Ashoka - Knowledge

4325: 2689: 3755: 2431: 1562: 73: 3017:. Asandhamitta replied that all her enjoyments resulted from merit resulting from her own karma. Ashoka then challenged her to prove this by procuring 60,000 robes as an offering for monks. At night, the guardian gods informed her about her past gift to the pratyekabuddha, and next day, she was able to miraculously procure the 60,000 robes. An impressed Ashoka makes her his favourite empress, and even offers to make her a sovereign ruler. Asandhamitta refuses the offer, but still invokes the jealousy of Ashoka's 16,000 other women. Ashoka proves her superiority by having 16,000 identical cakes baked with his imperial seal hidden in only one of them. Each wife is asked to choose a cake, and only Asandhamitta gets the one with the imperial seal. The 1972:(universal ruler). Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila. However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila. When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his, the gods would crown him as the next emperor. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the 1131: 1578: 2193: 2910: 406: 4551:

Vedic religion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Thapar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics." The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time:

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father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving the capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with an imperial elephant for the travel. At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next emperor. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met the criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor, and on her advice, left the empire to avoid Bindusara's wrath.

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Brahmi script. It is likely that the script was forgotten by the time of Faxian, who probably relied on local guides; these guides may have made up some Buddhism-related interpretations to gratify him, or may have themselves relied on faulty translations based on oral traditions. Xuanzang may have encountered a similar situation, or may have taken the supposed content of the inscriptions from Faxian's writings. This theory is corroborated by the fact that some Brahmin scholars are known to have similarly come up with a fanciful interpretation of Ashoka pillar inscriptions, when requested to decipher them by the 14th century

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heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising the welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the

1312:, explicitly promoting Buddhism. The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications. The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India. According to Beckwith, the inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the 2461: 730: 3196: 1485: 413: 4567:, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other". 3980: 1369: 4418: 4208:, as well as boulders and cave walls, issued during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare. 12620: 12377: 12604: 12576: 1346: 12778: 12634: 12500: 12562: 12518: 12718: 12664: 12650: 12590: 12482: 12464: 12700: 12682: 12532: 2313:

Ashoka saw a young Buddhist monk called Nigrodha (or Nyagrodha), who was looking for alms on a road in Pataliputra. He was the king's nephew, although the king was not aware of this: he was a posthumous son of Ashoka's eldest brother Sumana, whom Ashoka had killed during the conflict for the throne. Ashoka was impressed by Nigrodha's tranquil and fearless appearance, and asked him to teach him his faith. In response, Nigrodha offered him a sermon on

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officials chose such places, including that they were centres of megalithic cultures, were regarded as sacred spots in Ashoka's time, or that their physical grandeur may be symbolic of spiritual dominance. Ashoka's inscriptions have not been found at major cities of the Maurya empire, such as Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjayini, and Taxila. It is possible that many of these inscriptions are lost; the 7th century Chinese pilgrim

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subcontinent. Bindusara and Ashoka seem to have extended the empire southwards. The distribution of Ashoka's inscriptions suggests that his empire included almost the entire Indian subcontinent, except its southernmost parts. The Rock Edicts 2 and 13 suggest that these southernmost parts were controlled by the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputras, and the Satiyaputras. In the north-west, Ashoka's kingdom extended up to

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captives. Ashoka states that the repentance of these sufferings caused him to devote himself to the practice and propagation of dharma. He proclaims that he now considered the slaughter, death and deportation caused during the conquest of a country painful and deplorable; and that he considered the suffering caused to the religious people and householders even more deplorable.

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Ashoka's remorse. It is possible that Ashoka did not consider it politically appropriate to make such a confession to the people of Kalinga. Another possibility is the Kalinga war and its consequences, as described in Ashoka's rock edicts, are "more imaginary than real". This description is meant to impress those far removed from the scene, thus unable to verify its accuracy.

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purity" of the Sangha. For example, in his Minor Rock Edict 3, Ashoka recommends the members of the Sangha to study certain texts (most of which remain unidentified). Similarly, in an inscription found at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Kosam, Ashoka mandates that the dissident members of the sangha should be expelled, and expresses his desire to the Sangha remain united and flourish.

2333:, another major contemporary faith that advocates non-violence and compassion. The legend suggests that Ashoka was not attracted to Buddhism because he was looking for such a faith, rather, for a competent spiritual teacher. The Sri Lankan tradition adds that during his sixth regnal year, Ashoka's son Mahinda became a Buddhist monk, and his daughter became a Buddhist nun. 1944:, Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended the throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years. 4584:

was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships." Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.

3914:, the emperor fell severely ill during his last days. He started using state funds to make donations to the Buddhist sangha, prompting his ministers to deny him access to the state treasury. Ashoka then started donating his personal possessions, but was similarly restricted from doing so. On his deathbed, his only possession was the half of a 3798:

Vijaya was reborn as Ashoka's prime-minister Radhagupta. In the later life, the Buddhist monk Upagupta tells Ashoka that his rough skin was caused by the impure gift of dirt in the previous life. Some later texts repeat this story, without mentioning the negative implications of gifting dirt; these texts include Kumaralata's

4324: 2828:). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school. The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka. 2723:, who was a contemporary of the Gautama Buddha, once saw 18 fragments of a cloth and a stick in a dream. The Buddha interpreted the dream to mean that his philosophy would be divided into 18 schools after his death, and predicted that a king called Ashoka would unite these schools over a hundred years later. 2074:, Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after the death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years. The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate, and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date. 4583:

to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Thapar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It

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Several of Ashoka's inscriptions appear to have been set up near towns, on important routes, and at places of religious significance. Many of the inscriptions have been discovered in hills, rock shelters, and places of local significance. Various theories have been put forward about why Ashoka or his

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states that Tissarakkha (called "Tishyarakshita" here) made sexual advances towards Ashoka's son Kunala, but Kunala rejected her. Subsequently, Ashoka granted Tissarakkha emperorship for seven days, and during this period, she tortured and blinded Kunala. Ashoka then threatened to "tear out her eyes,

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asserts that an insignificant act like gifting dirt could not have been meritorious enough to cause Ashoka's future greatness. Instead, the text claims that in another past life, Ashoka commissioned a large number of Buddha statues as a king, and this act of merit caused him to become a great emperor

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Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage. However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the spread of Buddhism in north-western India and Deccan region was less because of Ashoka's missions, and more because of merchants, traders, landowners and the

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The Sri Lankan tradition presents a greater role for Ashoka in the Buddhist community. In this tradition, Ashoka starts feeding monks on a large scale. His lavish patronage to the state patronage leads to many fake monks joining the sangha. The true Buddhist monks refuse to co-operate with these fake

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describes Ashoka's collection of the relics, but does not mention this episode in the context of the construction activities. It states that Ashoka decided to construct the 84,000 viharas when Moggaliputta Tissa told him that there were 84,000 sections of the Buddha's Dhamma. Ashoka himself began the

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The ministers who had helped him ascend the throne started treating him with contempt after his ascension. To test their loyalty, Ashoka gave them the absurd order of cutting down every flower-and fruit-bearing tree. When they failed to carry out this order, Ashoka personally cut off the heads of 500

