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disability. People that lose a limb first have to deal with the emotional result of losing that limb. Regardless of the reasons for amputation, whether due to traumatic causes or as a consequence of illness, emotional shock exists. It may have a smaller or larger amplitude depending on a variety of factors such as patient age, medical culture, medical cause, etc. As a result of amputation, the research participants' reports were loaded with drama. The first emotional response to amputation was one of despair, a severe sense of self-collapse, something almost unbearable. Emotional factors are just a small part of looking at social implications. Many people who lose a limb may have lots of anxiety surrounding prosthetics and their limbs. After surgery, for an extended period of time, the interviewed patients from the
National Library of Medicine noticed the appearance and increase of anxiety. A lot of negative thoughts invaded their minds. Projections about the future were grim, marked by sadness, helplessness, and even despair. Existential uncertainty, lack of control, and further anticipated losses in one's life due to amputation were the primary causes of anxiety and consequently ruminations and insomnia. From losing a leg and getting a prosthetics there were also many factors that can happen including anger and regret. The amputation of a limb is associated not only with physical loss and change in body image but also with an abrupt severing in one's sense of continuity. For participants with amputation as a result of physical trauma the event is often experienced as a transgression and can lead to frustration and anger.
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Alignment Method (CATCAM) socket, later to evolve into the
Sabolich Socket. He followed the direction of Ivan Long and Ossur Christensen as they developed alternatives to the quadrilateral socket, which in turn followed the open ended plug socket, created from wood. The advancement was due to the difference in the socket to patient contact model. Prior to this, sockets were made in the shape of a square shape with no specialized containment for muscular tissue. New designs thus help to lock in the bony anatomy, locking it into place and distributing the weight evenly over the existing limb as well as the musculature of the patient. Ischial containment is well known and used today by many prosthetist to help in patient care. Variations of the ischial containment socket thus exists and each socket is tailored to the specific needs of the patient. Others who contributed to socket development and changes over the years include Tim Staats, Chris Hoyt, and Frank Gottschalk. Gottschalk disputed the efficacy of the CAT-CAM socket- insisting the surgical procedure done by the amputation surgeon was most important to prepare the amputee for good use of a prosthesis of any type socket design.
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because of the underlying meaning of disabilities. It tells amputees that there is a right and wrong way to move and walk and that if amputees are adapted to the surrounding environment by their own means, then that is the wrong way. Along with that underlying meaning of disabilities, many people designing for disabilities are not actually disabled. “Design for disability" from these experiences, takes disability as the object - with the feeling from non-disabled designers that they have properly learned about their job from their own simulation of the experience. The simulation is misleading and does a disservice to disabled people - so the design that flows from this is highly problematic. Engaging in disability design should be… with, ideally, team members who have the relevant disability and are part of communities that matter to the research. This leads to people, who do not know what the day-to-day personal experiences are, designing materials that do not meet the needs or hinder the needs of people with actual disabilities.
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object, or for gesticulation in social interaction. According to scientific data a third of the upper limb amputees worldwide use a passive prosthetic hand. Body
Powered or cable-operated limbs work by attaching a harness and cable around the opposite shoulder of the damaged arm. A recent body-powered approach has explored the utilization of the user's breathing to power and control the prosthetic hand to help eliminate actuation cable and harness. The third category of available prosthetic devices comprises myoelectric arms. This particular class of devices distinguishes itself from the previous ones due to the inclusion of a battery system. This battery serves the dual purpose of providing energy for both actuation and sensing components. While actuation predominantly relies on motor or pneumatic systems, a variety of solutions have been explored for capturing muscle activity, including techniques such as
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opening/closing of the fingers. A prosthesis of this type utilizes the residual neuromuscular system of the human body to control the functions of an electric powered prosthetic hand, wrist, elbow or foot. This is different from an electric switch prosthesis, which requires straps and/or cables actuated by body movements to actuate or operate switches that control the movements of the prosthesis. There is no clear evidence concluding that myoelectric upper extremity prostheses function better than body-powered prostheses. Advantages to using a myoelectric upper extremity prosthesis include the potential for improvement in cosmetic appeal (this type of prosthesis may have a more natural look), may be better for light everyday activities, and may be beneficial for people experiencing
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shape and stiffness of the foot and needs to match the subject's build in order to produce a normal gait pattern. Andrysek (2010) found 16 different types of feet, with greatly varying results concerning durability and biomechanics. The main problem found in current feet is durability, endurance ranging from 16 to 32 months These results are for adults and will probably be worse for children due to higher activity levels and scale effects. Evidence comparing different types of feet and ankle prosthetic devices is not strong enough to determine if one mechanism of ankle/foot is superior to another. When deciding on a device, the cost of the device, a person's functional need, and the availability of a particular device should be considered.
