Soil horizon - Knowledge

824:: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The H horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the O horizons, the H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods, or were once saturated but are now drained artificially. In many H horizons, the residues are predominantly mosses. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. H horizons may be overlain by O horizons that especially form after drainage. 998:

penetrate C horizons, which provide an important growing medium. Included as C layers are sediments, saprolite, non-indurated bedrock, and other geological materials that commonly slake within 24 hours when air-dry or drier chunks are placed in water, and that, when moist, can be dug with a spade. Some soils form in material that is already highly weathered, and if such material does not meet the requirements of A, E, or B horizons, it is designated C. Changes not considered pedogenic are those not related to overlying horizons. Layers having accumulations of silica, carbonates, or gypsum, even if indurated, may be included in C horizons, unless the layer is obviously affected by pedogenic processes; then it is a B horizon.

2284:). The presence or absence of one or more diagnostic horizons in a required depth is used for the definition of a taxonomic unit. In addition, most classification systems use some other soil characteristics for the definition of taxonomic units. The diagnostic horizons need to be thoroughly defined by a set of criteria. When allocating a soil (a pedon, a soil profile) to a taxonomic unit, one has to check every horizon of this soil and decide, whether or not the horizon fulfils the criteria of a diagnostic horizon. Based on the identified diagnostic horizons, one can proceed with the allocation of the soil to a taxonomic unit. In the following, the diagnostic horizons of two soil classification systems are listed. 830:: These are layers of organic material. Organic material is defined by having a certain minimum content of soil organic carbon. In the WRB, this is 20% (by weight). The O horizon is formed from organic residues that are not incorporated into the mineral soil. The residues may be partially altered by decomposition. Contrary to the H horizons, the O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods and not drained artificially. In many O horizons, the residues are leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens. Although these horizons form above the mineral soil surface, they may be buried by mineral soil and therefore be found at greater depth. 2018: 1969: 2091: 2087:

etc.). While this can add necessary depth to a field description, workers should bear in mind that excessive division of a soil profile into narrow sub-horizons should be avoided. Walking as little as ten metres in any direction and digging another hole can often reveal a very different profile in regards to the depth and thickness of each horizon. Over-precise description can be a waste of time. In the Australian system, as a rule of thumb, layers thinner than 5 cm (2 inches) or so are best described as pans or segregations within a horizon rather than as a distinct layer.

2268:: Rock breaks down, weathers and is mixed with other materials, or loose sediments are transformed by weathering. But the process is often far more complicated. For instance, a fully formed profile may have developed in an area only to be buried by wind- or water-deposited sediments which later formed into another soil profile. This sort of occurrence is most common in coastal areas, and descriptions are modified by numerical prefixes. Thus, a profile containing a buried sequence could be structured O, A1, A2, B2, 2A2, 2B21, 2B22, 2C with the buried profile commencing at 2A2. 1803: 4185: 3820: 4174: 4201: 1039:: These are either water layers in soils or water layers submerging soils. The water is present either permanently or cyclic within the time frame of 24 hours. Some organic soils float on water. In other cases, shallow water (i.e. water not deeper than 1 m) may cover the soil permanently, as in the case of shallow lakes, or cyclic, as in tidal flats. The occurrence of tidal water can be indicated by the letter W in brackets: (W). 109: 2996: 1890: 2624: 2828: 35: 1909:. These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons. In systems where (like in the Australian system) this designation is not employed, leached layers are classified firstly as an A or B according to other characteristics, and then appended with the designation "e" (see the section below on horizon suffixes). In soils that contain 178:: This layer normally has less organic matter than the A horizon, so its colour is mainly derived from iron oxides. Iron oxides and clay minerals accumulate as a result of weathering. In soil, where substances move down from the topsoil, this is the layer where they accumulate. The process of accumulation of clay minerals, iron, aluminum, and organic compounds, is referred to as 91:

underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following, the horizons and layers are listed more or less by their position from top to bottom within the soil profile. Not all of them are present in every soil.

900:, or both; by coarser texture; or by a combination of these properties. An E horizon is commonly near to the surface, below an O or A horizon, and above a B horizon. However, the symbol E may be used without regard to the position in the profile for any horizon that meets the requirements and that has resulted from soil genesis. 75:. Diagnostic horizons are usually indicated with names, e.g. the "cambic horizon" or the "spodic horizon". The WRB lists 40 diagnostic horizons. In addition to these diagnostic horizons, some other soil characteristics may be needed to define a soil type. Some soils do not have a clear development of horizons. 2048:

R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the

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underlying the soil. Granite, basalt, quartzite, and indurated limestone or sandstone are examples of bedrock that are designated R. Air-dry or drier chunks of an R layer, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours. The R layer is sufficiently coherent when moist to make hand digging with a

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and lack properties of H, O, A, E or B horizons. Most are mineral layers, but some siliceous and calcareous layers, such as shells, coral, and diatomaceous earth, are included. The material of C layers may be either like or unlike that from which the overlying solum presumably formed. Plant roots can

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If the characteristics of two or more master layers occur in the same depth range, but occupy distinct parts clearly separated from each other, the master symbols are combined with the slash (/), the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: Bt/E (interfingering of E material

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5. If in a B horizon the characteristics of the suffixes g, h, k, l, o, q, s, t, v, or y are strongly expressed, the suffix w is not used, even if its characteristics are present; if the characteristics of the mentioned suffixes are weakly expressed and the characteristics of the suffix w are present

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The identified horizons are indicated with symbols, which are mostly used in a hierarchical way. Master horizons (main horizons) are indicated by capital letters. Suffixes, in form of lowercase letters and figures, further differentiate the master horizons. There are many different systems of horizon

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Examples of layers that are not B horizons are: layers in which clay films either coat rock fragments or are found on finely stratified unconsolidated sediments, whether the films were formed in place or by illuviation; layers into which carbonates have been illuviated but that are not contiguous to

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covering many heavily vegetated areas, which contains no weathered mineral particles and is not part of the soil itself. O horizons may be divided into O1 and O2 categories, whereby O1 horizons contain undecomposed matter whose origin can be spotted on sight (for instance, fragments of leaves), and

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A horizon that combines the characteristics of two master horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If discrete, intermingled bodies of two master horizons occur together, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and

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D horizons are not universally distinguished, but in the Australian system refer to "any soil material below the solum that is unlike the solum in its general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be given reliable horizon designation… may be recognized by the contrast in pedologic organization

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Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter "O" (letters may differ depending on the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An

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surface whose physical, chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture. These may be described both in absolute terms (particle size distribution for texture, for instance)

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In addition to the main descriptors above, several modifiers exist to add necessary detail to each horizon. Firstly, each major horizon may be divided into sub-horizons by the addition of a numerical subscript, based on minor shifts in colour or texture with increasing depth (e.g., B21, B22, B23

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As with the A horizon, the B horizon may be divided into B1, B2, and B3 types under the Australian system. B1 is a transitional horizon of the opposite nature to an A3 – dominated by the properties of the B horizons below it, but containing some A-horizon characteristics. B2 horizons have a high

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The A horizon is the top layer of the mineral soil horizons, often referred to as 'topsoil'. This layer contains dark decomposed organic matter, which is called "humus". The technical definition of an A horizon may vary between the systems, but it is most commonly described in terms relative to

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L (Limnic) horizons or layers indicate mineral or organic material that has been deposited in water by precipitation or through the actions of aquatic organisms. Included are coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat), diatomaceous earth, and marl; and is usually found as a remnant of past bodies of

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is advanced, because the lost substances first have been formed or accumulated there. All or much of the original rock structure is obliterated. An E horizon is usually, but not necessarily, lighter in colour than an underlying B horizon. In some soils, the colour is that of the sand and silt

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A horizon that combines the characteristics of two horizons is indicated with both capital letters, the dominant one written first. Example: AB and BA. If distinct parts have properties of two kinds of horizons, the horizon symbols are combined using a slash (/). Example: A/B and B/A.