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and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being an emperor, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to the army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told

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disliked Ashoka because of his rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his

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was looking for honey to cure another, sick pratyekabuddha. A woman directed him to a honey shop owned by the three brothers. Ashoka generously donated honey to the pratyekabuddha, and wished to become the sovereign ruler of Jambudvipa for this act of merit. The woman wished to become his queen, and

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or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from

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According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism. Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that

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According to Ashoka's Major Rock Edict 13, he conquered Kalinga 8 years after ascending to the throne. The edict states that during his conquest of Kalinga, 100,000 men and animals were killed in action; many times that number "perished"; and 150,000 men and animals were carried away from Kalinga as

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The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be a way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers. Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne. It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful

1925:. The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha. The Buddhist texts allude to her being a Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka. 4219:

Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and

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rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in

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He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their

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Faxian calls the younger brother Mahendra, and states that Ashoka shamed him for his immoral behaviour. The brother then retired to a dark cave, where he meditated, and became an arhat. Ashoka invited him to return to the family, but he preferred to live alone on a hill. So, Ashoka had a hill built

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Karuvaki is the only queen of Ashoka known from his own inscriptions: she is mentioned in an edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad. The inscription names her as the mother of prince Tivara, and orders the imperial officers (mahamattas) to record her religious and charitable donations. According

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states that Ashoka followed non-Buddhist sects during the first three years of his reign. The Sri Lankan texts add that Ashoka was not happy with the behaviour of the Brahmins who received his alms daily. His courtiers produced some Ajivika and Nigantha teachers before him, but these also failed to

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Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be a fabrication of the Buddhist authors, who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle. In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness

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during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely. However, this theory is not universally accepted. For example,

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Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended the throne in 265 BCE. The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan

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states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne. The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana. The

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According to Sri Lankan tradition, this brother was Tissa, who initially lived a luxurious life, without worrying about the world. To teach him a lesson, Ashoka put him on the throne for a few days, then accused him of being an usurper, and sentenced him to die after seven days. During these seven

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argues that the "dhamma" missionaries mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably not Buddhist monks, as this "dhamma" was not same as "Buddhism". Moreover, the lists of destinations of the missions and the dates of the missions mentioned in the inscriptions do not tally the ones mentioned in

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attributes Ashoka's conversion to the Buddhist monk Samudra, who was an ex-merchant from Shravasti. According to this account, Samudra was imprisoned in Ashoka's "Hell", but saved himself using his miraculous powers. When Ashoka heard about this, he visited the monk, and was further impressed by a

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appears in several versions at multiple places: all the versions state that Ashoka issued the proclamation while on a tour, having spent 256 days on tour. The number 256 indicates that the message was dispatched simultaneously to various places. Three versions of a message, found at edicts in the

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Before Ashoka, the royal communications appear to have been written on perishable materials such as palm leaves, birch barks, cotton cloth, and possibly wooden boards. While Ashoka's administration would have continued to use these materials, Ashoka also had his messages inscribed on rock edicts.

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Ashoka also abolished the imperial hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the imperial residence. Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the

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argues that the non-corroboration of this story by inscriptional evidence cannot be used to dismiss it as completely unhistorical, as several of Ashoka's inscriptions may have been lost. Gombrich also argues that Asohka's inscriptions prove that he was interested in maintaining the "unanimity and

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states that Ashoka invited several non-Buddhist religious leaders to his palace and bestowed great gifts upon them in the hope that they would answer a question posed by the king. The text does not state what the question was but mentions that none of the invitees were able to answer it. One day,

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The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion from the

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story, Ashoka was born as Jaya in a prominent family of Rajagriha. When he was a little boy, he gave the Gautama Buddha dirt imagining it to be food. The Buddha approved of the donation, and Jaya declared that he would become a king by this act of merit. The text also state that Jaya's companion

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suggest that Ashoka's inscriptions mark the important sites associated with Gautama Buddha. These writers attribute Buddhism-related content to Ashoka's edicts, but this content does not match with the actual text of the inscriptions as determined by modern scholars after the decipherment of the

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The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. Ashoka's own inscriptions also appear to omit any mention of these events, recording only one of his activities during this period: in his 19th regnal year, he donated the Khalatika Cave to ascetics to provide them a shelter during the

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Ashoka's rock edicts suggest that during his eighth–ninth regnal years, he made a pilgrimage to the Bodhi Tree, started propagating dhamma, and performed social welfare activities. The welfare activities included establishment of medical treatment facilities for humans and animals; plantation of

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also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism. However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any

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Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as a great, ideal emperor. These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This

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to describe the relationship between Ashoka and Devi, which modern scholars variously interpret as sexual relations outside marriage, or co-habitation as a married couple. Those who argue that Ashoka did not marry Devi argue that their theory is corroborated by the fact that Devi did not become

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This edict has been inscribed at several places, including Erragudi, Girnar, Kalsi, Maneshra, Shahbazgarhi and Kandahar. However, it is omitted in Ashoka's inscriptions found in the Kalinga region, where the Rock Edicts 13 and 14 have been replaced by two separate edicts that make no mention of

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On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th–7th regnal years. The Buddhist legends make no mention of the Kalinga campaign.

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Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered the Kalingas because the conquest of a country previously

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tradition. If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE. The

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states that an Ajivika ascetic invited to interpret a dream of Ashoka's mother had predicted that he would patronise Buddhism and destroy 96 heretical sects. However, such assertions are directly contradicted by Ashoka's own inscriptions. Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12,

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For several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda. Additionally, these stories do not appear in the Jain texts themselves who do mention Ashoka, such as the Parishtaparvan or Theravali.

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It is possible, but not certain, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the

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The extent of the territory controlled by Ashoka's predecessors is not certain, but it is possible that the empire of his grandfather Chandragupta extended across northern India from the western coast (Arabian Sea) to the eastern coast (Bay of Bengal) covering nearly two-thirds of the Indian

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Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him. While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible

2142:. The sight put him in an amorous mood, but the women did not enjoy caressing his rough skin. Sometime later, when Ashoka fell asleep, the resentful women chopped the flowers and the branches of his namesake tree. After Ashoka woke up, he burnt 500 of his concubines to death as punishment. 4574:

that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an

2746:, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala. Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka. 2041:

adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother. According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared. Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in

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Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.

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economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."

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trade route. However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city. That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by

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The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as

3354:, Ashoka honours people of all faiths. In his inscriptions, Ashoka dedicates caves to non-Buddhist ascetics, and repeatedly states that both Brahmins and shramanas deserved respect. He also tells people "not to denigrate other sects, but to inform themselves about them". 2495:

construction of the Ashokarama vihara, and ordered subordinate kings to build the other viharas. Ashokarama was completed by the miraculous power of Thera Indagutta, and the news about the completion of the 84,000 viharas arrived from various cities on the same day.

3139:, she was 18 years old when she was ordained as a nun. The narrative suggests that she was married two years earlier, and that her husband as well as her child were ordained. It is unlikely that she would have been allowed to become a nun with such a young child. 3895:

rip open her body with sharp rakes, impale her alive on a spit, cut off her nose with a saw, cut out her tongue with a razor." Kunala regained his eyesight miraculously, and pleaded for mercy for the empress, but Ashoka had her executed anyway. Kshemendra's

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influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.