2010:, has been made possible. Such prosthetics, including artificial hands, can now be designed to simulate the appearance of real hands, complete with freckles, veins, hair, fingerprints and even tattoos. Custom-made cosmeses are generally more expensive (costing thousands of U.S. dollars, depending on the level of detail), while standard cosmeses come premade in a variety of sizes, although they are often not as realistic as their custom-made counterparts. Another option is the custom-made silicone cover, which can be made to match a person's skin tone but not details such as freckles or wrinkles. Cosmeses are attached to the body in any number of ways, using an adhesive, suction, form-fitting, stretchable skin, or a skin sleeve.
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legs, in which actuators directly drive the joints, and semi-active legs, which use small amounts of energy and a small actuator to change the mechanical properties of the leg but do not inject net positive energy into gait. Specific examples include The emPOWER from BionX, the
Proprio Foot from Ossur, and the Elan Foot from Endolite. Various research groups have also experimented with robotic legs over the last decade. Central issues being researched include designing the behavior of the device during stance and swing phases, recognizing the current ambulation task, and various mechanical design problems such as robustness, weight, battery-life/efficiency, and noise-level. However, scientists from
1306:. The residual limb either directly fits into a socket on the prosthetic, or—more commonly today—a liner is used that then is fixed to the socket either by vacuum (suction sockets) or a pin lock. Liners are soft and by that, they can create a far better suction fit than hard sockets. Silicone liners can be obtained in standard sizes, mostly with a circular (round) cross section, but for any other residual limb shape, custom liners can be made. The socket is custom made to fit the residual limb and to distribute the forces of the artificial limb across the area of the residual limb (rather than just one small spot), which helps reduce wear on the residual limb.
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taking a plaster cast of the residual limb or, more commonly today, of the liner worn over their residual limb, and then making a mold from the plaster cast. The commonly used compound is called
Plaster of Paris. In recent years, various digital shape capture systems have been developed which can be input directly to a computer allowing for a more sophisticated design. In general, the shape capturing process begins with the digital acquisition of three-dimensional (3D) geometric data from the amputee's residual limb. Data are acquired with either a probe, laser scanner, structured light scanner, or a photographic-based 3D scanning system.
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1465:, led by Jacob George. The group of researchers implanted electrodes into the patient's arm to map out several sensory precepts. They would then stimulate each electrode to figure out how each sensory precept was triggered, then proceed to map the sensory information onto the prosthetic. This would allow the researchers to get a good approximation of the same kind of information that the patient would receive from their natural hand. Unfortunately, the arm is too expensive for the average user to acquire, however, Jacob mentioned that insurance companies could cover the costs of the prosthetic.
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1047:, made at the beginning of the 16th century. The first confirmed use of a prosthetic device, however, is from 950 to 710 BC. In 2000, research pathologists discovered a mummy from this period buried in the Egyptian necropolis near ancient Thebes that possessed an artificial big toe. This toe, consisting of wood and leather, exhibited evidence of use. When reproduced by bio-mechanical engineers in 2011, researchers discovered that this ancient prosthetic enabled its wearer to walk both barefoot and in Egyptian style sandals. Previously, the earliest discovered prosthetic was an artificial
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a rehabilitation physiotherapist (called physical therapist in
America) will help teach a new prosthetic user to walk with a leg prosthesis. To do so, the physical therapist may provide verbal instructions and may also help guide the person using touch or tactile cues. This may be done in a clinic or home. There is some research suggesting that such training in the home may be more successful if the treatment includes the use of a treadmill. Using a treadmill, along with the physical therapy treatment, helps the person to experience many of the challenges of walking with a prosthesis.