1874:. However, since biological activity extends far deeper into the soil, it cannot be used as a chief distinguishing feature of an A horizon. The A horizon may be further subdivided into A1 (dark, maximum biologic activity), A2 (paler), and A3 (transitional to the B horizon). 476:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn oxides predominantly inside soil aggregates, if present, and loss of these oxides on aggregate surfaces (A, B, C), or loss of Fe and/or Mn by lateral subsurface flow and pale colours in ≥ 50% of the exposed area (E); transport in reduced form . 1943:

of the subsoil to a degree that it can be distinguished from the other horizons. The weathering may be biologically mediated. In addition, the B horizon is defined as having a distinctly different structure or consistency than the horizon(s) above and the horizon(s) below.

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consist of organotechnic material: Have ≥ 35% (by volume, related to the whole soil) artefacts containing ≥ 20% organic carbon; and < 20% organic carbon, not consisting of artefacts (related to the fine earth plus the dead plant residues of any length and a diameter ≤ 5

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If the characteristics of two or more master layers are superimposed to each other, the master symbols are combined without anything in between, the dominant one first, each one followed by its suffixes. Examples: AhBw, BwAh, AhE, EAh, EBg, BgE, BwC, CBw, BsC, CBs.

202:: R horizons denote the layer of partially weathered or unweathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses (as opposed to boulders) of hard rock that cannot be excavated by hand. Soils formed 55:

symbols in the world. No one system is more correct—as artificial constructs, their utility lies in their ability to accurately describe local conditions in a consistent manner. Due to the different definitions of the horizon symbols, the systems cannot be mixed.

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Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a horizon. The horizons in a profile are combined using a hyphen (-). Example: Ah-E-Bt1-2Bt2-2BwC-3C1-3C2.

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If two or more layers with the same designation occur, the letters are followed by figures. The sequence of figures continues across different strata. Examples: Oi-Oe-Oa-Ah-Bw1-Bw2-2Bw3-3Ahb1-3Eb-3Btb-4Ahb2-4C, Oi-He-Ha-Cr1-2Heb-2Hab-2Cr2-3Crγ.

1980:", the surface depth of the soil where biologically activity and climate effects drives pedogenesis. The layers below the solum have no collective name but are distinct in that they are noticeably less affected by surface soil-forming processes. 1758:

The "O" stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer, dominated by the presence of large amounts of organic matter in varying stages of decomposition. In the Australian system, the O horizon should be considered distinct from the layer of

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4. If two suffixes belong to the same soil-forming process, they follow each other immediately; in the combination of t and n, the t is written first; rules 1, 2 and 3 have to be followed, if applicable. Examples: Btn, Bhs, Bsh, Bhsm, Bsmh.

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is a loose layer that contains > 90% (by volume, related to the fine earth plus all dead plant residues) recognizable dead plant tissues (e.g. undecomposed leaves). Dead plant material still connected to living plants (e.g. dead parts of

528:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn in reduced form by upward-moving capillary water with subsequent oxidation: accumulation predominantly at soil aggregate surfaces, if present, and reduction of these oxides inside the aggregates (H, A, B, C). 393:

Consolidated rock; air-dry or drier specimens, when placed in water, will not slake within 24 hours; fractures, if present, occupy < 10% (by volume, related to the whole soil); not resulting from the cementation of a soil horizon.

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occur, the strata are indicated by preceding figures, starting with the second stratum. I and W layers are not considered as strata. All layers of the respective stratum are indicated by the figure: Example: Oi-Oe-Ah-E-2Bt-2C-3R.

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is a zone in the soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, with properties different from layers above and/or below it. If at least one of these properties is the result of soil-forming processes, the layer is called a

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Soils with a history of human interference, for instance through major earthworks or regular deep ploughing, may lack distinct horizons almost completely. When examining soils in the field, attention must be paid to the local

906:: These are horizons that formed below an A, E, H, or O horizon, and in which the dominant features are the obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure, together with one or a combination of the following: 386:

Mineral layer; unconsolidated (can be cut with a spade when moist), or consolidated and more fractured than the R layer; no soil formation, or soil formation that does not meet the criteria of the A, E, and B horizon.

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that has at least partly been modified in-situ; soil structure and/or structural elements created by cultivation in ≥ 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth), i.e. rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume).

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systems, horizons are used to define soil types. The German system uses entire horizon sequences for definition. Other systems pick out certain horizons, the "diagnostic horizons", for the definition; examples are the

836:: These are mineral horizons that formed at the surface or below an O horizon. All or much of the original rock structure has been obliterated. Additionally, they are characterized by one or more of the following: 1728:

Numerical prefixes are used to denote lithologic discontinuities. By convention, 1 is not shown. Numerical suffixes are used to denote subdivisions within a master horizon. Example: A, E, Bt1, 2Bt2, 2BC, 3C1, 3C2.

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B/A. The master horizon symbols may be followed by the lowercase letters indicating subordinate characteristics (see below). Example: AhBw. The I, L and W symbols are not used in transitional horizon designations.

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consist of organic material: Have ≥ 20% organic carbon, not consisting of artefacts (related to the fine earth plus the dead plant residues of any length and a diameter ≤ 5 mm) and do not form part of a litter

1021:: These are sediments deposited in a body of water. They may be organic or mineral. Limnic material is either: (i) deposited by precipitation or through action of aquatic organisms, such as algae, especially 414:

This is the list of suffixes to the master symbols. In brackets is indicated to which master symbols the suffixes can be added. The suffixes e and i have different meanings for organic and mineral layers.

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Mineral horizon that has (at least originally) formed below an A or E horizon; rock structure, if present, in < 50% (by volume, related to the fine earth); one or more of the following processes of

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Organic horizon or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation ≤ 30 consecutive days in most years and not drained; generally regarded as non-peat and non-limnic horizon.

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Wilkinson, M.T. and G.S. Humphreys. 2005. Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-based soil production rates and OSL-based bioturbation rates. Australian Journal of Soil Research, v. 43, pp. 767-779.

534:: Pedogenic cementation in ≥ 50% of the volume; cementation class: at least moderately cemented; only used if following another suffix (k, l, q, s, v, y, z) that indicates the cementing agent . 1901:"E", being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of 2800: 335:

Mineral horizon; has lost by downward movement within the soil (vertically or laterally) one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter.

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Johnson, D.L., J.E.J. Domier, and D.N. Johnson. 2005. Reflections on the nature of soil and its biomantle. Annals, Association of American Geographers, v. 95 (1), pp. 11-31.

2014:. If there is no lithologic discontinuity between the solum and the C horizon and no underlying bedrock present, the C horizon resembles the parent material of the solum. 1784:

These horizons are also heavily organic but are distinct from O horizons in that they form under waterlogged conditions. The "P" designation comes from their common name,

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spade impractical. The bedrock may contain cracks, but these are so few and so small that few roots can penetrate. The cracks may be coated or filled with soil material.

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1. The c follows the suffix that indicates the substance that forms the concretions or nodules; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the c.

2645: 253:(0 cm) is by convention the surface of the soil after removing, if present, the litter layer and, if present, below a layer of living plants (e.g. living mosses). The 857:

If a surface horizon has properties of both A and E horizons but the dominant feature is an accumulation of humified organic matter, it is designated an A horizon.

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is pronounced, a lighter coloured E subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the A horizon. The A horizon may also be the result of a combination of soil

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2. The m follows the suffix that indicates the substance that is the cementing agent; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the m.

2861: 1025:; or (ii) derived from underwater and floating aquatic plants and subsequently modified by aquatic animals. L layers include coprogenous earth or sedimentary 1947:

The B horizon can also accumulate minerals and organic matter that are migrating downwards from the A and E horizons. If so, this layer is also known as the

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O2 horizons contain organic debris in various stages of decomposition, the origin of which is not readily visible. O horizons contain ≥ 20% organic carbon.

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concentration of clay minerals or oxides. B3 horizons are transitional between the overlying B layers and the material beneath it, whether C or D horizon.