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drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of the Nirgrantha leader Jnatiputra. The term nirgrantha ("free from bonds") was originally used for a pre-Jaina ascetic order, but later came to be used for Jaina monks. "Jnatiputra" is identified with

3509:) rather than his rock edicts. This was because the Brahmi script in which these edicts were written was forgotten soon and remained undeciphered until its study by James Prinsep in the 19th century. The writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as 3859:

is from his 26th regnal year. The only source of information about Ashoka's later years are the Buddhist legends. The Sri Lankan tradition states that Ashoka's empress Asandhamitta died during his 29th regnal year, and in his 32nd regnal year, his wife

3408:" ("not mingled"), and the phrase refers to celestial beings who did not mingle with humans. The inscription claims that the righteousness generated by adoption of dhamma by the humans attracted even the celestial gods who did not mingle with humans. 2145:

Alarmed by the king's involvement in such massacres, prime minister Radha-Gupta proposed hiring an executioner to carry out future mass killings to leave the king unsullied. Girika, a Magadha village boy who boasted that he could execute the whole of

3298:, but then, he "went to" the Sangha, and made more progress. It is not certain what "going to" the Sangha means – the Buddhist tradition that he lived with monks may be an exaggeration, but it clearly means that Ashoka was drawn closer to Buddhism. 4591:

that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.

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makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information. Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible.

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neighbouring places in Karnataka (Brahmagiri, Siddapura, and Jatinga-Rameshwara), were sent from the southern province's capital Suvarnagiri to various places. All three versions contain the same message, preceded by an initial greeting from the

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The Rock Edict XIII states that Ashoka's won a "dhamma victory" by sending messengers to five kings and several other kingdoms. Whether these missions correspond to the Buddhist missions recorded in the Buddhist chronicles is debated. Indologist

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medicinal herbs; and digging of wells and plantation of trees along the roads. These activities were conducted in the neighbouring kingdoms, including those of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, Tamraparni, the Greek kingdom of Antiyoka.

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contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE. According to the

3657:

Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.

1980:

territory located below the earth. When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became a Buddhist monk.

3537:

told him that the inscriptions prophesied that nobody would be able to remove the pillars except a king named Firuz. Moreover, by this time, there were local traditions that attributed the erection of these pillars to the legendary hero

726:; other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign; and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts. These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony. 1839:

near Taxila. The inscription includes a name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka. Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the

3500:, who were tasked with the welfare of the aged, the infirm, the women and children, and various religious sects. They were also sent on diplomatic missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms of west Asia, in order to propagate the dhamma. 3381:

officers, whose duties included the welfare of various religious sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas, and Nirgranthas. The Rock Edicts 8 and 12, and the Pillar Edict 7, mandate donations to all religious sects.

2232:

the Kalinga war. Critics of this theory argue that if Ashoka were already a Buddhist, he would not have waged the violent Kalinga War. Eggermont explains this anomaly by theorising that Ashoka had his own interpretation of the

790:

mentions a lost word beginning with "Priyadari", which is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi" since it has been written in Aramaic of 3rd century BCE, although this is not certain. Some other inscriptions, such as the

4604:

declined rapidly. The various Puranas provide different details about Ashoka's successors, but all agree that they had relatively short reigns. The empire seems to have weakened, fragmented, and suffered an invasion from the

2082:

states that Ashoka consecrated himself as the emperor four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years.

1725:, which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea. 1759:(according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara was impressed by the other qualities of the prince. Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital. 937:, she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka. In another story, both the texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from 4050: 9016: 2116:

Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism. Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits

3052:, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhamitta, not Devi: the text does not talk of any connection between the two women, so it is unlikely that Asandhamitta was another name for Devi. The Sri Lankan tradition uses the word 2244:

converted to Buddhism after seeing the suffering caused by the war since his Major Rock Edict 13 states that he became closer to the dhamma after the annexation of Kalinga. However, even if Ashoka converted to Buddhism

2123:); he was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism. 8431:"Ashoka was known to be a great builder who may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments." Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj, A. S. Bhalla, I.B.Tauris, 2015 p.18 3171:

The Theragatha commentary calls this brother Vitashoka. According to this legend, one day, Vitashoka saw a grey hair on his head, and realised that he had become old. He then retired to a monastery, and became an

3833:

story, stating that it took place before the birth of the Gautama Buddha. It then states that the merchant was reborn as the boy who gifted dirt to the Buddha; however, in this case, the Buddha his attendant to

3933:

During his reign, the Maurya Empire became one of the biggest empires in the world in terms of area, economy, and military. The achievements in the fields of science and education made the Maurya period the

3469:

Restriction on killing of animals in the imperial kitchen (Rock Edict 1); the number of animals killed was limited to two peacocks and a deer daily, and in future, even these animals were not to be killed.

3043:

As mentioned above, according to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka fell in love with Devi (or Vidisha-Mahadevi), as a prince in central India. After Ashoka's ascension to the throne, Devi chose to remain at

4154:. This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, which appear on the seal of India. 3635:

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king

3357:

In fact, there is no evidence that Buddhism was a state religion under Ashoka. None of Ashoka's extant edicts record his direct donations to the Buddhists. One inscription records donations by his Queen

2371:– the place of Buddha's enlightenment at Mahabodhi – after his tenth regnal year, and the minor rock edict issued during his 13th regnal year suggests that he had become a Buddhist around the same time. 9003: 3332:

inscription states that Ashoka dispatched the message while travelling to Upunita-vihara in Manema-desha. Although the identity of the destination is not certain, it was obviously a Buddhist monastery (

2664:

ceremony is held for seven years. The king attempts to eradicate the fake monks, but during this attempt, an over-zealous minister ends up killing some real monks. The king then invites the elder monk

775:, it is sometimes helpful to think of Ashoka's messages as propaganda by a politician whose aim is to present a favourable image of himself and his administration, rather than record historical facts. 3610:

which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the

2329:, and became more devoted to the Buddhist faith. The veracity of this story is not certain. This legend about Ashoka's search for a worthy teacher may be aimed at explaining why Ashoka did not adopt 1847:

The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila.

4579:", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word 910:

to Sri Lanka. However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala.

2359:

Several Buddhist establishments existed in various parts of India by the time of Ashoka's ascension. It is not clear which branch of the Buddhist sangha influenced him, but the one at his capital

3094:

mentions the crown-prince Kunala alias Dharmavivardhana, who was a second son of Ashoka and empress Padmavati. According to Faxian, Dharmavivardhana was appointed as the governor of Gandhara.

3132:

states that she married Ashoka's nephew Agnibrahma, and the couple had a son named Sumana. The contemporary laws regarding exogamy would have forbidden such a marriage between first cousins.