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their life. Not all amputees will wear a prosthesis. In a 2011 national survey of
Australian amputees, Limbs 4 Life found that 7 percent of amputees do not wear a prosthesis, and in another Australian hospital study, this number was closer to 20 percent. Many people report being uncomfortable in prostheses and not wanting to wear them, even reporting that wearing a prosthetic is more cumbersome than not having one at all. These debates are natural among the prosthetic community and help us shed light on the issues that they are facing.
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daily living. This involves inserting a small permanent magnet into the distal end of the residual bone of subjects with upper limb amputations. When a subject rotates the residual arm, the magnet will rotate with the residual bone, causing a change in magnetic field distribution. EEG (electroencephalogram) signals, detected using small flat metal discs attached to the scalp, essentially decoding human brain activity used for physical movement, is used to control the robotic limbs. This allows the user to control the part directly.
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the prosthesis feel and look more natural. An improved version was released in 1995 by the name
Intelligent Prosthesis Plus. Blatchford released another prosthesis, the Adaptive Prosthesis, in 1998. The Adaptive Prosthesis utilized hydraulic controls, pneumatic controls, and a microprocessor to provide the amputee with a gait that was more responsive to changes in walking speed. Cost analysis reveals that a sophisticated above-knee prosthesis will be about $ 1 million in 45 years, given only annual cost of living adjustments.
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removing plaster to the positive model, or virtually by manipulating the computerized model in the software. Lastly, the fabrication of the prosthetic socket begins once the model has been rectified and finalized. The prosthetists would wrap the positive model with a semi-molten plastic sheet or carbon fiber coated with epoxy resin to construct the prosthetic socket. For the computerized model, it can be 3D printed using a various of material with different flexibility and mechanical strength.
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to these changes accordingly. It also enables the amputees to walk downstairs with a step-over-step approach, rather than the one step at a time approach used with mechanical knees. There is some research suggesting that people with microprocessor-controlled prostheses report greater satisfaction and improvement in functionality, residual limb health, and safety. People may be able to perform everyday activities at greater speeds, even while multitasking, and reduce their risk of falls.
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The percent that the patient pays varies on the type of insurance plan, as well as the limb requested by the patient. In the United
Kingdom, much of Europe, Australia and New Zealand the entire cost of prosthetic limbs is met by state funding or statutory insurance. For example, in Australia prostheses are fully funded by state schemes in the case of amputation due to disease, and by workers compensation or traffic injury insurance in the case of most traumatic amputations. The
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range and fluidity of movements available to amputees, making tasks like grasping objects or walking naturally much more feasible. Integration with AI is also on the forefront to the prosthetic design. AI-enabled prosthetic limbs can learn and adapt to the user's habits and preferences over time, ensuring optimal functionality. By analyzing the user's gait, grip, and other movements, these smart limbs can make real-time adjustments, providing smoother and more natural motions.
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trans-femoral amputees. The function of the good prosthetic knee joint is to mimic the function of the normal knee, such as providing structural support and stability during stance phase but able to flex in a controllable manner during swing phase. Hence it allows users to have a smooth and energy efficient gait and minimize the impact of amputation. The prosthetic knee is connected to the prosthetic foot by the shank, which is usually made of an aluminum or graphite tube.
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755:, transfemoral prosthesis, knee disarticulation, transtibial prosthesis, Syme's amputation, foot, partial foot, and toe. The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial deficiency) and trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a femoral deficiency).
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Other terminal devices include the V2P Prehensor, a versatile robust gripper that allows customers to modify aspects of it, Texas Assist
Devices (with a whole assortment of tools) and TRS that offers a range of terminal devices for sports. Cable harnesses can be built using aircraft steel cables, ball hinges, and self-lubricating cable sheaths. Some prosthetics have been designed specifically for use in salt water.