486:; in A horizons at least partly modified in situ; in B horizons predominantly by illuviation; in C horizons forming part of the parent material (A, B, C). 1015:: These are ice lenses and wedges that contain at least 75 per cent ice (by volume) and that distinctly separate layers (organic or mineral) in the soil. 556:: Modification by cultivation (e.g. ploughing); mineral layers are designated A, even if they belonged to another layer before cultivation (H, O, A). 2733: 1788:. They may be divided into P1 and P2 in the same way as O horizons. P horizons contain ≥ 12 to 18% organic carbon, depending on the clay content. 3982: 4018: 2894: 1939:, mostly with the formation of iron oxides and clay minerals. It is usually brownish or reddish due to the iron oxides, which increases the 99:

and the historical uses to which the land has been put, in order to ensure that the appropriate names are applied to the observed horizons.

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This is the list of suffixes to the master horizons. After the hyphen, it is indicated to which master horizons the suffixes can be added.

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The designation consists of a capital letter (master symbol), which in most cases is followed by one or more lowercase letters (suffixes).

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3. The ρ follows the suffix that indicates the relict features; if this is true for more than one suffix, each one is followed by the ρ.

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C) Substratum: Layer of non-indurated poorly weathered or unweathered rocks. This layer may accumulate more soluble compounds like CaCO

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accumulation by illuviation processes of one or more of the following: Fe, Al, and/or Mn species; clay minerals; organic matter;

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Organic or organotechnic layer, not forming part of a litter layer; water saturation > 30 consecutive days in most years or

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Suffixes describing particular features of a horizon may also be added. The Australian system provides the following suffixes:

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The A3, B1, and B3 horizons are not tightly defined, and their use is generally at the discretion of the individual worker.

1897:– dark surface horizon on a bleached subsurface horizon (an albic horizon) that tongues into a clay illuviation (Bt) horizon 764:

7. The @, f and b are written last, if b occurs together with @ or f (only if other suffixes are present as well): @b, fb.

4008: 1398:: A layer of liquid water (W) or permanently frozen water (Wf) within or beneath the soil (excludes water/ice above soil). 847:, intimately mixed with the mineral fraction, and not displaying properties characteristic of E or B horizons (see below); 4035: 3237: 767:

8. Besides that, combinations must be in the sequence of dominance, the dominant one first. Examples: Btng, Btgb, Bkcyc.

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systems have diagnostic horizons. A diagnostic horizon is a horizon used to define soil taxonomic units (e.g. to define

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The B horizon is commonly referred to as "subsoil" and consists of mineral layers which are significantly altered by

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a morphology that is different from the underlying B or C horizon, resulting from processes related to the surface.

269:. In the following, the term layer is used to indicate the possibility that soil-forming processes did not occur. 51:

and in terms relative to the surrounding material, i.e. 'coarser' or 'sandier' than the horizons above and below.

4041: 3525: 2648:(12th ed.). Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from 1328: 714:: Relict features (only used if following another suffix (g, k, l, p, r, @) that indicates the relict feature) . 4046: 4030: 3536: 2919: 969:

alteration that forms clay minerals or liberates oxides or both and that forms a granular, blocky or prismatic

732:: Accumulation of Fe and/or Mn in reduced form by lateral subsurface flow with subsequent oxidation (A, B, C). 72: 702:: High bulk density (natural or anthropogenic), so that roots cannot enter, except along cracks (A, E, B, C). 428:: Buried horizon; first, the horizon has formed, and then, it was buried by mineral material (H, O, A, E, B). 3057: 2880: 151:

minerals are formed and accumulated. It has a pronounced soil structure. But in some soils, clay minerals,

1213:: Ploughing or other human disturbance—no restriction; ploughed E, B, or C horizons are referred to as Ap. 892:

particles. An E horizon is most commonly differentiated from an underlying B horizon: by colour of higher

3998: 3556: 2740: 237:

comprises fine earth, coarse fragments, artefacts, cemented parts, and dead plant residues of any size.

4177: 4013: 3541: 2980: 582:: Accumulation of Fe oxides, Mn oxides and/or Al by vertical illuviation processes from above . (B, C). 2985: 1810: 783:

W cannot be combined with other master symbols. H, O, I, and R can only be combined using the slash.

676:(in R layers related to the rock, in all other layers related to the fine earth) (H, A, E, B, C, R). 17: 2034:

between it and the overlying horizons" (National Committee on Soil and Terrain, 2009, p. 151).

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layer—the upper part is often relatively undecomposed, but the lower part may be strongly humified.

4135: 3929: 3551: 2843: 1732: 806: 4204: 3546: 3509: 3230: 2914: 550:: Residual accumulation of large amounts of pedogenic oxides in strongly weathered horizons (B). 2017: 1968: 400:≥ 75% ice (by volume, related to the whole soil), permanent, below an H, O, A, E, B or C layer. 3823: 3197: 2677: 2564: 1230: 573: 213: 442:; only used if following another suffix (k, q, v, y) that indicates the accumulated substance. 4194: 3878: 3959: 3853: 3677: 2287: 1998:. Clay illuviation, if present, is not significant. The absence of solum-type development ( 2731: 8: 3246: 3187: 3148: 2533: 2368: 2277: 2090: 2011: 1835: 59: 1822:

deeper layers. "A" horizons may be darker in colour than deeper layers and contain more

4150: 3797: 3430: 3223: 3143: 3086: 3042: 1664: 1256: 599: 68: 987:

an overlying genetic horizon; and layers with gleying but no other pedogenic changes.

159:, organic compounds, and other constituents are soluble and move downwards. When this 4225: 3843: 3712: 3103: 2950: 993:: These are horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock, that are little affected by 406:

Permanent water above the soil surface or between layers, may be seasonally frozen.

4024: 3717: 3180: 2116: 2002:) is one of the defining attributes. The C horizon forms either in deposits (e.g., 1462: 1386:: Little or no pedogenic alteration, unconsolidated earthy material, soft bedrock. 1080: 726:: Human-transported natural material (related to the whole soil) ((H, O, A, B, C). 439: 2715: 1834:. The A is a surface horizon, and as such is also known as the zone in which most 1509:: Permanently frozen soil ("dry" permafrost); no continuous ice; not seasonal ice. 850:

properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance;

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Soil layer whose physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath

4145: 4125: 4120: 3949: 3883: 3868: 3848: 3782: 3767: 3627: 3123: 3052: 3020: 2865: 2050: 1989: 1802: 82:). Layers that have not undergone such processes may be simply called "layers". 4154: 4077: 3757: 3702: 3165: 3138: 3118: 3030: 2975: 2970: 2807: 2628: 2415: 1871: 1823: 1806: 1753: 1733:

Horizons according to the Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook (2009)

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Horizons and layers according to the FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (2006)

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The C horizon is below the solum horizons. This layer is little affected by

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than overlying and underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron;

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The following layers are distinguished (see Chapter 3.3 of the WRB Manual):

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Horizons and layers according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources

3944: 3939: 3914: 3787: 3732: 3133: 3108: 3064: 3037: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2945: 2903: 2847: 2010:. The C horizon may be enriched with carbonates carried below the solum by 1965:

Plant roots penetrate throughout this layer, but it has very little humus.

1940: 1914: 1644: 959: 897: 683: 167:

and surface processes that winnow fine particles from biologically mounded

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R.F. Isbell; et al. (National Committee on Soil and Terrain) (2016).

1305:: Pedogenic accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum—no restriction. 791:

The sequence of the layers is from top to down with a hyphen in between.

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into a Bt horizon), C/Bt (Bt horizon forming lamellae within a C layer).

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is the upper limit of the uppermost layer consisting of mineral material.

4140: 3954: 3888: 3858: 3792: 3772: 3692: 3672: 3652: 3642: 3637: 3170: 3093: 3074: 2732:

P.J. Schoeneberger; D.A. Wysocki; E.C. Benham; Soil Survey Staff (2012).

