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stream of liquid samples and reagents are combined and transported in tubing and mixing coils. The tubing passes the samples from one apparatus to the other with each apparatus performing different functions, such as distillation, dialysis, extraction, ion exchange, heating, incubation, and subsequent recording of a signal. An essential principle of SFA is the introduction of air bubbles. The air bubbles segment each sample into discrete packets and act as a barrier between packets to prevent cross contamination as they travel down the length of the glass tubing. The air bubbles also assist mixing by creating turbulent flow (bolus flow), and provide operators with a quick and easy check of the flow characteristics of the liquid. Samples and standards are treated in an exactly identical manner as they travel the length of the fluidic pathway, eliminating the necessity of a steady state signal, however, since the presence of bubbles create an almost square wave profile, bringing the system to steady state does not significantly decrease throughput ( third generation CFA analyzers average 90 or more samples per hour) and is desirable in that steady state signals (chemical equilibrium) are more accurate and reproducible. Reaching steady state enables lowest detection limits to be reached.
213:
CFA and FIA), that allows the flow rate and flow direction to be tailored to the need of individual steps of analytical protocol. Reactants are mixed by flow reversals and a measurement is carried out while the reaction mixture is arrested within the detector by stopping the flow. Microminiaturized chromatography is carried out on microcolumns that are automatically renewed by microfluidic manipulations. The discrete pumping and metering of microliter sample and reagent volumes used in SI only generates waste per each sample injection. The enormous volume of FI and SI literature documents the versatility of FI and SI and their usefulness for routine assays (in soil, water, environmental, biochemical and biotechnological assays) has demonstrated their potential to be used as a versatile research tool.
295:
AAII is a second generation segmented flow analyzer that uses 2 millimeter ID glass tubing and pumps reagent at flow rates of 2 - 3 milliliters per minute. Typical sample throughput for the AAII is 30 - 60 samples per hour. Third generation segmented flow analyzers were proposed in the literature, but not developed commercially until Alpkem introduced the RFA 300 in 1984. The RFA 300 pumps at flow rates less than 1 milliliter per minute through 1 millimeter ID glass mixing coils. Throughput on the RFA can approach 360 samples per hour, but averages closer to 90 samples per hour on most environmental tests. In 1986, Technicon (Bran+Luebbe) introduced its own microflow TRAACS-800 system.
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minutes, and preferably less than one. Reactions that need longer reaction times should be segmented. However, considering the number of FIA publications and wide variety of uses of FIA for serial assays, the "one minute" time limitation does not seem to be a serious limitation for most real life assays. Yet, assays based on slow chemical reactions have to be carried either in stopped flow mode ( SIA) or by segmenting the flow.
194:
into numerous discrete segments to establish a long train of individual samples moving through a flow channel, FIA systems separate each sample from subsequent sample with a carrier reagent. While the AutoAnalyzer mixes sample homogeneously with reagents, in all FIA techniques sample and reagents are merged to form a concentration gradient that yields analysis results.
391:, for such medical tests as the ones mentioned previously. This way, an AutoAnalyzer can analyze hundreds of samples every day with one operating technician. Early AutoAnalyzer instruments each tested multiple samples sequentially for individual analytes. Later model AutoAnalyzers such as the SMAC tested for multiple analytes simultaneously in the samples.
408:
filtration and UV digestion in the continuously flowing stream. In 2005 about two thirds of systems sold worldwide were for water analysis of all kinds, ranging from sub-ppb levels of nutrients in seawater to much higher levels in waste water; other common applications are for soil, plant, tobacco, food, fertilizer and wine analysis.
320:, and then later by OI Analytical in College Station Texas. OI Analytical manufactures the only segmented flow analyzer that uses polymeric tubing in place of glass mixing coils. OI is also the only major instrument manufacturer that provides segmented flow analysis (SFA) and flow injection analysis (FIA) options on the same platform.