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between residual limb skin and socket or liner. Pressure then is higher, which can be painful. Air pockets can allow sweat to accumulate that can soften the skin. Ultimately, this is a frequent cause for itchy skin rashes. Over time, this can lead to breakdown of the skin. On the other hand, a very tight fit may excessively increase the interface pressures that may also lead to skin breakdown after prolonged use.
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2052:. The recent field of Assistive Technology for Cognition concerns the development of technologies to augment human cognition. Scheduling devices such as Neuropage remind users with memory impairments when to perform certain activities, such as visiting the doctor. Micro-prompting devices such as PEAT, AbleLink and Guide have been used to aid users with memory and executive function problems perform
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to the complexities in movement associated with the knee. In newer and more improved designs, hydraulics, carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors, computer microprocessors, and innovative combinations of these technologies are employed to give more control to the user. In the prosthetics industry, a trans-femoral prosthetic leg is often referred to as an "AK" or above the knee prosthesis.
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the signal gets integrated and once it exceeds a certain threshold, the prosthetic limb control signal is triggered which is why inherently, all myoelectric controls lag. Conversely, cable control is immediate and physical, and through that offers a certain degree of direct force feedback that myoelectric control does not. Computers are also used extensively in the manufacturing of limbs.
1283:, have allowed artificial limbs to be stronger and lighter, limiting the amount of extra energy necessary to operate the limb. This is especially important for trans-femoral amputees. Additional materials have allowed artificial limbs to look much more realistic, which is important to trans-radial and transhumeral amputees because they are more likely to have the artificial limb exposed.
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University of Technology, The Netherlands, showed that the development of mechanical prosthetic hands has been neglected during the past decades. The study showed that the pinch force level of most current mechanical hands is too low for practical use. The best tested hand was a prosthetic hand developed around 1945. In 2017 however, a research has been started with bionic hands by
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alleviated with a sensory prosthesis; unrealistic expectations of research subjects testing new devices. How prosthetics come to be and testing of the usability of the device is a major concern in the medical world. Although many positives come when a new prosthetic design is announced, how the device got to where it is leads to some questioning the ethics of prosthetics.
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2000 to $ 5000 for therapy during the first year or two of living as an amputee. Once the patient is strong and comfortable with their new limb, they will not be required to go to therapy anymore. Throughout one's life, it is projected that a typical amputee will go through $ 1.4 million worth of treatment, including surgeries, prosthetics, as well as therapies.
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difficult to achieve the level of control necessary to perform precise movements. When connecting the sense of touch from a mechanical hand directly to the brain, prosthetics can restore the function of the amputated limb in an almost natural-feeling way." He presented the first Myoelectric prosthetic hand with sensory feedback at the
1514:. A few open-hardware 3-D printable bionic hands have also become available. Some companies are also producing robotic hands with integrated forearm, for fitting unto a patient's upper arm and in 2020, at the Italian Institute of Technology (IIT), another robotic hand with integrated forearm (Soft Hand Pro) was developed.
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angle and the displacement of the foot in respect to the socket can be changed after fitting. In developing countries prosthesis mostly are non-modular, in order to reduce cost. When considering children modularity of angle and height is important because of their average growth of 1.9 cm annually.