2204: 1999: 1995: 1936: 1867: 1760: 1181:: Strong cementation or induration (pedogenic, massive)—mineral horizons. 1140: 1095:: Dense layer (physically root restrictive)—mineral horizons, not with m. 994: 976: 932: 888: 499: 180: 79: 2288:

Diagnostic horizons in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB)

720:: Permanent water saturation and no redoximorphic features (A, D, B, C) 4130: 3873: 3777: 3727: 3682: 3667: 3632: 3602: 3468: 3375: 3340: 3315: 3155: 3128: 3113: 3015: 2940: 2609: 2112: 2006:, flood deposits, landslides) or it formed from weathering of residual 1918: 1500: 1458: 1076: 435: 160: 140: 3215: 2764: 2181:: disturbed by ploughing or other tillage practices (A horizons only). 4159: 3934: 3919: 3863: 3762: 3707: 3647: 3410: 3405: 3395: 3330: 3300: 3280: 3209: 3098: 2455: 2425: 2281: 2166: 2022: 1851: 1847: 1839: 1674: 1438: 1266: 1166: 955: 940: 922: 893: 872: 673: 627: 623: 609: 519: 461: 454:: Organic material in an intermediate state of decomposition (H, O). 367: 206:

from bedrock will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.

136: 983:

All kinds of B horizons are or were originally subsurface horizons.

4115: 3964: 3747: 3662: 3617: 3493: 3473: 3463: 3448: 3420: 3415: 3400: 3370: 3365: 3345: 3335: 3320: 3305: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3175: 2935: 2503: 2259: 2230: 2144: 1902: 1859: 1694: 1534: 1286: 1207:: Residual accumulation of sesquioxides (pedogenic)—no restriction. 1156: 637: 509: 309: 246: 156: 863:: These are mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of 195:

from non-indurated material exhibit similarities to this C layer.

3909: 3697: 3657: 3622: 3612: 3607: 3597: 3592: 3488: 3458: 3453: 3443: 3438: 3390: 3385: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3325: 3310: 3275: 3270: 3265: 3081: 2497: 2043: 2021:

Soil with broken rock fragments overlying bedrock, Sandside Bay,

2007: 1930: 1894: 1884: 1863: 1843: 1797: 1634: 1618: 1380:; or accumulation of sesquioxides; or subsurface soil structure. 1005: 696:

in the fraction between > 0.02 and ≤ 2 mm (H, O, A, E, B, C).

492:: Organic material in an initial state of decomposition; (H, O). 422:: Organic material in an advanced state of decomposition (H, O). 324:

Mineral horizon at the mineral soil surface or buried; contains

199: 175: 168: 128: 34: 1404:: Root-limiting subsoil layers of human-manufactured materials. 1175:: Mottling due to upmoving groundwater (gleying)—no restriction. 954:

coatings of oxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in

108: 3807: 3742: 3483: 3478: 3380: 2995: 2872: 2698: 2612:(fourth ed.). International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2240: 2188: 2063: 1910: 1906: 1889: 1704: 1608: 1484: 1296: 1220: 1198: 1102: 1022: 948: 926: 647: 563: 541: 371: 363: 144: 3722: 2767:

Australian soil and land survey field handbook. Third edition

2627:

Text was copied from this source, which is available under a

2623: 2003: 1977: 1855: 1831: 1773: 1029:(mostly organic), diatomaceous earth (mostly siliceous), and 911: 841: 1319: 1069:: Buried genetic horizon—mineral horizons, not cryoturbated. 380:

Nota bene: B horizons may show other accumulations as well.

312:; generally regarded as peat layer or organic limnic layer. 249:

mosses) is not regarded to form part of a litter layer. The

171:. In this case, the A horizon is regarded as a "biomantle". 3752: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3010: 2734:"Field Book for describing and sampling soils. Version 3.0" 2527: 2214: 1827: 1814: 1785: 1779: 1654: 1580: 1246: 1188: 1030: 1026: 936: 915: 884: 880: 868: 864: 589: 356: 152: 148: 47: 2249:: accumulation of salts more soluble than calcium sulfate. 1719:: Pedogenic accumulation of salt more soluble than gypsum. 1493:: Moderately decomposed organic matter (used only with O). 1368:: Subsurface accumulation of clay, Fe, Al, Si, humus, CaCO 1111:: Moderately decomposed organic material—H and O horizons. 935:

concentration, alone or in combination, of clay minerals,

3737: 1362:: Mineral; some loss of Fe, Al, clay, or organic matter. 963: 879:

or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of

1976:

The A/E/B horizons are referred to collectively as the "

1527:: Slightly decomposed organic matter (used only with O). 1149:: Slightly decomposed organic material—H and O horizons. 973:

if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content;

656:: Presence of readily soluble salts (H, O, A, E, B, C). 1866:

are concentrated here, often in close association with

1627:: Illuvial sesquioxide and organic matter accumulation. 2629:

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

2607: 1431:: Highly decomposed organic matter (used only with O). 1063:: Highly decomposed organic material—H and O horizons. 761:

6. In H and O layers, the i, e or a is written first.

78:

A soil horizon is a result of soil-forming processes (

2049:

solum and the R horizon, the R horizon resembles the

1921:

commonly forms near or at the base of the E horizon.

1413: 622:

and/or oxides and/or clay minerals (layer silicates,

2094:

Soil horizon taken from a collapsed/exposed hillside

1451:: Buried genetic horizon (not used with C horizons). 1239:: Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides—B horizons. 1042: 708:: Deposited in a body of water (limnic) (H, A. C). 222:, 4th edition (2022). The chapter starts with some 2426:Diagnostic horizons in the USDA soil taxonomy (ST) 602:or consisting of artefacts (H, O, A, E, B, C, R). 2716:"Guidelines for Soil Description. Fourth Edition" 2643: 4217: 1870:. Thus, the A horizon may be referred to as the 1595:: Residual sesquioxide accumulation (pedogenic). 1356:: Mineral; organic matter (humus) accumulation. 218:The designations are found in Chapter 10 of the 184:. The B horizon has generally a soil structure. 3983:Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated 2765:National Committee on Soil and Terrain (2009). 2739:. Lincoln, Nebraska: NRCS, NSSC. Archived from 2587: 2264:Soil formation is often described as occurring 1503:); continuous subsurface ice; not seasonal ice. 1342: 4019:National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists 1589:: Pedogenic, exchangeable sodium accumulation. 1051: 220:World Reference Base for Soil Resources Manual 3231: 2888: 1601:: Plow layer or other artificial disturbance. 1477:: Densic layer (physically root restrictive). 816: 38:A cross section of a soil, revealing horizons 2703:. Stuttgart: Borntraeger Science Publishers. 2699:W.E.H. Blum; P. Schad; S. Nortcliff (2018). 1663:: Presence of human-manufactured materials ( 1331:Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils 233:comprises the soil constituents ≤ 2 mm. The 102: 2671: 2590:Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung, 5. Auflage 2271: 2119:, perhaps of iron, aluminium, or manganese. 1410:: Bedrock, strongly cemented to indurated. 592:minerals by illuviation processes . (B, C). 4200: 3238: 3224: 2895: 2881: 1826:, or they may be lighter but contain less 1723: 1329:Horizons and layers according to the USDA 512:and/or schwertmannite (H, O, A, E, B, C). 2610:"World Reference Base for Soil Resources" 1320:Discontinuities and vertical subdivisions 1197:: Pedogenic accumulation of exchangeable 3993:Central Soil Salinity Research Institute 2089: 2072: 2016: 1967: 1888: 1801: 1255:: Urban and other human-made materials ( 33: 4099:Soil Science Society of America Journal 3245: 1521:: Illuvial organic matter accumulation. 1471:: Coprogenous earth (used only with L). 1350:: Organic soil materials (not limnic). 65:World Reference Base for Soil Resources 14: 4218: 4071:Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 3532:Canadian system of soil classification 1713:: Dominance of gypsum (≈≥50% by vol.). 1117:: Frozen soil—not in I and R horizons. 770: 3219: 2876: 2676:(2nd ed.). CSIRO. Archived from 2603: 2601: 2599: 2137:: faunal accumulations in A horizons. 2081: 1573:: Continuous cementation (pedogenic). 758:as well, the suffixes are combined. 4173: 4009:International Union of Soil Sciences 2639: 2637: 2059:(not used in the Australian system) 1880:(not used in the Australian system) 1653:: Illuvial accumulation of silicate 1123:: Stagnic conditions—no restriction. 502:and/or wedge-shaped aggregates (B). 4036:Soil and Water Conservation Society 2713: 2239:: accumulation of calcium sulfate ( 2175:: strong cementation or induration. 1972:Soil profile of a road in Bengaluru 1422: 692:: Containing ≥ 5% (by grain count) 85: 24: 3516:Unified Soil Classification System 3048:Soil retrogression and degradation 2808:"Soil Horizon letter designations" 2794: 2596: 1499:: Permanently frozen soil or ice ( 786: 131:: Layer of mineral soil with most 25: 4237: 3521:AASHTO Soil Classification System 2634: 2153:: accumulation of organic matter. 1637:(in mineral or organic horizons). 736:I and W layers have no suffixes. 470:: Permafrost (H, O, A, E, B, C). 300: 4199: 4184: 4183: 4172: 4064:Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B 4004:Indian Institute of Soil Science 3988:Canadian Society of Soil Science 3819: 3818: 2994: 2902: 2831: This article incorporates 2826: 2674:"Australian Soil Classification" 2622: 1414:Transitional horizons and layers 1043:Transitional horizons and layers 914:(especially iron oxides) and/or 376:removal of carbonates or gypsum. 107: 4042:Soil Science Society of America 2814:. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008 2782: 2608:IUSS Working Group WRB (2022). 2253: 1838:occurs. Soil organisms such as 1557:accumulation (<50% by vol.). 1289:characteristics—no restriction. 4047:World Congress of Soil Science 4031:Soil Science Society of Poland 3537:Australian Soil Classification 3528:(French classification system) 2812:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 2773: 2758: 2725: 2707: 2692: 2665: 2581: 2473:Diagnostic subsurface horizons 1259:—H, O, A, E, B and C horizons. 1089:: Coprogenous earth—L horizon. 73:Australian Soil Classification 13: 1: 3058:Soil compaction (agriculture) 2570: 2169:, commonly calcium carbonate. 1437:: (proposed) Accumulation of 2575: 2187:: accumulation of secondary 1687:within B (used only with B). 1567:accumulation (≥50% by vol.). 1295:: Pedogenic accumulation of 1219:: Accumulation of pedogenic 1165:: Accumulation of pedogenic 1159:accumulation—no restriction. 646:: Accumulation of secondary 562:: Accumulation of secondary 518:: Accumulation of secondary 349:formation of soil aggregate 7: 3999:German Soil Science Society 3557:List of vineyard soil types 2592:. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart. 2558: 2436:Diagnostic surface horizons 1742: 1275:: Development of colour or 1245:: Illuvial accumulation of 1052:Subordinate characteristics 640:characteristics (E, B, C). 544:percentage ≥ 6% (E, B, C). 409: 46:is a layer parallel to the 10: 4242: 4178:Knowledge:WikiProject Soil 4014:International Year of Soil 3542:Polish Soil Classification 2981:Environmental soil science 2701:Essentials of soil science 2644:Soil Survey Staff (2014). 2257: 2197:: weathered, digable rock. 2061: 2041: 1987: 1928: 1882: 1809:, a potential pathway for 1795: 1777: 1771: 1751: 1343:Master horizons and layers 1249:minerals—B and C horizons. 910:residual concentration of 817:Master horizons and layers 4168: 4108: 4055: 3975: 3902: 3836: 3816: 3566:Non-systematic soil types 3565: 3502: 3429: 3253: 3208: 3003: 2992: 2986:Agricultural soil science 2928: 2910: 2803:section on soil horizons. 2131:: conspicuously bleached. 2125:: root restricting layer. 1811:nonpoint source pollution 1487:earth (used only with L). 1392:: Limnic soil materials. 147:(mainly iron oxides) and 103:Examples of soil profiles 4136:Infiltration (hydrology) 3930:Geotechnical engineering 3552:List of U.S. state soils 2844:United States Government 2588:Ad-hoc-AG Boden (2005). 2272:Diagnostic soil horizons 2159:: sporadically bleached. 1607:: Secondary (pedogenic) 1004:: These consist of hard 947:, carbonates, gypsum or 740:Combination of suffixes: 482:: Significant amount of 4205:List of soil scientists 3547:1938 USDA soil taxonomy 3526:Référentiel pédologique 3510:FAO soil classification 2864:April 16, 2022, at the 2646:"Keys to Soil Taxonomy" 1813:, from a farm field in 1724:Other horizon modifiers 921:evidence of removal of 139:. Additionally, due to 3976:Societies, Initiatives 3198:Soil water (retention) 2846:. 1993. Archived from 2833:public domain material 2565:Archaeological horizon 2111:: presence of mineral 2095: 2025: 1973: 1898: 1858:, and many species of 1818: 1563:: Major pedogenic CaCO 796:lithic discontinuities 672:: Presence of primary 359:minerals and/or oxides 39: 4195:Category soil science 3879:Soil salinity control 2541:Petroplinthic horizon 2454:Mollic epipedon (see 2379:Petroplinthic horizon 2093: 2073:Transitional horizons 2020: 1971: 1892: 1805: 1033:(mostly calcareous). 293:are all other layers. 119:Organic surface layer 37: 3960:Agricultural science 3854:Soil guideline value 3678:Calcareous grassland 3255:World Reference Base 2652:on November 28, 2018 2382:Pisoplinthic horizon 1617:: Weathered or soft 991:C horizons or layers 887:particles. However, 828:O horizons or layers 822:H horizons or layers 664:cryogenic alteration 284:Organotechnic layers 255:mineral soil surface 4056:Scientific journals 3247:Soil classification 3188:Soil organic matter 3149:Pore water pressure 2850:on August 23, 2003. 