154:. The instrument was invented in 1957 by Leonard Skeggs, PhD and commercialized by Jack Whitehead's Technicon Corporation. The first applications were for clinical analysis, but methods for industrial and environmental analysis soon followed. The design is based on segmenting a continuously flowing stream with air bubbles.
294:
The best known of
Technicon's CFA instruments are the AutoAnalyzer II (introduced 1970), the Sequential Multiple Analyzer (SMA, 1969), and the Sequential Multiple Analyzer with Computer (SMAC, 1974). The Autoanalyzer II (AAII) is the instrument that most EPA methods were written on and reference. The
208:
Technicon experimented with FIA long before it was championed by
Ruzicka and Hansen. Andres Ferrari reported that analysis was possible without bubbles if flow rates were increased and tubing diameters decreased. In fact, Skegg's first attempts at the auto analyzer did not segment. Technicon chose to
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FIA methods are limited by the amount of time necessary to obtain a measurable signal since travel time through the tubing tends to broaden peaks to the point where samples can merge with each other. As a general rule, FIA methods should not be used if an adequate signal cannot be obtained within two
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Bran+Luebbe continued to manufacture the AutoAnalyzer II and TRAACS, a micro-flow analyzer for environmental and other samples, introduced the AutoAnalyzer 3 in 1997 and the QuAAtro in 2004. The Bran+Luebbe CFA business was bought by SEAL Analytical in 2006 and they continue to manufacture, sell and
193:
Flow injection analysis (FIA), was introduced in 1975 by
Ruzicka and Hansen, The first generation of FIA technology, termed flow injection (FI), was inspired by the AutoAnalyzer technique invented by Skeggs in early 1950s. While Skeggs' AutoAnalyzer uses air segmentation to separate a flowing stream
309:
Astoria-Pacific
International, for example, was founded in 1990 by Raymond Pavitt, who previously owned Alpkem. Based in Clackamas, Oregon, U.S.A., Astoria-Pacific manufactures its own micro-flow systems. Its products include the Astoria Analyzer lines for Environmental and Industrial applications;
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The second generation of the FIA technique, called sequential injection analysis (SIA), was conceived in 1990 by
Ruzicka and Marshal, and has been further developed and miniaturized over the course of the following decade. It uses flow programming instead of the continuous flow regime (as used by
407:
The first industrial applications - mainly for water, soil extracts and fertilizer - used the same hardware and techniques as clinical methods, but from the mid-1970s special techniques and modules were developed so that by 1990 it was possible to perform solvent extraction, distillation, on-line
305:
Skalar Inc., subsidiary of Skalar
Analytical, founded in 1965, which has its head office in Breda (NL), is since its founding an independent company, fully owned by its personnel. Development in robotic analyzers, TOC and TN equipment, and monitors has extended the product lines of its long life
170:
Continuous flow analysis (CFA) is a general term that encompasses both segmented flow analysis (SFA) and flow injection analysis (FIA). In segmented flow analysis, a continuous stream of material is divided by air bubbles into discrete segments in which chemical reactions occur. The continuous
197:
FIA methods can be used for both fast reactions as well as slow reactions. For slow reactions, a heater is often utilized. The reaction does not need to reach completion since all samples and standards are given the same period to react. For typical assays commonly measured with FIA (e.g.,
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During the 1960s industrial laboratories were hesitant to use the autoanalyzer. Acceptance by regulatory agencies eventually came about by demonstration that the techniques are no different from a recording spectrophotometer with reagents and samples added at the exact chemical ratios as
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of
Research Specialties Company. That system became known as Discrete Sample Analysis and was represented by an instrument known as the "Robot Chemist." Over the years the Discrete Sample Analysis method slowly replaced the Continuous Flow system in the clinical laboratory.