1966:

may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a

6467: 1289:

which does mention the Sangha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith). Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the

3778:

was reborn as Ashoka's wife Asandhamitta. Later Pali texts credit her with an additional act of merit: she gifted the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the

1826:

Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the

3001:

to a honey merchant (who was later reborn as Ashoka). Some later texts also state that she additionally gave the pratyekabuddha a piece of cloth made by her. These texts include the

3370:. There are some indirect references to his donations to Buddhists. For example, the Nigalisagar Pillar inscription records his enlargement of the Konakamana stupa. Similarly, the 2816:, believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical. According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the 2623:

The edicts also state that during his tenth–eleventh regnal years, Ashoka became closer to the Buddhist sangha, and went on a tour of the empire that lasted for at least 256 days.

1676:, and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief empress. The 2253:

process rather than a dramatic event. For example, in a Minor Rock Edict issued during his 13th regnal year (five years after the Kalinga campaign), he states that he had been an

4216:. It is likely that Ashoka's messages were also inscribed on more perishable materials, such as wood, and sent to various parts of the empire. None of these records survive now. 1319:

However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as

2211:

region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in the subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism. Edict 13 of the

2742:. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder. To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son 1894:

Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found.

12846: 3969:

by replacing wooden material by stone, and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen. Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written

1751:

While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in

13583: 3489:

as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an

2259:(lay Buddhist) for more than two and a half years, but did not make much progress; in the past year, he was drawn closer to the sangha and became a more ardent follower. 13559: 12864: 9159:

Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995). "Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.).

8745: 4031: 2881:. The legend states that on complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest the non-Buddhist artist, and subsequently, another order to kill all the 1662:, whose account is a distorted version of the earlier traditions, describes Ashoka as the illegitimate son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant. 761:

Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of

7287: 4478:

Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.

2997:, Ashoka's chief empress was Asandhimitta, who died four years before him. It states that she was born as Ashoka's empress because in a previous life, she directed a 1787:

in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts –

3545:

According to scholars such as Richard Gombrich, Ashoka's dharma shows Buddhist influence. For example, the Kalinga Separate Edict I seems to be inspired by Buddha's

3013:(15th century). These texts narrate another story: one day, Ashoka mocked Asandhamitta was enjoying a tasty piece of sugarcane without having earned it through her 13539: 8999: 3481:

Promotion of "the welfare of all beings so as to pay off his debt to living creatures and to work for their happiness in this world and the next." (Rock Edict 6)

2154:, the jail looked pleasant from the outside, but inside it, Girika brutally tortured the prisoners. but was last executed during the demolition of ashoka"s hell. 3404:" ("false"), and thus, the phrase is a reference to Ashoka's belief in "true" and "false" gods. However, it is more likely that the term derives from the word " 4242:

It appears that Ashoka dispatched every message to his provincial governors, who in turn, relayed it to various officials in their territory. For example, the

8954: 8946: 3883:, she hired a sorceress to do the job, and when Ashoka explained that "Bodhi" was the name of a tree, she had the sorceress heal the tree. According to the 13575: 12870: 12834: 12609: 10527: 2820:

mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at

1879:

mentions the presence of a prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign, which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain.

989:

Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka. Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan emperors in the various

13673: 13563: 12972: 12876: 2220:

unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty.

13579: 13567: 12882: 12840: 12567: 11442: 9917: 2885:

in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in

2150:, was hired for the purpose. He came to be known as Chandagirika ("Girika the fierce"), and on his request, Ashoka built a jail in Pataliputra. Called 1210:

The different areas covered by the two types of inscriptions, and their different content in respect to Buddhism, may point to different rulers namely

2897:, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd. Ashoka realised his mistake, and withdrew the order. 2860:

He launched a pogrom against the Jains, announcing a bounty on the head of any heretic; this resulted in the beheading of his own brother – Vitashoka.

902:

There are several significant differences between the two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the

13777: 13551: 12912: 12888: 12670: 12488: 8066: 3581:

very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".

3438:, and can be generally translated as "law, duty, or righteousness". In the Kandahar inscriptions of Ashoka, the word "Dharma" has been translated as 3999: 3953:

Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the

3422:

Ashoka's various inscriptions suggest that he devoted himself to the propagation of "Dharma" (Pali: Dhamma), a term that refers to the teachings of

3164:

days, Tissa realised that the Buddhist monks gave up pleasure because they were aware of the eventual death. He then left the palace, and became an

1242:

Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of the Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the

13571: 2345:

states that Samudra was a merchant's son, and was a 12-year-old boy when he met Ashoka; this account seems to be influenced by the Nigrodha story.

1962:

states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending the throne,

4437:

Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the

4312: 2095:, Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited 11446: 6458: 8755: 2423:

states that Ashoka collected seven out of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and had their portions kept in 84,000 boxes made of gold, silver,

13350: 11670: 8977: 8923: 8049: 7880: 3322:

In the Nigalisagar inscription, he records his doubling in size of a stupa dedicated to a former Buddha, and his visit to the site for worship.

2672:) convicted of being heretical are de-frocked in the ensuing process. The uposatha ceremony is then held, and Tissa subsequently organises the 686:

Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in the

2317:(earnestness). Impressed by the sermon, Ashoka offered Nigrodha 400,000 silver coins and 8 daily portions of rice. The king became a Buddhist 1013:

is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The

405: 13708: 2162:

states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller

3879:, and a jealous Tissarakkha mistook "Bodhi" to be a mistress of Ashoka. She then used black magic to make the tree wither. According to the 9887: 7226: 2796:

suggest that during the next year, he made pilgrimage to Lumbini – the place of Buddha's birth, and to the stupa of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

3899:

also narrates this legend, but seeks to improve Ashoka's image by stating that he forgave the empress after Kunala regained his eyesight.

3699:, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Ashoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings. 3083:, who was sent to Sri Lanka as a Buddhist missionary; this son is not mentioned at all in the North Indian tradition. The Chinese pilgrim 2685:

The North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events, which has led to doubts about the historicity of the Third Buddhist council.

12640: 8644: 8337: 8101: 7911: 7854: 6846: 6177: 5516: 5109: 3702:

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as

1468:

and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king. The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king

8730: 8691: 8626: 8434: 8398: 8364: 8148: 7508: 9995: 7950: 7265: 3829:) combines the stories about the merchant's gift of honey, and the boy's gift of dirt. It narrates a slightly different version of the 9730: 5190:

The Bhatru inscription confirms Emperor Ashoka's acceptance of Buddhism, and in it Ashoka describes himself as the emperor of Magadha.

3979: 2688: 1316:. The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi. 13531: 9752: 4884:, a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men. 4297: 3032:

became the chief empress. The Ashokavadana does not mention Asandhamitta at all, but does mention Tissarakkha as Tishyarakshita. The

9390:

Strong, John S. (1995). "Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.).

4275:

in India, in the 3rd–2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of Emperor Ashoka, his personal "

3021:

claims that it was Asandhamitta who encouraged her husband to become a Buddhist, and to construct 84,000 stupas and 84,000 viharas.

2108:

has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend.

1819:

him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the emperor. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the

1009:, which provide general information about the Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign. However, the 778:

A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka. For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century

4863: 4400:, was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of 7212:

Popular Controversies in World History: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions

13846: 13836: 13704: 12262: 11714: 9180:

Guruge, Ananda W. P. (1995b). "Emperor Aśoka's Place in History: A Review of Prevalent Opinions". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.).

4991:

The North Indian sources indicate Subhadrangi as the name of Ashoka's mother, while the Sri Lankan sources mention her as Dharma.