2769:. CSIRO, Melbourne. 2538:Petrogypsic horizon 2534:Petrocalcic Horizon 2394:Protovertic horizon 2376:Petrogypsic horizon 2369:Petrocalcic horizon 2278:soil classification 2223:: weak development. 1836:biological activity 1817:during a rain storm 1583:(used only with L). 995:pedogenic processes 840:an accumulation of 771:Transitional layers 686:≤ 0.9 kg dm-3 (B). 666:(H, O, A, E, B, C). 522:(H, O, A, E, B, C). 224:general definitions 60:soil classification 4151:Impervious surface 3431:USDA soil taxonomy 3257:for Soil Resources 3144:Pore space in soil 3087:Soil acidification 3043:Soil contamination 2857:Soil Survey Manual 2839:Soil Survey Manual 2746:on August 29, 2017 2442:Anthropic epipedon 2373:Petroduric horizon 2302:Anthraquic horizon 2213:: accumulation of 2165:: accumulation of 2096: 2026: 1974: 1899: 1819: 1703:: Accumulation of 1143:—mineral horizons. 1133:—mineral horizons. 1129:: Accumulation of 1083:—mineral horizons. 588:: Accumulation of 508:: Accumulation of 69:USDA soil taxonomy 40: 4213: 4212: 3844:Soil conservation 3830: 3829: 3104:Soil biodiversity 2951:Soil microbiology 2854:Current version: 2680:on April 16, 2019 2445:Folistic epipedon 2347:Hydragric horizon 2105:: buried horizon. 1376:; or loss of CaCO 211: 210: 135:accumulation and 16:(Redirected from 4233: 4203: 4202: 4187: 4186: 4176: 4175: 4025:OPAL Soil Centre 3822: 3821: 3718:Hydrophobic soil 3240: 3233: 3226: 3217: 3216: 3181:Soil respiration 2998: 2897: 2890: 2883: 2874: 2873: 2851: 2830: 2829: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2789: 2786: 2780: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2762: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2745: 2738: 2729: 2723: 2722: 2720: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2696: 2690: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2669: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2641: 2632: 2626: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2605: 2594: 2593: 2585: 2488:Argillic horizon 2485:Anhydric horizon 2467:Umbric epidpedon 2464:Plaggen epipedon 2451:Melanic epipedon 2412:Tsitelic horizon 2388:Plinthic horizon 2350:Irragric horizon 2326:Ferralic horizon 2082:Horizon suffixes 2069:standing water. 1913:, due to animal 1846:(enchytraeids), 1697:characteristics. 1683:: Weak color or 1553:: Pedogenic CaCO 1423:Horizon suffixes 1315:—no restriction. 1299:—no restriction. 1269:—no restriction. 1265:: Occurrence of 1233:—no restriction. 1223:—no restriction. 1201:—no restriction. 1169:—no restriction. 1105:earth—L horizon. 694:volcanic glasses 114: 113: 111: 86:Horizon sequence 21: 4241: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4216: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4164: 4146:Crust (geology) 4126:Land management 4121:Land conversion 4104: 4051: 3971: 3950:Earth materials 3898: 3884:Erosion control 3869:Soil governance 3849:Soil management 3832: 3831: 3826: 3812: 3783:Subaqueous soil 3768:Serpentine soil 3628:Parent material 3561: 3498: 3425: 3256: 3249: 3244: 3204: 3124:Soil resilience 3053:Soil compaction 3021:Soil morphology 2999: 2990: 2924: 2906: 2901: 2866:Wayback Machine 2836: 2827: 2817: 2815: 2806: 2797: 2795:General sources 2792: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2763: 2759: 2749: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2712: 2708: 2697: 2693: 2683: 2681: 2670: 2666: 2655: 2653: 2642: 2635: 2615: 2613: 2606: 2597: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2561: 2556: 2550:Sombric horizon 2509:Glossic horizon 2470: 2461:Ochric epipedon 2448:Histic epipedon 2428: 2423: 2409:Thionic horizon 2400:Sombric horizon 2385:Plaggic horizon 2365:Panpaic horizon 2353:Limonic horizon 2317:Cohesic horizon 2314:Chernic horizon 2290: 2274: 2262: 2256: 2084: 2075: 2066: 2051:parent material 2046: 1992: 1990:Parent material 1933: 1887: 1800: 1782: 1776: 1756: 1745: 1735: 1726: 1566: 1556: 1444: 1425: 1416: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1345: 1335: 1322: 1054: 1045: 962:, or redder in 819: 809: 789: 787:Layer sequences 773: 618:: Formation of 540:: Exchangeable 448:: Drained (H). 412: 303: 216: 191:. Soils formed 190: 105: 88: 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4239: 4229: 4228: 4211: 4210: 4208: 4207: 4197: 4191: 4180: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4163: 4162: 4157: 4155:Surface runoff 4148: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4105: 4103: 4102: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4078:Plant and Soil 4074: 4067: 4059: 4057: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4033: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3990: 3985: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3969: 3968: 3967: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3906: 3904: 3903:Related fields 3900: 3899: 3897: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3840: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3828: 3827: 3817: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3758:Prime farmland 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3713:Fuller's earth 3710: 3705: 3703:Expansive clay 3700: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3562: 3560: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3506: 3504: 3500: 3499: 3497: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3435: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3424: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3288: 3283: 3278: 3273: 3268: 3262: 3260: 3251: 3250: 3243: 3242: 3235: 3228: 3220: 3214: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3203: 3202: 3201: 3200: 3190: 3185: 3184: 3183: 3173: 3168: 3166:Soil biomantle 3163: 3158: 3153: 3152: 3151: 3146: 3139:Soil structure 3136: 3131: 3126: 3121: 3119:Soil fertility 3116: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3090: 3089: 3079: 3078: 3077: 3067: 3062: 3061: 3060: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3034: 3033: 3031:Soil formation 3028: 3023: 3013: 3007: 3005: 3001: 3000: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2976:Soil chemistry 2973: 2971:Soil mechanics 2968: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2923: 2922: 2917: 2911: 2908: 2907: 2900: 2899: 2892: 2885: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2869: 2868: 2824: 2804: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2790: 2781: 2772: 2757: 2724: 2706: 2691: 2664: 2633: 2595: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2572: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2554: 2553:Spodic horizon 2551: 2548: 2545: 2544:Placic horizon 2542: 2539: 2536: 2531: 2525: 2524:Ortstein layer 2522: 2519: 2518:Natric horizon 2516: 2515:Kandic horizon 2513: 2512:Gypsic horizon 2510: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2494:Cambic horizon 2492: 2491:Calcic horizon 2489: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2475: 2474: 2469: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2437: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2421: 2420:Vertic horizon 2418: 2416:Umbric horizon 2413: 2410: 2407: 2406:Terric horizon 2404: 2403:Spodic horizon 2401: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2391:Pretic horizon 2389: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2359:Natric horizon 2357: 2356:Mollic horizon 2354: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2344:Hortic horizon 2342: 2341:Histic horizon 2339: 2338:Gypsic horizon 2336: 2335:Fragic horizon 2333: 2330: 2329:Ferric horizon 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2311:Cambic horizon 2309: 2308:Calcic horizon 2306: 2303: 2300: 2296: 2289: 2286: 2273: 2270: 2258:Main article: 2255: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2244: 2234: 2224: 2218: 2208: 2198: 2192: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2160: 2154: 2148: 2138: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2106: 2083: 2080: 2074: 2071: 2062:Main article: 2053:of the solum. 