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do not go through the dialysis membrane but go to a separate waste stream. The reagents, sample and reagent volumes, flow rates, and other aspects of the instrument analysis depend on which analyte is being measured. The autoanalyzer is also a very small machine
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A continuous segmented flow analyzer (SFA) consists of different modules including a sampler, pump, mixing coils, optional sample treatments (dialysis, distillation, heating, etc.), a detector, and data generator. Most continuous flow analyzers depend on
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Technicon published method sheets for a wide range of analyses and a few of these are listed below. These methods and later methods are available from SEAL Analytical. Method lists for manufacturers instruments are readily available on their websites.
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Technicon sold its business to Revlon in 1980 who later sold the company to separate clinical (Bayer) and industrial (Bran+Luebbe - now SEAL Analytical) buyers in 1987. At the time, industrial applications accounted for about 20% of CFA machines sold.
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AutoAnalyzers are still used for a few clinical applications such as neonatal screening or Anti-D, but the majority of instruments are now used for industrial and environmental work. Standardized methods have been published by the
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module in the instrument in which the analyte permeates through a dialysis membrane into a separate flow path going on to further analysis. The purpose of a dialyzer is to separate the analyte from interfering substances such as
287:(FIA). Since then the technique found worldwide use in research and routine applications, and was further modified through miniaturization and by replacing continuous flow with computer controlled programmable flow.
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SAN++ Continuous Flow
Analyzers. Software packages for data acquisition and analyzer control are also in house products, running with latest software demands and handles all analyzer hardware combinations.
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OI Analytical, in its gas diffusion amperometric total cyanide method, uses a segmented flow injection analysis technique that allows reaction times of up to 10 minutes by flow injection analysis.
335:, but they had been replaced during the last years more and more by discrete working systems which allow lower reagent consumption. These instruments typically determine levels of
445:. Autoanalyzers are also commonly used in soil testing laboratories, fertilizer analysis, process control, seawater analysis, air contaminants, and tobacco leaf analysis.
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records the detector output as a function of time so that each sample output appears as a peak whose height depends on the analyte level in the sample.
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using a flow through photometer, however, also methods have been developed that use ISE, flame photometry, ICAP, fluorometry, and so forth.
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the SPOTCHECK Analyzer for
Neonatal screening; and FASPac (Flow Analysis Software Package) for data acquisition and computer interface.
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or other bodily samples. AutoAnalyzers automate repetitive sample analysis steps which would otherwise be done manually by a
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In medical testing applications and industrial samples with high concentrations or interfering material, there is often a
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J., Rulika; Hansen, E. H. (1975). "Flow injection analyses: I. New concept of fast continuous-flow analysis".
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nitrite, nitrate, ammonia, phosphate) it is not uncommon to have a throughput of 60-120 samples per hour.
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Rosenfeld, Louis. Four
Centuries of Clinical Chemistry. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1999.
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FIAlab Instruments, Inc., in Seattle, Washington, also manufactures several analyzer systems.
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support the AutoAnalyzer II/3 and QuAAtro CFA systems, as well as Discrete Analyzers.
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not pursue FIA because it increased reagent consumption and the cost of analysis.
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initial experiments on a competitive technique, that they termed
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In 1959 a competitive system of analysis was introduced by
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AutoAnalyzers were used mainly for routine repetitive
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And there are other manufacturers of CFA instruments.
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Analytical Instrumentation Handbook, Second Edition
751:
Analytical Instrumentation Handbook, Second Edition
62:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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719:Whitehead Institute – Making clinical progress
423:International Organization for Standardization
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1790:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
425:(ISO) for environmental analytes such as
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275:In 1974 Ruzicka and Hansen carried out in
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122:Learn how and when to remove this message
27:Automated analyzer using a flow technique
2155:Instruments used in medical laboratories
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1671:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
291:traditionally accepted manual methods.
