704:
28:
746:
604:
649:) and a maximum of 310 kPa (45 psi) for most commercial aircraft. Pressure for military aircraft, especially fighters, ranges up to 415 kPa (60 psi). Air being displaced in the tanks is usually vented overboard through a single vent on the aircraft. Because there is only one attachment point, fuel distribution between tanks is either automated or it is controlled from a control panel at the fueling point or in the cockpit. An early use of pressure refueling was on the
557:
627:
107:
20:
514:, where airlines carry extra fuel from low tax jurisdictions. This extra weight increases fuel burn, thus a local fuel tax could potentially increase overall fuel consumption. To avoid increased tankering, a worldwide aviation fuel tax has been proposed. Australia and the United States oppose a worldwide aviation fuel tax, but a number of other countries have expressed interest.
721:. If this is not dissipated before fueling, an electric arc could occur and ignite fuel vapors. To prevent this, aircraft are electrically bonded to the fueling apparatus before fueling begins, and are not disconnected until after fueling is complete. Some regions require the aircraft and/or fuel truck to be grounded too. Pressure fueling systems incorporate a
226:
Sustainable aviation fuel and blends of fossil and sustainably-sourced alternative fuels yield lower emissions of particles and GHGs. They are, however, not being used heavily, because they still face political, technological, and economic barriers, such as currently being more expensive than conventionally produced aviation fuels by a wide margin.
428:: The Challenger Multi-role Aircraft is a special mission variant of the Bombardier Challenger 650 business jet platform. Bombardier bases performance on the use of fuel with an average lower heating value of 18,550 BTU/lb (43.147 MJ/kg) and a density of 0.809 kg/L (6.75 lb/US gal).
681:
Jet fuel is clear to straw-colored, and is dispensed from a special nozzle called a J spout or duckbill that has a rectangular opening larger than 60 mm diagonally, so as not to fit into avgas ports. However, some jet and turbine aircraft, such as some models of the Astar helicopter, have a
506:
govern the tax exemption of aviation fuels. In the course of an EU initiative, many of these agreements have been modified to allow taxation. A motion for a
European Parliament resolution on a European Strategy for Low-emission Mobility has stated that "the possibilities for harmonised international
155:
Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of extremely refined kerosene and burns at temperatures at or above 49 °C (120 °F). Kerosene-based fuel has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly higher temperature to ignite. It is a
311:
emissions. Cryogenic hydrogen can be used as a liquid at temperatures below 20 K. Gaseous hydrogen involves pressurized tanks at 250–350 bar. With materials available in the 2020s, the mass of tanks strong enough to withstand this kind of high pressure will greatly outweigh the hydrogen fuel
690:
In recent years, fuel markets have become increasingly volatile. This, along with rapidly changing airline schedules and the desire to not carry excess fuel on board aircraft, has increased the importance of demand forecasting. In March 2022, Austin's Austin-Bergstrom
International Airport came
247:(LNG) are fuel feedstocks that aircraft may use in the future. Studies have been done on the feasibility of using natural gas and include the "SUGAR Freeze" aircraft under NASA's N+4 Advanced Concept Development program (made by Boeing's Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research (SUGAR) team). The
225:
Fuels such as sustainable aviation fuel have the advantage that few or no modifications are necessary on the aircraft itself, provided that the fuel characteristics meet specifications for lubricity and density as well as adequately swelling elastomer seals in current aircraft fuel systems.
1292:
665:
Because of the danger of confusing the fuel types, precautions are taken to distinguish between avgas and jet fuel beyond clearly marking all containers, vehicles, and piping. The aperture on fuel tanks of aircraft requiring avgas cannot be greater than
371:
fouling. Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption. Aviation fuel can be used as CNG fuel.
548:(ASTM) developed specifications for automobile gasoline as well as aviation gasoline. These specifications are ASTM D910 and ASTM D6227 for aviation gasoline and ASTM D439 or ASTM D4814 (latest revision) for automobile gasoline.
657:. Larger aircraft allow for two or more attachment points; however, this is still referred to as single-point refueling, as either attachment point can refuel all of the tanks. Multiple attachments allow for a faster flowrate.
1285:
1268:
1543:
745:
1627:
375:
Avgas is sold in much lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators; whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines and militaries.
490:. Other aircraft engines that were modified to run on 100% ethanol were several other types of Lycoming engines (including the Lycoming 235N2C, and Lycoming IO-320) and certain Rotax engines.