2042:Main article: 1988:Main article: 1929:Main article: 1883:Main article: 1824:organic matter 1807:Surface runoff 1796:Main article: 1772:Main article: 1754:Organic matter 1752:Main article: 1744: 1741: 1734: 1731: 1725: 1722: 1721: 1720: 1714: 1708: 1698: 1688: 1678: 1668: 1658: 1648: 1638: 1633:: Presence of 1628: 1622: 1612: 1602: 1596: 1590: 1584: 1574: 1568: 1564: 1558: 1554: 1548: 1543:: Evidence of 1538: 1528: 1522: 1516: 1515:: Strong gley. 1510: 1504: 1494: 1488: 1478: 1472: 1466: 1452: 1446: 1442: 1432: 1424: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1344: 1341: 1334: 1327: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1311:: Evidence of 1306: 1300: 1290: 1280: 1270: 1260: 1250: 1240: 1234: 1224: 1214: 1208: 1202: 1192: 1182: 1176: 1170: 1160: 1150: 1144: 1134: 1131:organic matter 1124: 1118: 1112: 1106: 1096: 1090: 1084: 1070: 1064: 1053: 1050: 1044: 1041: 981: 980: 974: 967: 952: 945:organic matter 930: 919: 877:organic matter 855: 854: 851: 848: 845:organic matter 818: 815: 808: 805: 788: 785: 772: 769: 734: 733: 727: 721: 715: 709: 703: 697: 687: 677: 667: 657: 651: 641: 631: 620:soil structure 613: 603: 593: 583: 577: 567: 557: 551: 545: 535: 529: 523: 513: 503: 493: 487: 484:organic matter 477: 471: 465: 455: 449: 443: 429: 423: 411: 408: 378: 377: 374: 360: 353: 343:soil formation 326:organic matter 302: 301:Master symbols 299: 295: 294: 291:Mineral layers 288: 281: 277:Organic layers 215: 212: 209: 208: 188: 133:organic matter 104: 101: 87: 84: 28: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4238: 4227: 4224: 4223: 4221: 4206: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4190: 4189:Category soil 4181: 4179: 4171: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4094: 4093: 4092:Soil Research 4089: 4087: 4086: 4085:Pochvovedenie 4082: 4080: 4079: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4066: 4065: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4026: 4023: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3925:Geomorphology 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3907: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3894:Liming (soil) 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3825: 3824:Types of soil 3815: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3803:Tropical peat 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3688:Dry quicksand 3686: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3564: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3503:Other systems 3501: 3495: 3492: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3480: 3477: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3428: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3267: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3236: 3234: 3229: 3227: 3222: 3221: 3218: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3194: 3193:Soil moisture 3191: 3189: 3186: 3182: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3141: 3140: 3137: 3135: 3132: 3130: 3127: 3125: 3122: 3120: 3117: 3115: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3088: 3085: 3084: 3083: 3080: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3071: 3070:Soil salinity 3068: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3056: 3055: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3026:Pedodiversity 3024: 3022: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2997: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2916: 2913: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2893: 2891: 2886: 2884: 2879: 2878: 2875: 2867: 2863: 2860: 2858: 2853: 2852: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2840: 2834: 2825: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2802: 2799: 2798: 2785: 2776: 2768: 2761: 2742: 2735: 2728: 2717: 2710: 2702: 2695: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2638: 2630: 2625: 2611: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2591: 2584: 2580: 2566: 2563: 2562: 2552: 2549: 2547:Salic horizon 2546: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2521:Nitic horizon 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2482:Albic horizon 2481: 2479:Agric horizon 2478: 2477: 2472: 2471: 2466: 2463: 2460: 2457: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2435: 2434: 2433: 2432: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2397:Salic horizon 2396: 2393: 2390: 2387: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2362:Nitic horizon 2361: 2358: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2343: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2332:Folic horizon 2331: 2328: 2325: 2323:Duric horizon 2322: 2320:Cryic horizon 2319: 2316: 2313: 2310: 2307: 2305:Argic horizon 2304: 2301: 2299:Albic horizon 2298: 2297: 2295: 2294: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2269: 2267: 2261: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2212: 2209: 2207:accumulation. 2206: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2092: 2088: 2079: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2052: 2045: 2040: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2030: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1991: 1986: 1985: 1981: 1979: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1932: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1830:or pedogenic 1829: 1825: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1793: 1789: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1770: 1769: 1765: 1762: 1755: 1750: 1749: 1740: 1739: 1730: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1702: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1669: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1616: 1613: 1611:accumulation. 1610: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1562: 1559: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1545:cryoturbation 1542: 1539: 1537:accumulation. 1536: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1440: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1420: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1385: 1381: 1367: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1349: 1340: 1339: 1332: 1326: 1314: 1313:cryoturbation 1310: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1251: 1248: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1058: 1057: 1049: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1007: 1003: 999: 996: 992: 988: 984: 978: 975: 972: 968: 965: 961: 957: 953: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 931: 928: 924: 920: 917: 913: 909: 908: 907: 905: 901: 899: 895: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 852: 849: 846: 843: 839: 838: 837: 835: 831: 829: 825: 823: 814: 813: 804: 800: 797: 792: 784: 781: 777: 768: 765: 762: 759: 755: 751: 748: 745: 742: 741: 737: 731: 728: 725: 722: 719: 716: 713: 710: 707: 704: 701: 698: 695: 691: 688: 685: 681: 678: 675: 671: 668: 665: 661: 658: 655: 652: 650:(A, E, B, C). 649: 645: 642: 639: 635: 632: 629: 625: 621: 617: 614: 611: 607: 604: 601: 598:: Containing 597: 594: 591: 587: 584: 581: 578: 576:(A, E, B, C). 575: 571: 568: 566:(A, E, B, C). 565: 561: 558: 555: 552: 549: 546: 543: 539: 536: 533: 530: 527: 524: 521: 517: 514: 511: 507: 504: 501: 497: 494: 491: 488: 485: 481: 478: 475: 472: 469: 466: 463: 459: 456: 453: 450: 447: 444: 441: 437: 433: 430: 427: 424: 421: 418: 417: 416: 407: 405: 401: 399: 395: 392: 388: 385: 381: 375: 373: 369: 365: 361: 358: 355:formation of 354: 352: 348: 347: 346: 344: 340: 336: 334: 330: 327: 323: 319: 317: 313: 311: 307: 298: 292: 289: 285: 282: 278: 275: 274: 273: 270: 268: 263: 258: 256: 252: 248: 243: 238: 236: 232: 227: 225: 221: 207: 205: 201: 196: 194: 185: 183: 182: 177: 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 124: 120: 116: 115: 112: 110: 100: 98: 97:geomorphology 92: 83: 81: 76: 74: 70: 66: 61: 56: 52: 49: 45: 36: 32: 27: 19: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4076: 4069: 4062: 3945:Biogeography 3940:Hydrogeology 3915:Geochemistry 3837:Applications 3733:Martian soil 3161:Soil horizon 3160: 3134:Soil texture 3109:Soil quality 3065:Soil sealing 3038:Soil erosion 2966:Soil physics 2961:Soil ecology 2956:Soil zoology 2946:Soil biology 2904:Soil science 2859:(March 2017) 2856: 2848:the original 2838: 2816:. Retrieved 2811: 2784: 2775: 2766: 2760: 2748:. Retrieved 2741:the original 2727: 2721:. FAO, Rome. 2714:FAO (2006). 