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695:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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642:(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
639:Landmark papers in clinical chemistry
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607:"Technicon AutoAnalyzer Sampler Unit"
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60:adding citations to reliable sources
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810:New Mexico State University article
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1714:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
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709:(Technicon Symposia, 1967, Vol I)
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1569:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
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142:using a flow technique called
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267:The AutoAnalyzer setup (1966)
611:Chemical Heritage Foundation
345:aspartate transaminase (AST)
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316:Alpkem was purchased by
166:AutoAnalyzer I Technicon
150:(SFA) first made by the
144:continuous flow analysis
1749:Melting-point apparatus
1130:Cryogenic storage dewar
509:Potassium ferricyanide
285:flow injection analysis
189:Flow injection analysis
183:Flow injection analyzer
148:segmented flow analysis
1686:Mass spectrometer (MS)
1676:Gas chromatograph (GC)
724:June 26, 2010, at the
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2061:Acid-resistant gloves
1742:differential scanning
455:Colorimetric analysis
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152:Technicon Corporation
2184:Analytical chemistry
2179:Laboratory equipment
1638:Analytical chemistry
1140:Laminar flow cabinet
846:Laboratory equipment
736:Coakly, William A.,
565:Coakly, William A.,
373:inorganic phosphorus
341:alkaline phosphatase
247:and more recently a
239:Recording of results
56:improve this article
2010:Personal protective
919:Meker–Fisher burner
775:Ewing, Galen Wood,
764:PhD. Dissertation,
749:Ewing, Galen Wood,
403:Industrial analysis
349:blood urea nitrogen
158:Operating principle
1853:Function generator
1836:Bench power supply
1775:Analytical balance
1536:Ostwald viscometer
1531:Graduated cylinder
1270:Inoculation needle
677:on 30 October 2007
520:Kjeldahl nitrogen
492:Diacetyl monoxime
330:medical laboratory
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982:Mortar and pestle
649:978-0-444-51950-4
617:on 5 January 2016
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259:Commercialization
253:personal computer
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1090:Test tube rack
1087:
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1079:
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1065:Funnel support
1063:
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972:Liquid whistle
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937:Vacuum dry box
934:
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901:
899:Heating mantle
896:
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884:Alcohol burner
880:
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804:External links
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469:Determination
467:
453:Main article:
450:
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318:Perstorp Group
260:
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245:chart recorder
240:
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230:, whose large
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187:Main article:
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71:"AutoAnalyzer"
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1191:Balance brush
1190:
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1167:Weighing dish
1166:
1164:Weighing boat
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1055:Burette clamp
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889:Bunsen burner
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796:. Pp. 490-492
795:
794:90-5699-645-2
791:
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762:C.J. Patton,
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540:Boiler water
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449:Method sheets
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243:Previously a
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73: –
72:
68:
67:Find sources:
61:
57:
51:
50:
45:This article
43:
39:
34:
33:
30:
19:
2116:Fire blanket
2054:Eye and hand
2040:Rubber apron
1904:Oscilloscope
1868:Potentiostat
1795:Plate reader
1691:pH indicator
1661:CHN analyzer
1656:AutoAnalyzer
1655:
1449:Round-bottom
1342:Boston round
1205:Filter paper
1160:Refrigerator
1077:Retort stand
1045:Clamp holder
1041:Beaker clamp
1007:Vortex mixer
1002:Stirring rod
997:Static mixer
927:Teclu burner
784:
776:
771:
763:
758:
750:
745:
737:
732:
714:
705:
679:. Retrieved
675:the original
665:
653:. Retrieved
638:
631:
619:. Retrieved
615:the original
610:
601:
584:
580:
574:
566:
561:
546:650 nm
529:630 nm
512:420 nm
495:520 nm
478:Colorimeter
458:
415:
412:Current Uses
406:
393:
327:
315:
312:
308:
304:
301:
297:
293:
289:
274:
270:
242:
220:
211:
207:
204:
200:
196:
192:
173:
169:
147:
143:
136:AutoAnalyzer
135:
133:
118:
112:October 2020
109:
99:
92:
85:
78:
66:
54:Please help
49:verification
46:
29:
18:Autoanalyser
2104:Other items
2030:Face shield
1877:Measurement
1858:Galvanostat
1818:Electronics
1768:Other items
1754:Thermometer
1737:Calorimeter
1666:Colorimeter
1610:Gas syringe
1593:Other items
1521:Eye dropper
1396:Watch glass
1381:Evaporating
1360:Cold finger
1175:Other items
1081:Screw clamp
1073:Pinch clamp
1062:Flask clamp
1012:Wash bottle
967:Homogenizer
587:: 145–157.