2430: 779: 12456: 9017:

Adnan Khan and Mallika Singh to play Samrat Ashok & Kaurawkee in Ekta Kapoor's new historical drama series 'Pracchand Ashok'

7936:

Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe

4429:

mentions the author as "Devanampriya Asoka", definitively linking both names, and confirming Ashoka as the author of the famous

3125:), is unusual, and the story of her going to Ceylon so that the Ceylonese queen could be ordained appears to be an exaggeration. 11917: 9897: 1561: 1074: 8824: 795:

and the Mahasthan inscription, have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this.

13896: 13891: 9630: 9604: 9585: 9566: 9547: 9502: 9483: 9444: 9401: 9380: 9356: 9306: 9278: 9230: 9191: 9170: 9149: 9125: 9073: 8917: 8875: 8669: 8331: 8095: 7944: 7848: 7502: 7259: 7220: 7183: 6840: 6435: 5510: 5183: 5156: 4279:". This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the 8881: 6827:"Ashoka did build the Diamond Throne at Bodh Gaya to stand in for the Buddha and to mark the place of his enlightenment" in 3907:

According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during his 37th regnal year, which suggests that he died around 232 BCE.

3207:

to southern India. Several modern maps depict it as covering nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, except the southern tip.

2016:, decorated with dharmachakras alternating with four animals in profile: horse, bull, elephant, and lion. The architectural 13851: 10080: 9922: 4019: 3754: 3274:

The Buddhist legends state that Ashoka converted to Buddhism, although this has been debated by a section of scholars. The

3723:

Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of

3475:

Encouragement of obedience to parents, "generosity toward priests and ascetics, and frugality in spending" (Rock Edict 3).

2913:

An emperor - most probably Ashoka - with his two empresses Asandhimitra and Karuvaki and three attendants, in a relief at

72: 13478: 12257: 4243: 3386: 3275: 3073:

Tivara, the fourth son of Ashoka and Karuvaki, is the only of Ashoka's sons to be mentioned by name in the inscriptions.

2486:

states that Ashoka ordered construction of 84,000 viharas (monasteries) rather than the stupas to house the relics. Like

1871:), which was an important administrative and commercial province in central India. This tradition is corroborated by the 8641:

Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D, Kailash Chand Jain, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1972, p.134

8371:"Ashoka used the knowledge of stone craft to begin the tradition of stone architecture in India, dedicated to Buddhism." 8129: 2348:

The A-yu-wang-chuan states that a 7-year-old Buddhist converted Ashoka. Another story claims that the young boy ate 500

13794: 12154: 11704: 9799: 9254: 7988: 6159:, p. 15: "Only fragments were found of the Wheel of the Moral Law, which the four lions had originally supported." 2889:

drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house. He also announced an award of one

1597:. Remains of the city from around that time have been found through excavations in central areas of the modern city of 3503:

Historically, the image of Ashoka in the global Buddhist circles was based on legends (such as those mentioned in the

13911: 13861: 13466: 10000: 9316:

Singh, Upinder (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of Aśoka".

9101: 8836: 8724: 8492: 8392: 8181: 7905: 4972: 4677: 4655: 4381: 1876: 1875:

inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince. Ashoka's own

1469: 1107: 792: 576: 12247: 4648: 3374:

states that he exempted the village of Buddha's birth from the land tax, and reduced the revenue tax to one-eighth.

2941:. It depicts the emperor with his empress, two attendants bearing fly-whisks, and one attendant bearing an umbrella. 2352:

who were harassing Ashoka for being interested in Buddhism; these Brahmanas later miraculously turned into Buddhist

1130: 11932: 11677: 2719:

records another story about Ashoka's involvement in the Buddhist sangha. According to this story, the earlier king

531: 1447:

adopted by Ashoka. A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης ("

671:, he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of 13535: 12324: 12314: 10143: 9093: 3442:(Greek) and qsyt (Aramaic), which further suggests that his "Dharma" meant something more generic than Buddhism. 2626:

By his 12th regnal year, Ashoka had started inscribing edicts to propagate dhamma, having ordered his officers (

1464:, "Beloved of the Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the 13831: 13619: 13507: 12957: 12930: 12802: 12269: 11922: 11724: 11615: 11560: 10133: 4527: 4503: 4196: 2749:

The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:

2192: 1612:

Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors. Other sources, such as the

9433:

Thapar, Romila (1995). "Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.).

4616:, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as 3856: 3557:

Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for

3449:, ecological awareness, the observance of common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war." For example: 3087:

states that Mahinda was Ashoka's younger brother (Vitashoka or Vigatashoka) rather than his illegitimate son.

2937:, 1st–3rd century CE. The relief bears the inscription "Rāya Asoko" (𑀭𑀸𑀬 𑀅𑀲𑁄𑀓𑁄, "King Ashoka") in the 2909: 767:, and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society. Even on the topic of 13906: 13841: 13603: 13511: 12758: 12239: 11937: 11620: 9912: 9745: 5079: 2735:– who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in 1832: 1772: 783: 5124: 3319:, he records his visit to the Buddha's birthplace, and declares his reverence for the Buddha and the sangha. 3076:

According to North Indian tradition, Ashoka had a second son named Kunala. Kunala had a son named Samprati.

2478:. It was built by Ashoka to commemorate the enlightenment of the Buddha, about two hundred years before him. 1577: 13821: 13790: 11822: 11694: 11665: 11367: 8046: 4723:

is a fictional biography of the emperor, which was originally written in Dutch in the form of a trilogy by

3666: 3417: 763: 733: 664: 9029: 8070: 3589: 3426:

in the Buddhist circles. However, Ashoka's own inscriptions do not mention Buddhist doctrines such as the

667:" or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the 412: 13856: 11513: 11422: 10892: 10537: 10050: 9945: 9202: 5601: 4150:, the capital of one of the pillars erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, known as the 3918:, which he offered to the sangha as his final donation. Such legends encourage generous donations to the 3456:

Plantation of banyan trees and mango groves, and construction of resthouses and wells, every 800 metres (

3351: 2448:, or "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", with its supporting columns, being the object of adoration. A 2208: 656: 55: 11057: 3631:

to the west and that the Greeks in his dominion were converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys:

3312:, he records his visit to Sambodhi (the sacred Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya), ten years after his coronation. 3309: 3279: 2215:

Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:

1393: 13871: 13726: 13148: 12362: 11842: 11318: 10804: 9927: 9760: 9686: 4889: 3294:

In his Minor Rock Edict 1, Ashoka adds that he did not make much progress for a year after becoming an

2975: 2275:

Ancient sources do not mention any other military activity of Ashoka, although the 16th-century writer

1680:

does not mention her by name, although other legends provide different names for her. For example, the

913:

Even while narrating the common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both

266: 11252: 8384:

Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives, Fred S. Kleiner, Cengage Learning, 2009, p14

7303: 2228:

Based on Sri Lankan tradition, some scholars, such as Eggermont, believe Ashoka converted to Buddhism

1172: 13901: 13866: 12252: 12065: 12055: 11927: 10910: 10490: 10251: 10226: 7876: 6512: 4705:(1871–1951) depicting Ashoka's empress standing in front of the railings of the Buddhist monument at 2788:

went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.