2709: 2700: 2694: 2684:February 11, 2682:. Retrieved 2678:the original 2667: 2654:. Retrieved 2650:the original 2616:November 21, 2614:. Retrieved 2589: 2583: 2430: 2429: 2292: 2291: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2254:Buried soils 2246: 2236: 2226: 2220: 2210: 2200: 2194: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2140: 2134: 2128: 2122: 2108: 2102: 2097: 2085: 2076: 2067: 2056: 2055: 2047: 2037: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2027: 1993: 1983: 1982: 1975: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1946: 1934: 1924: 1923: 1915:bioturbation 1900: 1877: 1876: 1820: 1791: 1790: 1783: 1767: 1766: 1757: 1747: 1746: 1737: 1736: 1727: 1716: 1710: 1700: 1690: 1680: 1670: 1660: 1650: 1645:Slickensides 1640: 1630: 1624: 1614: 1604: 1598: 1592: 1586: 1576: 1570: 1560: 1550: 1540: 1530: 1524: 1518: 1512: 1506: 1496: 1490: 1485:Diatomaceous 1480: 1474: 1468: 1454: 1448: 1434: 1428: 1417: 1407: 1406: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1394: 1389: 1388: 1383: 1382: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1358: 1353: 1352: 1347: 1346: 1337: 1336: 1330: 1323: 1308: 1302: 1292: 1282: 1279:—B horizons. 1272: 1262: 1252: 1242: 1236: 1226: 1216: 1210: 1204: 1194: 1184: 1178: 1172: 1162: 1152: 1146: 1141:Slickensides 1136: 1126: 1120: 1114: 1108: 1103:Diatomaceous 1098: 1092: 1086: 1072: 1066: 1060: 1055: 1046: 1036: 1035: 1018: 1017: 1012: 1011: 1001: 1000: 990: 989: 985: 982: 958:, higher in 903: 902: 860: 859: 856: 833: 832: 827: 826: 821: 820: 811: 810: 801: 795: 793: 790: 782: 778: 774: 766: 763: 760: 756: 752: 749: 746: 743: 739: 738: 735: 729: 723: 717: 711: 705: 699: 689: 684:Bulk density 679: 669: 659: 653: 643: 633: 615: 605: 595: 585: 579: 569: 559: 553: 547: 537: 531: 525: 515: 505: 500:Slickensides 495: 489: 479: 473: 467: 457: 451: 445: 431: 425: 419: 413: 403: 402: 397: 396: 390: 389: 383: 382: 379: 338: 337: 332: 331: 321: 320: 315: 314: 305: 304: 296: 290: 283: 276: 271: 267:soil horizon 266: 261: 259: 254: 251:soil surface 250: 242:litter layer 241: 239: 234: 230: 228: 223: 219: 217: 203: 197: 192: 186: 179: 173: 165:bioturbation 129:Surface soil 126: 123:Plant litter 106: 93: 89: 77: 57: 53: 44:soil horizon 43: 41: 31: 26: 4141:Groundwater 3955:Archaeology 3889:Agroecology 3859:Soil survey 3798:Terra rossa 3793:Terra preta 3773:Spodic soil 3693:Duplex soil 3673:Brown earth 3653:Alkali soil 3643:Rhizosphere 3638:Laimosphere 3512:(1974–1998) 3469:Inceptisols 3376:Plinthosols 3341:Kastanozems 3171:Soil carbon 3094:Soil health 3075:Alkali soil 3004:Soil topics 2929:Main fields 2818:February 2, 2205:sesquioxide 2113:concretions 2000:pedogenesis 1996:pedogenesis 1937:pedogenesis 1868:plant roots 1761:leaf litter 1459:Concretions 1191:—L horizon. 1077:Concretions 977:brittleness 889:pedogenesis 436:Concretions 181:illuviation 80:pedogenesis 67:(WRB), the 4131:Vegetation 3874:Soil value 3778:Stagnogley 3728:Lunar soil 3683:Dark earth 3668:Brickearth 3633:Pedosphere 3603:Soil crust 3411:Technosols 3396:Solonchaks 3316:Ferralsols 3281:Anthrosols 3156:Soil crust 3129:Soil color 3114:Soil value 3016:Pedosphere 2941:Edaphology 2750:August 11, 2571:References 2282:soil types 2167:carbonates 1949:illuviated 1919:stonelayer 1848:arthropods 1840:earthworms 1778:See also: 1501:permafrost 1167:carbonates 923:carbonates 904:B horizons 867:minerals, 861:E horizons 834:A horizons 674:carbonates 628:imogolites 624:allophanes 520:carbonates 368:carbonates 262:soil layer 235:whole soil 231:fine earth 161:eluviation 141:weathering 4160:Petrichor 3935:Hydrology 3920:Petrology 3864:Soil test 3763:Quicksand 3708:Fill dirt 3648:Bulk soil 3494:Vertisols 3484:Spodosols 3474:Mollisols 3464:Histosols 3449:Aridisols 3421:Vertisols 3416:Umbrisols 3406:Stagnosol 3371:Planosols 3366:Phaeozems 3346:Leptosols 3331:Gypsisols 3321:Fluvisols 3301:Chernozem 3296:Cambisols 3291:Calcisols 3286:Arenosols 3210:Soil type 3099:Soil life 2576:Citations 2456:Mollisols 2217:minerals. 2057:L horizon 2038:R horizon 2029:D horizon 2023:Caithness 1984:C horizon 1955:horizon. 1925:B horizon 1903:silicates 1878:E horizon 1872:biomantle 1852:nematodes 1792:A horizon 1768:P horizon 1748:O horizon 1685:structure 1675:Plinthite 1665:artifacts 1439:anhydrite 1277:structure 1267:plinthite 1257:artefacts 1231:reduction 1229:: Strong 971:structure 941:aluminium 918:minerals; 896:or lower 873:aluminium 610:Plinthite 600:artefacts 574:reduction 572:: Strong 462:Saprolite 351:structure 137:soil life 18:B horizon 4226:Pedology 4220:Category 4116:Land use 4109:See also 3965:Agrology 3748:Paleosol 3663:Blue goo 3618:Gypcrust 3489:Ultisols 3459:Gelisols 3454:Entisols 3444:Andisols 3439:Alfisols 3401:Solonetz 3391:Retisols 3386:Regosols 3361:Nitisols 3356:Luvisols 3351:Lixisols 3336:Histosol 3326:Gleysols 3311:Durisols 3306:Cryosols 3276:Andosols 3266:Acrisols 3176:Soil gas 2936:Pedology 2862:Archived 2801:Soil-Net 2559:See also 2504:Fragipan 2260:Paleosol 2231:fragipan 2147:horizon. 2012:leaching 1953:illuvial 1860:bacteria 1844:potworms 1743:Horizons 1695:Fragipan 1635:sulfides 1535:Jarosite 1287:Fragipan 1157:Jarosite 1037:W layers 1019:L layers 1013:I layers 1002:R layers 933:illuvial 842:humified 510:jarosite 410:Suffixes 247:Sphagnum 157:aluminum 71:and the 58:In most 4193: 3995:(India) 3910:Geology 3698:Eluvium 3658:Bay mud 3623:Caliche 3613:Hardpan 3608:Claypan 3598:Subsoil 3593:Topsoil 3479:Oxisols 3381:Podzols 3271:Alisols 3259:(1998–) 3082:Soil pH 2915:History 2530:horizon 2498:Duripan 2431:Source: 2293:Source: 2266:in situ 2117:nodules 2044:Bedrock 2008:bedrock 1931:Subsoil 1911:gravels 1895:Luvisol 1885:Eluvium 1864:archaea 1798:topsoil 1738:Source: 1619:bedrock 1463:nodules 1338:Source: 1081:nodules 1023:diatoms 1006:bedrock 812:Source: 630:) (B). 626:and/or 612:(B, C). 440:nodules 438:and/or 310:drained 204:in situ 200:Bedrock 193:in situ 176:Subsoil 169:topsoil 4182: 3808:Yedoma 3743:Muskeg 2656:May 2, 2241:gypsum 2189:silica 2145:gleyed 2064:Limnic 1941:chroma 1907:silica 1893:Albic 1832:oxides 1705:gypsum 1609:silica 1372:, CaSO 1333:(2012) 1297:gypsum 1221:silica 1199:sodium 960:chroma 949:silica 927:gypsum 912:oxides 898:chroma 648:gypsum 638:Fragic 564:silica 542:sodium 372:gypsum 364:silica 280:layer. 145:oxides 3788:Takir 3723:Loess 2920:Index 2835:from 2744:(PDF) 2737:(PDF) 2719:(PDF) 2506:layer 2500:layer 2276:Many 2004:loess 1978:solum 1856:fungi 1786:peats 1774:Humus 1441:(CaSO 1419:B/A. 956:value 894:value 4038:(US) 4027:(UK) 4021:(US) 3753:Peat 3588:Loam 3583:Clay 3578:Silt 3573:Sand 3011:Soil 2820:2008 2752:2023 2686:2016 2658:2023 2618:2022 2528:Oxic 2215:clay 1917:, a 1862:and 1828:clay 1815:Iowa 1780:Peat 1655:clay 1581:Marl 1247:clay 1189:Marl 1031:marl 1027:peat 937:iron 916:clay 885:silt 883:and 881:sand 869:iron 865:clay 590:clay 464:(C). 357:clay 287:mm). 229:The 153:iron 149:clay 48:soil 3738:Mud 2115:or 1951:or 1905:or 1461:or 1079:or 964:hue 925:or 794:If 226:: 198:R) 174:B) 127:A) 117:O) 4222:: 2842:. 2810:. 2636:^ 2598:^ 2243:). 2229:: 2203:: 2143:: 1854:, 1850:, 1842:, 1711:yy 1693:: 1673:: 1667:). 1643:: 1641:ss 1631:se 1579:: 1577:ma 1561:kk 1541:jj 1533:: 1507:ff 1483:: 1481:di 1469:co 1457:: 1445:). 1435:aa 1285:: 1187:: 1155:: 1139:: 1101:: 1075:: 943:, 939:, 875:, 871:, 682:: 662:: 636:: 608:: 498:: 460:: 434:: 404:W: 398:I: 391:R: 384:C: 370:; 366:; 345:: 339:B: 333:E: 322:A: 316:O: 306:H: 260:A 240:A 155:, 143:, 121:: 42:A 4153:/ 3239:e 3232:t 3225:v 2896:e 2889:t 2882:v 2822:. 2754:. 2688:. 2662:, 2660:. 2631:. 2620:. 2458:) 2247:z 2237:y 2233:. 2227:x 2221:w 2211:t 2201:s 2195:r 2191:. 2185:q 2179:p 2173:m 2163:k 2157:j 2151:h 2141:g 2135:f 2129:e 2123:d 2109:c 2103:b 1717:z 1707:. 1701:y 1691:x 1681:w 1677:. 1671:v 1661:u 1657:. 1651:t 1647:. 1625:s 1621:. 1615:r 1605:q 1599:p 1593:o 1587:n 1571:m 1565:3 1555:3 1551:k 1547:. 1531:j 1525:i 1519:h 1513:g 1497:f 1491:e 1475:d 1465:. 1455:c 1449:b 1443:4 1429:a 1408:R 1402:M 1396:W 1390:L 1384:C 1378:3 1374:4 1370:3 1366:B 1360:E 1354:A 1348:O 1309:@ 1303:z 1293:y 1283:x 1273:w 1263:v 1253:u 1243:t 1237:s 1227:r 1217:q 1211:p 1205:o 1195:n 1185:m 1179:m 1173:l 1163:k 1153:j 1147:i 1137:i 1127:h 1121:g 1115:f 1109:e 1099:d 1093:d 1087:c 1073:c 1067:b 1061:a 979:. 951:; 929:; 730:φ 724:τ 718:σ 712:ρ 706:λ 700:δ 690:γ 680:β 670:α 660:@ 654:z 644:y 634:x 616:w 606:v 596:u 586:t 580:s 570:r 560:q 554:p 548:o 538:n 532:m 526:l 516:k 506:j 496:i 490:i 480:h 474:g 468:f 458:e 452:e 446:d 432:c 426:b 420:a 189:3 20:)

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