523:Foodstuffs
396:Hans Baruch
385:blood serum
361:cholesterol
249:data logger
2168:Categories
2035:Respirator
1976:Test probe
1894:Multimeter
1706:Microscopy
1526:Eudiometer
1490:Separatory
1459:Volumetric
1424:Erlenmeyer
1352:Condensers
1316:Dean–Stark
1265:Wire brush
1225:Microscope
1220:Centrifuge
1195:Cork borer
1150:Petri dish
1125:Agar plate
1112:Containers
1095:Wire gauze
932:Water bath
894:Desiccator
655:7 December
621:7 December
543:Molybdate
537:Phosphate
466:Sheet no.
389:technician
365:creatinine
82:newspapers
2126:Fume hood
2071:Glove box
1924:Voltmeter
1309:Apparatus
1298:Glassware
1187:Autoclave
1182:Aspirator
1135:Incubator
1069:Iron ring
992:Sonicator
962:Chemostat
904:Hot plate
381:uric acid
353:bilirubin
232:molecules
2025:Lab coat
1950:Tweezers
1940:Heat gun
1696:pH meter
1605:Bell jar
1485:Dropping
1439:Florence
1429:Fernbach
1391:Syracuse
1250:Scoopula
1200:Crucible
909:Lab oven
722:Archived
691:cite web
681:2 August
503:Glucose
377:proteins
333:analyses
223:dialyzer
1964:General
1884:Ammeter
1584:Thistle
1541:Pipette
1516:Cuvette
1506:Burette
1475:BĂĽchner
1468:Funnels
1454:Schlenk
1434:Fleaker
1414:BĂĽchner
1335:Bottles
1255:Spatula
1245:Stopper
1215:Forceps
1115:Storage
1032:Holders
952:Shakers
923:Striker
871:Heaters
858:General
472:Sample
439:cyanide
435:ammonia
431:nitrate
427:nitrite
369:glucose
357:calcium
337:albumin
279:and in
277:Denmark
228:protein
96:scholar
1998:Safety
1600:Beaker
1579:Thiele
1564:Cragie
1559:Drying
1480:Hirsch
1444:Retort
1406:Flasks
1374:Dishes
1365:Liebig
1326:Kipp's
1240:Splint
1050:Tripod
1028:Clamps
1024:Stands
987:Shaker
949:Mixers
874:Dryers
792:
646:
506:Blood
443:phenol
441:, and
379:, and
281:Brazil
138:is an
98:
91:
84:
77:
69:
1933:Tools
1551:Tubes
1386:Petri
779:pp153
753:pp152
553:Notes
534:P-3b
517:N-3b
500:N-2b
483:N-1c
103:JSTOR
89:books
1615:Vial
1574:Test
1210:File
914:Kiln
790:ISBN
697:link
683:2008
657:2015
644:ISBN
623:2015
419:ASTM
134:The
75:news
589:doi
383:in
351:,
251:or
58:by
2170::
693:}}
689:{{
609:.
585:78
583:.
437:,
433:,
429:,
375:,
371:,
367:,
363:,
359:,
355:,
347:,
343:,
339:,
838:e
831:t
824:v
699:)
685:.
659:.
625:.
595:.
591::
125:)
119:(
114:)
110:(
100:·
93:·
86:·
79:·
52:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