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Miranda, Robbin A.; Casebeer, William D.; Hein, Amy M.; Judy, Jack W.; Krotkov, Eric P.; Laabs, Tracy L.; Manzo, Justin E.; Pankratz, Kent G.; Pratt, Gill A.; Sanchez, Justin C.; Weber, Douglas J.; Wheeler, Tracey L.; Ling, Geoffrey S.F. (April 2015). "DARPA-funded efforts in the development of novel
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There are also many ethical concerns about how the prosthetics are made and produced. A wide range of ethical issues arise in connection with experiments and clinical usage of sensory prostheses: animal experimentation; informed consent, for instance, in patients with a locked-in syndrome that may be
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writes, "Creatures use tools, ornaments, and appliances to augment their bodily capacities. Are their bodies lacking something, which they need to replace with artificial or substitute organs?...Or conversely, should prostheses be understood, in terms of aesthetic reorganization and proliferation, as
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The Icelandic company Össur has also created a robotic transtibial leg with motorized ankle that moves through algorithms and sensors that automatically adjust the angle of the foot during different points in its wearer's stride. Also there are brain-controlled bionic legs that allow an individual to
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uses the electrical tension generated every time a muscle contracts, as information. This tension can be captured from voluntarily contracted muscles by electrodes applied on the skin to control the movements of the prosthesis, such as elbow flexion/extension, wrist supination/pronation (rotation) or
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The main advantage of a microprocessor-controlled prosthesis is a closer approximation to an amputee's natural gait. Some allow amputees to walk near walking speed or run. Variations in speed are also possible and are taken into account by sensors and communicated to the microprocessor, which adjusts
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A hook does not match a normal human hand for appearance or overall versatility, but its material tolerances can exceed and surpass the normal human hand for mechanical stress (one can even use a hook to slice open boxes or as a hammer whereas the same is not possible with a normal hand), for thermal
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The first microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knees became available in the early 1990s. The Intelligent Prosthesis was the first commercially available microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knee. It was released by Chas. A. Blatchford & Sons, Ltd., of Great Britain, in 1993 and made walking with
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Prostheses are manufactured and fit by clinical prosthetists. Prosthetists are healthcare professionals responsible for making, fitting, and adjusting prostheses and for lower limb prostheses will assess both gait and prosthetic alignment. Once a prosthesis has been fit and adjusted by a prosthetist,
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The introduction of the Seattle Foot (Seattle Limb Systems) in 1981 revolutionized the field, bringing the concept of an Energy Storing Prosthetic Foot (ESPF) to the fore. Other companies soon followed suit, and before long, there were multiple models of energy storing prostheses on the market. Each
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are major commercial hook providers. Mechanical hands are sold by Hosmer and Otto Bock as well; the Becker Hand is still manufactured by the Becker family. Prosthetic hands may be fitted with standard stock or custom-made cosmetic looking silicone gloves. But regular work gloves may be worn as well.
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Prosthetic hands are available in both voluntary opening and voluntary closing versions and because of their more complex mechanics and cosmetic glove covering require a relatively large activation force, which, depending on the type of harness used, may be uncomfortable. A recent study by the Delft
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More modern "prehensors" called GRIPS utilize voluntary closing systems. The differences are significant. Users of voluntary opening systems rely on elastic bands or springs for gripping force, while users of voluntary closing systems rely on their own body power and energy to create gripping force.
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and myoelectric components in prosthetic design. These limbs utilize sensors to detect electrical signals from the user's residual muscles. The signals are then converted into motions, allowing users to control their prosthetic limbs using their own muscle contractions. This has greatly improved the
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There are many steps in the evolution of prosthetic design trends that are moving forward with time. Many design trends point to lighter, more durable, and flexible materials like carbon fiber, silicone, and advanced polymers. These not only make the prosthetic limb lighter and more durable but also
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A transfemoral prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing above the knee. Transfemoral amputees can have a very difficult time regaining normal movement. In general, a transfemoral amputee must use approximately 80% more energy to walk than a person with two whole legs. This is due
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A passive device can be static, meaning the device has no movable parts, or it can be adjustable, meaning its configuration can be adjusted (e.g. adjustable hand opening). Despite the absence of active grasping, passive devices are very useful in bimanual tasks that require fixation or support of an
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are used at varying levels of amputation: forequarter, shoulder disarticulation, transhumeral prosthesis, elbow disarticulation, transradial prosthesis, wrist disarticulation, full hand, partial hand, finger, partial finger. A transradial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces an arm missing