1337:
1070:
312:
itself, largely negating the weight to energy advantage of hydrogen fuel over hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen has a severe volumetric disadvantage relative to hydrocarbon fuels, but future
691:
close to running out of fuel, potentially stranding aircraft. Common forecasting techniques include tracking airline schedules and routes, expected distance flown, ground procedures,
1191:
889:"Highly efficient conversion of plant oil to bio-aviation fuel and valuable chemicals by combination of enzymatic transesterification, olefin cross-metathesis, and hydrotreating"
736:
are specially trained and equipped to handle aviation fuel fires and spills. Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt.
156:
high-quality fuel; if it fails the purity and other quality tests for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to ground-based users with less demanding requirements, such as railroads.
1036:
1126:
717:
Any fueling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation operations have characteristics which must be accommodated. As an aircraft flies through the air, it can accumulate
482:
Alcohol, alcohol mixtures, and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally, but alcohol is not permitted in any certified aviation fuel specification. In Brazil, the
739:
Avgas is the only remaining lead-containing transportation fuel. Lead in avgas prevents damaging engine knock, or detonation, that can result in a sudden engine failure.
323:
Even if finally practical, the industry timeline for adopting hydrogen is fairly lengthy. Alternatives to conventional aviation fuel available in the near term include
1265:
638:
Underwing fueling, also called single-point refueling or pressure refueling where not dependent on gravity, is used on larger aircraft and for jet fuel exclusively.
1825:
502:(ICAO) (Chicago 1944, Article 24) exempts air fuels already loaded onto an aircraft on landing (and which remain on the aircraft) from import taxes. Bi-lateral
1815:
1209:
31:
At some airports, underground fuel pipes allow refueling without the need for tank trucks. Trucks carry the necessary hoses and pumping equipment, but no fuel.
1597:
841:
1574:
1535:
1703:
1653:
1466:
1330:
82:
had been certified to use a 50-50 blend of kerosene and synthetic fuel derived from coal or natural gas as a way of stabilizing the cost of fuel.
1074:
295:
started after the millennium and gained track since about 2020, but as of 2022 was still far away from outright aircraft product development.
418:
In performance calculations, airliner manufacturers use a density of jet fuel around 6.7 lb/US gal, 8.02 lb/ imp Gal or 0.8 kg/L.
1757:
181:
oline) is used by small aircraft, light helicopters and vintage piston-engined aircraft. Its formulation is distinct from the conventional
1376:
1730:
467:
and metal deactivators, biocides, static reducers, icing inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, and impurities. Principal components include
1361:
1316:
499:
1025:
1122:
1781:
486:
EMB-202A is a version of the
Ipanema agricultural aircraft with a modified Lycoming IO-540-K1J5 engine so as to be able to run on
409:
Kerosene type BP Jet TS-1 (for lower temperatures), 43.2 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 787 kg/m (34.00 MJ/litre).
938:
Corporan, Edwin; et al. (2011). "Chemical, Thermal
Stability, Seal Swell, and Emissions Studies of Alternative Jet Fuels".
525:
752:
327:
and synthetically created fuel (aka "e-jet"). These fuels are collectively referred to as "Sustainable
Aviation Fuel" (SAF).
255:
of natural gas even in liquid form compared to conventional fuels gives it a distinct disadvantage for flight applications.
874:
561:
434:: In its airport planning manual for the E195 uses an adopted fuel density of 0.811 kg/L (6.77 lb/US gal).
614:
Overwing fueling is used on smaller planes, helicopters, and all piston-engine aircraft. Overwing fueling is similar to
1406:
728:
Aviation fuel can cause severe environmental damage; all fueling vehicles must carry equipment to control fuel spills.
1428:
763:
1213:
776:
733:
1680:
845:
1095:
573:
392:
193:
which is commonly called mogas or autogas in aviation context. Although it comes in many different grades, its
58:, and contain additives to enhance or maintain properties important to fuel performance or handling. They are
1566:
521:, the forgone tax income due to the exemption of tax on aviation fuel was estimated at £10 billion annually.
544:
Fuels have to conform to a specification in order to be approved for use in type certificated aircraft. The
244:
1240:
1707:
646:
406:
Kerosene type BP Jet A-1, 43.15 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 804 kg/m (34.69 MJ/litre).