1783:, Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of Takshashila (present-day 771:, the content of these inscriptions cannot be taken at face value. In the words of American academic 10276: 8985: 8907: 13886: 13881: 13826: 12357: 11709: 11523: 11501: 11494: 11397: 10930: 10550: 10366: 10311: 9932: 9738: 9222: 4880: 4642: 4183: 4101: 3478:

He "commissions officers to work for the welfare and happiness of the poor and aged" (Rock Edict 5)

1541:). Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE ( 1089: 723: 618: 5571: 2668:, to help him expel non-Buddhists from the monastery founded by him at Pataliputra. 60,000 monks ( 13762: 13677: 12470: 12294: 12274: 11605: 11585: 11342: 11072: 10316: 9661: 9622: 9475: 7210: 4912: 4719: 3759: 3684: 3641: 3445:

The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant "a moral polity of active social concern,

3080: 2967: 2753: 2743: 1933: 1910: 1522: 1225: 907: 691: 297: 98: 38: 31: 6427: 4239:

refers to some of Ashoka's pillar edicts, which have not been discovered by modern researchers.

2945: 2645:

During his 14th regnal year, he commissioned the enlargement of the stupa of Buddha Kanakamuni.

968: 13876: 13461: 12304: 12144: 11812: 11782: 11555: 11506: 11347: 11295: 11290: 11052: 10873: 10770: 10522: 10517: 10266: 9055: 4871: 4659: 4606: 4147: 4132: 4093: 3957:. Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, 3773:

story, Ashoka, Nigrodha and Devnampiya Tissa were brothers in a previous life. In that life, a

3680: 3653: 2697: 2673: 2654: 1989: 1534: 1509: 903: 711: 703: 676: 645:, he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. 10634: 9370: 9346: 8642: 8321: 8173: 8166: 8085: 7895: 7838: 6830: 5500: 5134: 5067: 12309: 12279: 11860: 11792: 11625: 11540: 11535: 11459: 11454: 11372: 9902: 9264: 8714: 8685: 8624: 8432: 8382: 8361: 8145: 7934: 7492: 7249: 4954: 4620:, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated". 4060: 3691:

as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as

3627:

In his rock edicts, Ashoka states that he had encouraged the transmission of Buddhism to the

2013: 695: 254: 17: 10925: 13645: 13084: 12332: 12299: 12284: 11802: 11699: 11645: 11530: 11469: 11437: 11432: 11417: 11402: 11392: 11357: 11270: 10962: 10885: 10188: 10128: 9877: 9844: 9794: 9294:

A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century

9065: 6507: 4702: 4523: 4499: 4378: 3645: 3278:

leaves no doubt that Ashoka was a follower of Buddhism. In this edict, he calls himself an

2466: 2444: 1538: 1526: 1501: 1253:

Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of

1005: 958: 524: 12172: 10787: 10656: 10582: 10458: 10196: 9527: 9000:"'Bharatvarsh' – ABP News brings a captivating saga of legendary Indians with Anupam Kher" 8144:

The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology by Upinder Singh

4843: 4445:, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"): 3614:

script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as

629:. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day 8: 13753: 13743: 13612: 13400: 13389: 12139: 12018: 11852: 11827: 11817: 11777: 11754: 11637: 11610: 11570: 11489: 11479: 11407: 11334: 10765: 10622: 10403: 10381: 10333: 10153: 9953: 9809: 9789: 9578:

Ashoka and the Mauraya Dynasty: the history and legacy of ancient India's greatest empire

9135: 9083: 7175: 3935: 3915: 3758:

Statue of the emperor Ashoka the Great at Rangkut Banasram Pilgrimage Monastery in Ramu,

3446: 3109:

According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka had a daughter named Sanghamitta, who became a

2793: 1984: 1711: 1627: 1584: 1497: 1324: 1320: 1305: 1286: 1266: 1254: 1243: 1211: 1202: 1164: 1047: 480: 420: 10113: 10040: 7932: 5565: 3742:

It is thought that Ashoka's palace at Patna was modelled after the Achaemenid palace of

1465: 13765: 13657: 13020: 12202: 12107: 11949: 11912: 11907: 11837: 11787: 11734: 11729: 11600: 11595: 11590: 11580: 11565: 11550: 11545: 11484: 11464: 11427: 11352: 11157: 10858: 10782: 10660: 10602: 10443: 10343: 10271: 10246: 9892: 9822: 9333: 8466: 6420: 5101: 5093: 4875:, in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India. 4827:

novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.

4773: 4613: 4601: 4280: 4268: 3736: 3692: 3637: 3628: 3522: 3431: 3221: 2925: 2732: 2693: 2665: 2326: 1890:

seems to mention the presence of Ashoka in the area of Ujjain as he was still a Prince.

1841: 1767: 1722: 1518: 1493: 1410: 1297: 1035: 1018: 844: 500: 12001: 9514: 8662:

Oriental Coins & Their Values: The Ancient and Classical World 600 B.C. - A.D. 650

8015:

Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p.368

2138:

One day, during a stroll at a park, Ashoka and his concubines came across a beautiful

2037:

states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and was crowned four years later. The

1901:, where he fell in love with a beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the 953:, he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King 13771: 13684: 13631: 13521: 13471: 13425: 13378: 13360: 13183: 12380: 12342: 12038: 12023: 11986: 11971: 11744: 11660: 11575: 11412: 11377: 11362: 11089: 11079: 10760: 10607: 10592: 10463: 10386: 10306: 10241: 10173: 10060: 9817: 9636: 9626: 9600: 9581: 9562: 9543: 9498: 9479: 9468: 9440: 9421: 9397: 9376: 9352: 9337: 9302: 9298: 9274: 9250: 9226: 9187: 9166: 9145: 9121: 9097: 9069: 8913: 8871: 8832: 8720: 8665: 8488: 8388: 8327: 8177: 8091: 7984: 7977: 7940: 7901: 7844: 7498: 7255: 7216: 7179: 6836: 6431: 5506: 5179: 5152: 4813: 4730: 4580: 4304: 4213: 4205: 3947: 3594: 3427: 2809: 2001: 1882: 1473: 1301: 1270: 1247: 1229: 1192: 1154: 933:, the empress manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the 816: 699: 680: 590: 450: 289: 150: 11324: 10118: 10018: 8821: 4212:

Ashoka probably got the idea of putting up these inscriptions from the neighbouring

3925:

Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.

2341:

series of miracles performed by the monk. He then became a Buddhist. A story in the

13759: 13720: 13445: 12940: 12407: 12028: 11981: 11976: 11832: 11797: 11772: 11767: 11518: 11474: 11387: 11062: 10718: 10711: 10495: 10485: 10371: 10035: 9907: 9597:

The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka: Translated from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla

9463: 9325: 9111: 7206: 5083: 4755: 4588: 4556: 4538:, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the 4535: 4487: 4438: 4430: 4422: 4167: 4010: 3970: 3688: 3662: 3435: 3260: 2813: 2708: 2518: 2471: 2449: 2435: 2364: 2212: 2174:

specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers.