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A microprocessor is used to interpret and analyze signals from knee-angle sensors and moment sensors. The microprocessor receives signals from its sensors to determine the type of motion being employed by the amputee. Most microprocessor controlled knee-joints are powered by a battery housed inside
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After shape capture, the second phase of the socket production is called rectification, which is the process of modifying the model of the residual limb by adding volume to bony prominence and potential pressure points and remove volume from load bearing area. This can be done manually by adding or
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started the Revolutionizing Prosthetics program. According to DARPA, the goal of the $ 100 million program was to "develop an advanced electromechanical prosthetic upper limb with near-natural control that would dramatically enhance independence and quality of life for amputees." In 2014, the LUKE
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had a prosthetic hook for a hand. During the Middle Ages, prosthetics remained quite basic in form. Debilitated knights would be fitted with prosthetics so they could hold up a shield, grasp a lance or a sword, or stabilize a mounted warrior. Only the wealthy could afford anything that would assist
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Upper limb prostheses can be categorized in three main categories: Passive devices, Body Powered devices, and Externally Powered (myoelectric) devices. Passive devices can either be passive hands, mainly used for cosmetic purposes, or passive tools, mainly used for specific activities (e.g. leisure
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is a company that is developing open-source robotic prosthetic hands. They utilize 3D printing to manufacture the devices and low-cost 3D scanners to fit them onto the residual limb of a specific patient. Open Bionics' use of 3D printing allows for more personalized designs, such as the "Hero Arm"
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Low-cost above-knee prostheses often provide only basic structural support with limited function. This function is often achieved with crude, non-articulating, unstable, or manually locking knee joints. A limited number of organizations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC),
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Not only does the patient need to pay for their multiple prosthetic limbs, but they also need to pay for physical and occupational therapy that come along with adapting to living with an artificial limb. Unlike the reoccurring cost of the prosthetic limbs, the patient will typically only pay the $
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In the USA a typical prosthetic limb costs anywhere between $ 15,000 and $ 90,000, depending on the type of limb desired by the patient. With medical insurance, a patient will typically pay 10%–50% of the total cost of a prosthetic limb, while the insurance company will cover the rest of the cost.
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Further research in April 2019, there have been improvements towards prosthetic function and comfort of 3D-printed personalized wearable systems. Instead of manual integration after printing, integrating electronic sensors at the intersection between a prosthetic and the wearer's tissue can gather
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An approach that is very useful is called arm rotation which is common for unilateral amputees which is an amputation that affects only one side of the body; and also essential for bilateral amputees, a person who is missing or has had amputated either both arms or legs, to carry out activities of
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located inside the device, and processes feedback from the limb and actuator, e.g., position or force, and sends it to the controller. Examples include surface electrodes that detect electrical activity on the skin, needle electrodes implanted in muscle, or solid-state electrode arrays with nerves
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In addition to new materials, the use of electronics has become very common in artificial limbs. Myoelectric limbs, which control the limbs by converting muscle movements to electrical signals, have become much more common than cable operated limbs. Myoelectric signals are picked up by electrodes,
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In most cases, the prosthetist begins by taking a plaster cast of the patient's affected limb. Lightweight, high-strength thermoplastics are custom-formed to this model of the patient. Cutting-edge materials such as carbon fiber, titanium and Kevlar provide strength and durability while making the
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that may make it a challenge to recover and use a prosthetic limb to regain mobility and independence. For people who have inadequate circulation and have lost a lower limb, there is insufficient evidence due to a lack of research, to inform them regarding their choice of prosthetic rehabilitation
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Carr et al. (1998) investigated amputations caused by landmines for Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia and Mozambique among children (<14 years), showing estimates of respectively 4.7, 0.19, 1.11 and 0.67 per 1000 children. Mohan (1986) indicated in India a total of 424,000 amputees
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with the aim of lowering the cost. A review study on a wide range of printed prosthetic hands found that 3D printing technology holds a promise for individualised prosthesis design, is cheaper than commercial prostheses available on the market, and is more expensive than mass production processes
1807:. As a result, when a patient thinks about moving the thumb of their missing hand, a small area of muscle on their chest will contract instead. By placing sensors over the reinnervated muscle, these contractions can be made to control the movement of an appropriate part of the robotic prosthesis.