1649:
1463:
703:
618:
fueling — one or more fuel ports are opened and fuel is pumped in with a conventional pump.
592:
to which aircraft must taxi. Some airports have permanent piping to parking areas for large aircraft.
339:
and fuel suitable for spark-ignition piston engines. There are international specifications for each.
608:
292:
264:
215:
1845:
79:
1380:
654:
503:
472:
240:
316:
aircraft designs might be able to accommodate this extra volume without greatly expanding the
1162:
981:
966:
722:
641:
For pressure refueling, a high-pressure hose is attached and fuel is pumped in at 275
595:
Aviation fuel is transferred to an aircraft via one of two methods: overwing or underwing.
425:
475:. Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their
8:
1829:
1166:
985:
967:"Biofuel blending reduces particle emissions from aircraft engines at cruise conditions"
235:
1788:
1486:
1002:
915:
888:
756:
718:
695:
of each aircraft and the impact of environmental factors like weather and temperature.
650:
545:
384:
345:
is a gas turbine fuel used in propeller and jet aircraft and helicopters. It has a low
1613:
1355:
1310:
1007:
920:
870:
809:
729:
631:
577:
356:
313:
211:
1617:
1609:
1170:
997:
989:
947:
910:
900:
324:
277:
219:
27:
1470:
1272:
707:
692:
589:
572:
Aviation fuel generally arrives at the airport via pipeline systems, such as the
483:
359:, often referred to as "avgas" or 100-LL (low-lead), is a highly refined form of
350:
273:
252:
210:
Alternatives to conventional fossil-based aviation fuels, new fuels made via the
71:
826:
353:, burns cleanly, and remains chemically stable when heated to high temperature.
50:. They have more stringent requirements than fuels used for ground use, such as
1731:"Austin airport sends out fuel shortage alert amid 'increased flight activity'"
468:
248:
55:
905:
302:
or other emissions (besides water). However, hydrogen combustion does produce
1839:
1153:
759:
603:
518:
476:
335:
The production of aviation fuel falls into two categories: fuel suitable for
194:
190:
145:
1402:
1735:
1439:
1011:
924:
682:
fueling port too small for the J spout, and thus require a smaller nozzle.
443:
Aviation fuels consist of blends of over two thousand chemicals, primarily
364:
1598:"The Impact of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme on US Aviation"
387:
for aviation fuels depends on their composition. Some typical values are:
781:
710:
464:
456:
444:
400:
336:
317:
285:
149:
141:
1622:
1536:"REPORT on a European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility - A8-0356/2017"
993:
1676:
786:
667:
642:
626:
585:
368:
281:
1511:
1175:
1148:
1099:
951:
556:
1758:"Navigate aviation fuel demand volatility with effective forecasting"
511:
346:
115:
39:
528:
in 2014 has been called an "illegal tax" by countries including the
507:
measures for kerosene taxation for aviation" needs to be explored.
1096:"Aircraft Design - MIT Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment"
675:
581:
460:
360:
342:
269:
229:
182:
137:
129:
126:
106:
101:
75:
59:
47:
251:
was an alternative fuel testbed which was fuelled on LNG. The low
19:
1192:"Mission Net-Zero: Charting the Path for E-fuels in the Military"
565:
487:
431:
133:
67:
51:
1236:
839:
510:
A worry is that a local aviation fuel tax would cause increased
70:) for gas turbine-powered aircraft. Piston-engined aircraft use
1261:
671:
452:
448:
186:
111:
1516:
FBO Networks, Ground
Handling, Trip Planning, Premium Jet Fuel
533:
396:
165:
762:
Fire King being refueled during firefighting operations in
63:
43:
1123:"Could natural gas fuel commercial flights of the future?"
1234:
615:
524:
The planned inclusion of international aviation into the
1567:"Does the government subsidise airlines by £10 billion?"
576:. It is then pumped over and dispensed from a tanker or
46:, or petroleum and synthetic fuel blends, used to power
1819:
670:
in diameter. Avgas is often dyed and is dispensed from
529:
349:
at low temperature, has limited ranges of density and
125:
is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an
1487:"Taxing aviation fuel. Standard Note SN00523 (2012)"
1484:
1677:"Aviation Fuel-AvGas Information Aviation Gasoline"
197:is higher than that for "regular" motor gasoline.