2151: 1669: 1489: 1382: 832: 824: 820: 741: 550: 440: 362: 352: 13235: 11107: 4526:, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the 4142:

Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish,

3371: 3316: 3143:

Another source mentions that Ashoka had a daughter named Charumati, who married a

3036:

mentions another empress called Padmavati, who was the mother of the crown-prince

13816: 12392: 12337: 12289: 12217: 12087: 11885: 11865: 11807: 11719: 11382: 11280: 11127: 10863: 10846: 10831: 10809: 10361: 10231: 10065: 10045: 9712: 9434: 9415: 9391: 9329: 9292: 9268: 9244: 9240: 9218:

The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire

9216: 9181: 9160: 9139: 9115: 9087: 9059: 8865: 8828: 8648: 8630: 8438: 8368: 8152: 8133: 8053: 7169: 6829:

Ching, Francis D. K.; Jarzombek, Mark M.; Prakash, Vikramaditya (23 March 2017).

5173: 4934: 4902: 4710: 3696: 3683:

is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by

3649: 3519: 3392: 3325:

Some of his inscriptions reflect his interest in maintaining the Buddhist sangha.

3217: 2801: 2300: 1868: 1530: 1505: 1359: 1290: 938: 906:, and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son 626: 517: 89: 11137: 10291: 10281: 8362:

Introduction to Indian Architecture Bindia Thapar, Tuttle Publishing, 2012, p.21

8056:. Access to Insight: Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Retrieved 1 September 2011. 4917:

is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director

3121:

The name "Sanghamitta", which literally means the friend of the Buddhist order (

2634:) to tour their jurisdictions every five years for inspection and for preaching 2460: 2290:

According to Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka's father, Bindusara, was a devotee of

1823:

territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth.

1810:

states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry,

1085: 729: 13774: 13484: 13449: 13266: 13251: 12936: 12347: 12050: 11900: 11682: 11262: 11242: 11162: 10851: 10841: 10775: 10612: 10098: 9961: 9724: 9470:

Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times

9366: 9212: 5063: 4859: 4852: 4836: 4778: 4748: 4476:

One must not think thus, – (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.

4474:

This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.

4385: 4143: 4042: 4006: 3954: 3774: 3423: 2998: 2983: 2917:. The emperor's identification with Ashoka is suggested by a similar relief at 2890: 2869: 2591: 2581: 2101: 2021: 1922: 922: 828: 772: 241: 221: 161: 8947:"Next Wave Festival Review; In Stirring Ritual Steps, Past and Present Unfold" 8790:

Sen, Amartya (Summer 1998). "Universal Truths and the Westernizing Illusion".

6804: 6169: 2850:, Ashoka resorted to violence even after converting to Buddhism. For example: 2287:

Different sources give different accounts of Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism.

1484: 13810: 13653: 13641: 13596: 13543: 12741: 12706: 12117: 11966: 11275: 11177: 11035: 10836: 10814: 10750: 10421: 10216: 10211: 10103: 9772: 9640: 9614: 9411: 9288: 8623:

Indian Numismatics, Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, Orient Blackswan, 1981, p.73

8126: 6170:"Lion Capital of Ashoka At Sarnath Archaeological Museum Near Varanasi India" 5097: 4848: 4831: 4820: 4724: 4617: 4496: 4370: 4366: 4272: 4151: 4116: 3703: 3363: 3256: 3195: 3114: 2938: 2930: 2918: 2716: 2587: 2524: 2200: 2196: 1697: 1426:

legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows.

1313: 1026: 1021:, and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings. 836: 707: 687: 389: 342: 12857: 10575: 10565: 9937: 9677: 9669: 4805:

depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director,

3922:

and highlight the role of the emperorship in supporting the Buddhist faith.

1844:

near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja").

1439:. The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" ( 1046:, have identified this king with the Maurya emperor Ashoka; others, such as 851:

the North Indian tradition preserved in the Sanskrit-language texts such as

13730: 13168: 13152: 13068: 12207: 12192: 12162: 12112: 12102: 11944: 11739: 11232: 11067: 10945: 10733: 10728: 10555: 10426: 10301: 9762: 9700: 5088: 4894: 4806: 4763:

about the "Nine Unknown Men", a fictional secret society founded by Ashoka.

4760: 4519: 4369:

contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the

3861: 3769:

Buddhist legends mention stories about Ashoka's past lives. According to a

3505: 3290:). This and several other edicts are evidence of his Buddhist affiliation: 2971: 2846: 2544: 2508: 2139: 2012:, reconstitution per Sarnath Museum notice). The lions stand on a circular 2009: 1997: 1968: 1864: 1811: 1739: 1655: 1456: 1422: 1400: 1258: 999: 954: 859: 840: 745: 490: 278: 260: 192: 59: 10990: 10975: 10935: 10632: 10296: 9872: 9425: 8028:

Oskar von Hinüber (2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka?".

5175:

Indian Art & Culture Book in English: Exploring Heritage and Tradition

4417: 3565:

young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and

3110: 2392:. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the 1368: 993:. However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their 600: 13322: 13036: 12440: 12177: 12006: 11147: 11132: 10915: 10723: 10651: 10431: 10261: 10163: 10010: 9882: 7972: 6511: 4939: 4926: 4918: 4906: 4824: 3966: 3530: 3225: 3200: 3062: 3029: 2893:

to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to

2886: 2785: 2678: 2412:

state that Ashoka constructed 84,000 stupas or viharas. According to the

2397: 2360: 2322: 2187: 1937: 1706: 1643: 1594: 1444: 1352: 1238: 1180: 1142: 1043: 853: 749: 668: 660: 638: 630: 303: 233: 213: 63: 12167: 10627: 5105: 2498:

The construction of following stupas and viharas is credited to Ashoka:

807:

The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including

13637: 13436: 13300: 12122: 12080: 11956: 11762: 11687: 11301: 11285: 11247: 11227: 11122: 11097: 11005: 10940: 10920: 10666: 10597: 10468: 10351: 10321: 10256: 10206: 9864: 9854: 9827: 6520: 4947: 4847:

is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by

4782: 4469: 4331: 4171: 3887:, she completely destroyed the tree, during Ashoka's 34th regnal year. 3876: 3763: 3743: 3724: 3615: 3570: 3561:. However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating. 3117:, doubt the historicity of Sanghamitta, based on the following points: 2784:

The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter

2577: 2554: 2368: 2291: 2234: 2147: 2130:

also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts:

1784: 1673: 1651: 994: 926: 634: 470: 122: 11142: 10138: 8470: 8454: 7879:. Translated by Dhammika, Ven. S. Buddhist Publication Society. 1994. 3472:

Provision of medical facilities for humans and animals (Rock Edict 2).

3251: 1345: 997:

authors were not patronised by the Mauryans. Other texts, such as the

13527: 13440: 12785: 12507: 12097: 12070: 11237: 11112: 10824: 10740: 10617: 10507: 10480: 10473: 10436: 10393: 10356: 10123: 10088: 10055: 10030: 9985: 8484: 7933:

Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper; Michael A. Meyer; H. McCoubrey (1998).