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A device known as the controller is connected to the user's nerve and muscular systems and the device itself. It sends intention commands from the user to the actuators of the device and interprets feedback from the mechanical and biosensors to the user. The controller is also responsible for the
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One of the most important aspect of a prosthetic knee joint would be its stance-phase control mechanism. The function of stance-phase control is to prevent the leg from buckling when the limb is loaded during weight acceptance. This ensures the stability of the knee in order to support the single
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In case of a trans-femoral (above knee) amputation, there also is a need for a complex connector providing articulation, allowing flexion during swing-phase but not during stance. As its purpose is to replace the knee, the prosthetic knee joint is the most critical component of the prosthesis for
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Providing contact to the ground, the foot provides shock absorption and stability during stance. Additionally it influences gait biomechanics by its shape and stiffness. This is because the trajectory of the center of pressure (COP) and the angle of the ground reaction forces is determined by the
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in Italy, implanted electrodes into an amputee's arm, which gave the patient sensory feedback and allowed for real time control of the prosthetic. With wires linked to nerves in his upper arm, the Danish patient was able to handle objects and instantly receive a sense of touch through the special
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Voluntary closing users can generate prehension forces equivalent to the normal hand, up to or exceeding one hundred pounds. Voluntary closing GRIPS require constant tension to grip, like a human hand, and in that property, they do come closer to matching human hand performance. Voluntary opening
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Optimal socket fit between the residual limb and socket is critical to the function and usage of the entire prosthesis. If the fit between the residual limb and socket attachment is too loose, this will reduce the area of contact between the residual limb and socket or liner, and increase pockets
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The production of a prosthetic socket begins with capturing the geometry of the residual limb, this process is called shape capture. The goal of this process is to create an accurate representation of the residual limb, which is critical to achieve good socket fit. The custom socket is created by
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There are also many debates among the prosthetic community about whether they should wear prosthetics at all. This is sparked by whether prosthetics help in day-to-day living or make it harder. Many people have adapted to their loss of limb making it work for them and do not need a prosthesis in
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This also fairly simple solution comprises a plaster socket with a bamboo or PVC pipe at the bottom, optionally attached to a prosthetic foot. This solution prevents contractures because the knee is moved through its full RoM. The David Werner Collection, an online database for the assistance of
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The main goal of a robotic prosthesis is to provide active actuation during gait to improve the biomechanics of gait, including, among other things, stability, symmetry, or energy expenditure for amputees. There are several powered prosthetic legs currently on the market, including fully powered
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This part creates distance and support between the knee-joint and the foot (in case of an upper-leg prosthesis) or between the socket and the foot. The type of connectors that are used between the shank and the knee/foot determines whether the prosthesis is modular or not. Modular means that the
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An additional difference exists in the biofeedback created that allows the user to "feel" what is being held. Voluntary opening systems once engaged provide the holding force so that they operate like a passive vice at the end of the arm. No gripping feedback is provided once the hook has closed
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Current body-powered arms contain sockets that are built from hard epoxy or carbon fiber. These sockets or "interfaces" can be made more comfortable by lining them with a softer, compressible foam material that provides padding for the bone prominences. A self-suspending or supra-condylar socket
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and C.W. Radcliff helped to develop the quadrilateral socket by developing a jig fitting system for amputations above the knee. Socket technology for lower extremity limbs saw a further revolution during the 1980s when John Sabolich C.P.O., invented the Contoured Adducted Trochanteric-Controlled
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A key feature of prosthetics and prosthetic design is the idea of “designing for disabilities.” This might sound like a good idea in which people with disabilities can participate in equitable design but this is unfortunately not true. The idea of designing for disabilities is first problematic
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A recent study showed that by stimulating the median and ulnar nerves, according to the information provided by the artificial sensors from a hand prosthesis, physiologically appropriate (near-natural) sensory information could be provided to an amputee. This feedback enabled the participant to