78:(kerosene). By 2012, all aircraft operated by the
1149:"Hydrogen-powered aircraft may be getting a lift"
678:of 40 mm (49 mm in the United States).
1837:
1464:Rotax engines on ethanol/conventional fuel blend
230:Compressed natural gas and liquified natural gas
189:, or "aviation spirit" in this context) used in
886:
869:, Bill Gunston 1999, Patrick Stephens Limited,
1480:
1478:
887:Wang, M.; Chen, M.; Fang, Y.; Tan, T. (2018).
330:
90:
1189:
1197:. NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence.
1475:
1674:
1140:
732:must be present at any fueling operation.
546:American Society for Testing and Materials
500:Convention on International Civil Aviation
399:/kg, density at 15 °C is 690 kg/
363:for aircraft, with an emphasis on purity,
200:
1621:
1174:
1001:
914:
904:
804:
802:
85:
937:
702:
625:
602:
555:
105:
26:
18:
580:. The fuel is then driven up to parked
438:
1838:
1595:
1589:
1360:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1315:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1190:Trakimavicius, Lukas (December 2023).
1146:
1120:
1042:from the original on 14 September 2016
867:The Development of Piston Aero Engines
840:U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission.
799:
588:. Some airports have pumps similar to
526:European Union Emission Trading Scheme
74:and those with diesel engines may use
1701:
1630:from the original on 15 February 2015
1564:
1071:"Bringing biojet fuels to the market"
1060:IATA 2014 Report on Alternative Fuels
964:
698:
685:
536:, which cite the Chicago Convention.
298:Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce CO
1728:
1546:from the original on 6 December 2017
1409:from the original on 16 October 2016
562:George Bush Intercontinental Airport
367:characteristics and minimization of
276:, if it is produced with power from
1602:Journal of Air Transport Management
1577:from the original on 17 August 2013
1565:Lucas, Caroline (24 January 2012).
1368:
725:to preclude unmonitored operation.
291:Some development of technology for
13:
1429:"Lycoming engines for ethanol use"
1207:
965:Moore, R. H.; et al. (2017).
258:
14:
1857:
1809:
1704:"AvGas Grades and Specifications"
1147:Kramer, David (1 December 2020).
764:Southern River, Western Australia
378:
236:Natural_gas § Transportation
1683:from the original on 25 May 2012
1656:from the original on 17 May 2013
1614:10.1016/j.jairtraman.2011.12.004
1512:"Fuel Service and Aviation Fuel"
1243:from the original on 28 May 2012
777:Environmental impact of aviation
744:
539:
1826:Aviation Fuels Technical Review
1774:
1750:
1722:
1695:
1668:
1642:
1558:
1528:
1504:
1457:
1421:
1395:
1374:
1343:from the original on 2017-04-07
1323:
1298:from the original on 2017-04-08
1278:
1255:
1235:Sergeant Oil & Gas Co Inc.
1228:
1201:
1183:
1129:from the original on 2016-11-05
1114:
1088:
1063:
560:Aviation fuel storage tanks at
220:certain straight vegetable oils
1403:"The Team - Vanguard Squadron"
1054:
1018:
958:
931:
880:
860:
833:
827:"The Air Force's Fuel Problem"
819:
1:
1729:Best, Paul (March 28, 2022).
1377:"FAA Ethanol Safety Document"
792:
660:
621:
272:can be used largely free of
146:compression ignition engines
7:
1469:September 21, 2013, at the
770:
734:Airport firefighting forces
598:
331:Production of aviation fuel
205:
144:, it can be used in either
95:
91:Conventional aviation fuels
16:Fuel used to power aircraft
10:
1864:
1485:House of Commons Library.
893:Biotechnology for Biofuels
810:"SKYbrary Aviation Safety"
634:use a double single-point.
413:
262:
233:
163:
140:blend (Jet B). Similar to
99:
906:10.1186/s13068-018-1020-4
551:
293:hydrogen-powered aircraft
265:Hydrogen-powered aircraft
216:sustainable aviation fuel
159:
1830:Chevron Global Aviation
1782:"Rules and Regulations"
1596:Malina, Robert (2012).
517:During a debate in the
504:air services agreements
201:Emerging aviation fuels
1650:"REFUELLING THE COMET"
1540:www.europarl.europa.eu
1275:. Retrieved 2008-09-13
714:
655:Sud Aviation Caravelle
635:
611:
569:
493:
403:(30.81 MJ/litre).