7843:(2nd ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 108. 4943: 4898: 4747:, a 1922 Indian silent historical film about the emperor produced by 4409: 4389: 4374: 4284: 4038: 3716: 3611: 3566: 3329: 3144: 2720: 2701: 2607: 2600: 2475: 2439: 2424: 2276: 1887: 1872: 1744: 1701: 1659: 1639: 1635: 1623: 1618: 1435: 1430: 1420:

The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an

1403: 1233: 1215: 1137: 1031: 882: 876: 679:, supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to the 430: 321: 140: 13355: 12821: 11870: 10706: 10560: 10326: 10108: 9977: 9969: 9372:

The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna

9114:(1995). "Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka". In Anuradha Seneviratna (ed.). 5502:

Greek Buddha: Pyrrho's Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia

4741:), a poem that portrays Ashoka's feelings during the war on Kalinga. 4162: 3835: 1721:, Chandragupta entered into a marital alliance with the Greek ruler 1187: 972:

King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the

13768: 13623: 13492: 13284: 13269: 12387: 12227: 12182: 12127: 12092: 11996: 11655: 11222: 11217: 11167: 11102: 11020: 10985: 10980: 10641: 10512: 10500: 10411: 10070: 9767: 9707: 8164:

De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G.; Kirkpatrick, Diane (1991).

8047:

The Edicts of King Ashoka: an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika

4922: 4552: 4264: 4236: 4191: 4122: 4064: 4056: 3842:

from the dirt, which is used repair cracks in the monastery walls.

3574: 3514: 3439: 3359: 3213: 3180: 3084: 2979: 2874: 2780:

Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)

2661: 2349: 2314: 2163: 2005: 1953: 1800: 1568: 1448: 1440: 1274: 874:

the Sri Lankan tradition preserved in Pali-language texts, such as

808: 737: 642: 460: 373: 272: 157: 11212: 11202: 11187: 11010: 10880: 10148: 7840:

Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present

5753:, p. 323:"In the Ashokavadana, Ashoka's mother is not named." 4958:

features Ashoka as a playable leader for India, being replaced by

4690: 4223:

Most of Ashoka's inscriptions are written in a mixture of various

4087: 3179:

The Ashoka-vadana states that Ashoka's brother was mistaken for a

2416:, this activity took place during his fifth–seventh regnal years. 2396:, but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the 2166:

claims to have seen a pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell".

13785: 13714: 13695: 13669: 13555: 13547: 13502: 13488: 13199: 13116: 13100: 13052: 12907: 12810: 12766: 12724: 12132: 12075: 12060: 11207: 11197: 11172: 11047: 11042: 11000: 10970: 10902: 10868: 10755: 10696: 10691: 10545: 10448: 10286: 10236: 10023: 9849: 9557:

Olivelle, Patrick; Leoshko, Janice; Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2012).

7893: 4576: 4564: 4560: 4531: 4515: 4511: 4224: 4187: 4097: 3986: 3839: 3534: 3493:

ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire.

3367: 3229: 3183: 3045: 2950: 2934: 2882: 2878: 2825: 2669: 2596: 2568: 2530: 2512: 2453: 2330: 2318: 2295: 2255: 2096: 1993: 1898: 1860: 1796: 1613: 1407: 990: 337: 315: 237: 217: 188: 13384: 10819: 10587: 8905: 4204:

The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the

4178: 4110: 3739:, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir. 3707: 3048:

than move to the imperial capital Pataliputra. According to the

2682:, a text that reaffirms Theravadin orthodoxy on several points. 2249:

the war, epigraphic evidence suggests that his conversion was a

1977: 1197: 973: 946: 945:, he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the 13717: 13691: 13665: 13661: 13457: 13395: 13340: 13231: 13132: 13004: 12988: 12689: 12444: 12212: 12197: 12033: 11895: 11875: 11312: 11192: 11182: 11117: 10745: 10701: 10686: 10676: 10646: 10570: 10453: 10221: 10093: 9837: 9832: 9656: 8771:

Thapar, Romila (13 November 2009). "Ashoka – A Retrospective".

7490: 4959: 4802: 4706: 4539: 4507: 4463: 4457: 4453: 4397: 4288: 4228: 3962: 3958: 3732: 3728: 3510: 3333: 3204: 3122: 3057:

Ashoka's chief empress in Pataliputra after his ascension. The

3037: 2990:

to one theory, Tishyarakshita was the regnal name of Kaurvaki.

2954: 2914: 2821: 2562: 2548: 2540: 2502: 2393: 2389: 2353: 2325:

shrine at Pataliputra. At the temple, he met the Buddhist monk

2159: 1973: 1963: 1918: 1836: 1820: 1756: 1752: 1718: 1647: 1309: 1282: 1278: 1262: 1159: 977: 787: 377: 326: 309: 181: 171: 85: 4781:-language film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars 4251:(presumably Ashoka's son and the provincial governor) and the 4041:, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. 3186:, and killed during a massacre of the Jains ordered by Ashoka. 2857:

He ordered a massacre of 18,000 heretics for a misdeed of one.

2854:

He slowly tortured Chandagirika to death in the "hell" prison.

13366: 13215: 12829: 12552: 12352: 12187: 12045: 12011: 11991: 11961: 11890: 11307: 11152: 11030: 11025: 10995: 10950: 10797: 10792: 10671: 10376: 10201: 10168: 10158: 9030:"Civilization 7 is making bold changes to a familiar formula" 7979:

The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta

7346: 7344: 4792: 4484: 4442: 4426: 4401: 4276: 3990: 3558: 3539: 3014: 2571: 2534: 1815: 1598: 1379: 1356: 1039: 847:. All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions: 672: 663:. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of " 13373: 8766: 8764: 8163: 4392:, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka: 1149: 12222: 11015: 10681: 10178: 9495:

Aśokan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography

8808:

Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, and Thanissaro Bhikkhu,

4835:

is a 1992 Indian Telugu-language film about the emperor by

4126: 3711: 2119: 812: 595: 568: 562: 553: 13406: 8842: 8578: 8512: 8483:

Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari,

8253: 8226: 7818: 7387: 7341: 7065: 7063: 7048: 7038: 7036: 7021: 6999: 6997: 6995: 6785: 6490: 6488: 6043: 6041: 5722: 5720: 5463: 4396:

Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the

4365:

Ashoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century

3245: 2762:

Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)

2384: 2363:

is a good candidate. Another good candidate is the one at

2199:

inscribed panel portraying Ashoka and his queens with the

648:

Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year (

559: 13370:

Other inscriptions often classified as Minor Rock Edicts.

11880: 10416: 8761: 8595: 8593: 8556: 8554: 8243: 8241: 7772: 7770: 7768: 7604: 7602: 7600: 7598: 7596: 7594: 7557: 7555: 7530: 7528: 7526: 7404: 7402: 7365: 7363: 7361: 7359: 7146: 7144: 7110: 7108: 7106: 7104: 7102: 6970: 6968: 6966: 6916: 6914: 6912: 6866: 6864: 6775: 6773: 6716: 6714: 6689: 6687: 6674: 6672: 6670: 6387: 5732: 5578: 5412: 5383: 5151:(2nd ed.). Detroit, Mich: Omnigraphics. p. 87. 4468:

Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in

2181: 9675:

BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al.,

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