:ISBN 1933:2019 1903:link 1889:2019 1862:2019 1830:ISBN 1692:and 1613:and 1430:Iron 1325:and 1139:coke 1132:coal 884:and 882:cast 868:and 518:and 431:nuts 411:wire 370:and 364:axes 341:flux 318:weld 295:slag 280:iron 3668:or 3042:doi 2643:205 2413:doi 2401:236 1364:of 1356:in 1051:in 937:by 805:or 539:wt% 510:or 4051:: 3845:/ 3726:, 3605:) 3348:^ 3213:. 3143:^ 3097:84 3095:. 3091:. 3048:. 3040:. 3030:79 3028:. 3024:. 3007:^ 2982:. 2968:^ 2834:. 2768:^ 2733:^ 2715:^ 2679:^ 2641:. 2629:^ 2493:^ 2427:. 2419:. 2411:. 2399:. 2387:^ 2369:. 2349:}} 2345:{{ 2243:^ 2213:^ 2129:. 2125:. 2080:^ 2062:. 2033:. 2007:^ 1985:. 1941:^ 1919:. 1899:}} 1895:{{ 1879:. 1852:. 1804:^ 1723:. 1711:, 1707:, 1703:, 1633:. 1625:, 1178:. 973:. 918:. 827:. 819:, 726:). 541:. 534:. 460:, 441:, 437:, 433:, 429:, 425:, 421:, 417:, 413:, 409:, 405:, 362:, 358:, 354:, 308:, 3953:) 3939:( 3730:) 3722:( 3701:) 3697:( 3672:) 3658:) 3595:) 3573:) 3569:( 3529:e 3522:t 3515:v 3481:. 3462:. 3432:. 3410:. 3323:. 3298:. 3274:. 3249:. 3224:. 3199:. 3171:. 3137:. 3114:. 3044:: 3036:: 3001:. 2953:. 2928:. 2903:. 2878:. 2804:. 2709:. 2645:. 2519:. 2487:. 2460:. 2435:. 2415:: 2407:: 2381:. 2355:) 2326:. 2286:. 2237:. 2207:. 2180:. 2131:9 2110:. 2074:. 2048:. 2001:. 1971:. 1935:. 1905:) 1891:. 1864:. 1838:. 771:. 748:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index