241:Compressed natural gas
119:
86:Types of aviation fuel
32:
24:
23:An aviation fuel truck
706:
629:
609:HK36-TTC Super Dimona
606:
559:
463:), additives such as
245:liquified natural gas
109:
30:
22:
1816:History of jet fuels
1492:. p. 3, note 11
1266:BP Products handbook
439:Chemical composition
426:Bombardier Aerospace
421:Specific cases are:
110:Ground fueling of a
1237:"Aviation gasoline"
1210:"Avgas vs Jet Fuel"
1167:2020PhT....73l..27K
994:10.1038/nature21420
986:2017Natur.543..411M
1383:on 12 January 2012
1271:2011-06-08 at the
1033:kic-innoenergy.com
940:Energy & Fuels
757:Carson Helicopters
730:Fire extinguishers
719:static electricity
715:
699:Safety precautions
686:Forecasting demand
651:de Havilland Comet
636:
612:
570:
385:net energy content
222:can also be used.
120:
33:
25:
1176:10.1063/PT.3.4632
980:(7645): 411–415.
952:10.1021/ef101520v
723:dead man's switch
632:widebody aircraft
357:Aviation gasoline
314:blended wing body
212:biomass to liquid
1853:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1793:
1787:. Archived from
1786:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1706:. Archived from
1699:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1675:CSGNetwork.com.
1672:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1646:
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1499:
1497:
1491:
1482:
1473:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1444:
1438:. Archived from
1433:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1379:. Archived from
1372:
1366:
1365:
1359:
1351:
1349:
1348:
1342:
1335:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1314:
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1304:
1303:
1297:
1290:
1282:
1276:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1216:on 25 April 2012
1212:. Archived from
1205:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1187:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1134:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1098:. Archived from
1092:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1082:
1073:. Archived from
1067:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1041:
1030:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1005:
971:
962:
956:
955:
935:
929:
928:
918:
908:
884:
878:
864:
858:
857:
855:
853:
848:on 20 April 2012
844:. Archived from
837:
831:
830:
823:
817:
816:
814:
806:
748:
590:filling stations
325:aviation biofuel
310:
278:renewable energy
274:carbon emissions
132:(Jet A-1), or a
1863:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1836:
1835:
1812:
1807:
1806:
1797:
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1779:
1775:
1766:
1764:
1756:
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1741:
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1723:
1713:
1711:
1700:
1696:
1686:
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1673:
1669:
1659:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1594:
1590:
1580:
1578:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1520:
1518:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1483:
1476:
1471:Wayback Machine
1462:
1458:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1410:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1386:
1384:
1373:
1369:
1353:
1352:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1331:"Archived copy"
1329:
1328:
1324:
1308:
1307:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1286:"Archived copy"
1284:
1283:
1279:
1273:Wayback Machine
1260:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1217:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1188:
1184:
1145:
1141:
1132:
1130:
1119:
1115:
1105:
1103:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1080:
1078:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1019:
969:
963:
959:
936:
932:
885:
881:
865:
861:
851:
849:
842:"Aviation Fuel"
838:
834:
825:
824:
820:
812:
808:
807:
800:
795:
773:
768:
767:
766:
754:
749:
708:British Airways
701:
693:fuel efficiency
688:
663:
624:
601:
554:
542:
496:
484:Embraer Ipanema
441:
416:
381:
351:calorific value
337:turbine engines
333:
309:
303:
301:
267:
261:
259:Liquid hydrogen
253:specific energy
238:
232:
208:
203:
168:
162:
150:turbine engines
104:
98:
93:
88:
72:leaded gasoline
17:
12:
11:
5:
1861:
1860:
1849:
1848:
1846:Aviation fuels
1834:
1833:
1823:
1811:
1810:External links
1808:
1805:
1804:
1773:
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1106:27 December
782:Rocket fuel
711:Airbus A321
668:millimetres
586:helicopters
318:wetted area
286:solar power
142:diesel fuel
116:URAL tanker
1798:2010-04-22
1767:2022-11-07
1521:2023-03-03
1347:2017-04-07
1302:2017-04-07
1133:2016-12-27
1081:2016-12-27
793:References
787:Swift fuel
661:Misfueling
457:naphthenes
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365:anti-knock
243:(CNG) and
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449:paraffins
347:viscosity
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