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allow it to mimic the look and feel of natural skin, providing users with a more comfortable and natural experience. This new technology helps prosthetic users blend in with people with normal ligaments to reduce the stigmatism for people who wear prosthetics. Another trend points towards using
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6,000 and $ 8,000, while transfemoral (above the knee amputation) and transhumeral prosthetics (above the elbow amputation) cost approximately twice as much with a range of $ 10,000 to $ 15,000 and can sometimes reach costs of $ 35,000. The cost of an artificial limb often recurs, while a limb
2167:, and has been ruled eligible to qualify for any future Olympics. He qualified for the 2011 World Championship in South Korea and reached the semi-final where he ended last timewise, he was 14th in the first round, his personal best at 400m would have given him 5th place in the finals. At the
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because his transtibial prosthesis limbs were said to give him an unfair advantage over runners who had ankles. One researcher found that his limbs used twenty-five percent less energy than those of a non-disabled runner moving at the same speed. This ruling was overturned on appeal, with the
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Robots can be used to generate objective measures of patient's impairment and therapy outcome, assist in diagnosis, customize therapies based on patient's motor abilities, and assure compliance with treatment regimens and maintain patient's records. It is shown in many studies that there is a
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has been working for several years on a non-invasive and affordable solution to this feedback problem. He considers that: "Prosthetic limbs that can be controlled with thought hold great promise for the amputee, but without sensorial feedback from the signals returning to the brain, it can be
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A transtibial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing below the knee. A transtibial amputee is usually able to regain normal movement more readily than someone with a transfemoral amputation, due in large part to retaining the knee, which allows for easier movement. Lower
613:
A person's prosthesis should be designed and assembled according to the person's appearance and functional needs. For instance, a person may need a transradial prosthesis, but the person needs to choose between an aesthetic functional device, a myoelectric device, a body-powered device, or an
2714:
Prosthetics play a vital role in how a person perceives themselves and how other people perceive them. The ability to conceal such use enabled participants to ward off social stigmatization that in turn enabled their social integration and the reduction of emotional problems surrounding such
2689:
argues that every artifact recreates and extends the body. Chairs supplement the skeleton, tools append the hands, clothing augments the skin. In Scarry's thinking, "furniture and houses are neither more nor less interior to the human body than the food it absorbs, nor are they fundamentally
2637:
This hand-held pole with leather support band or platform for the limb is one of the simplest and cheapest solutions found. It serves well as a short-term solution, but is prone to rapid contracture formation if the limb is not stretched daily through a series of range-of motion (RoM) sets.
1550:
The two main subcategories of lower extremity prosthetic devices are trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial deficiency), and trans-femoral (any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a femoral
1546:
Lower-extremity prosthetics describes artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower. Concerning all ages Ephraim et al. (2003) found a worldwide estimate of all-cause lower-extremity amputations of 2.0–5.9 per 10,000 inhabitants. For birth prevalence rates of congenital limb
1146:
Henry Heather Bigg, and his son Henry Robert Heather Bigg, won the Queen's command to provide "surgical appliances" to wounded soldiers after Crimea War. They developed arms that allowed a double arm amputee to crochet, and a hand that felt natural to others based on ivory, felt and
1626:
limb support task of stance phase and provides a smooth transition to the swing phase. Stance phase control can be achieved in several ways including the mechanical locks, relative alignment of prosthetic components, weight activated friction control, and polycentric mechanisms.
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stability (one can use a hook to grip items from boiling water, to turn meat on a grill, to hold a match until it has burned down completely) and for chemical hazards (as a metal hook withstands acids or lye, and does not react to solvents like a prosthetic glove or human skin).
1151:
At the end of World War II, the NAS (National Academy of Sciences) began to advocate better research and development of prosthetics. Through government funding, a research and development program was developed within the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the Veterans Administration.
1863:
in 2010. Early in 2013, Max Ortiz Catalan and Rickard Brånemark of the Chalmers University of Technology, and Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Sweden, succeeded in making the first robotic arm which is mind-controlled and can be permanently attached to the body (using
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has become the first commercially available hand prosthesis with five individually powered digits. The hand also possesses a manually rotatable thumb which is operated passively by the user and allows the hand to grip in precision, power, and key grip modes.
1727:
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Micarelli, I; Paine, R; Giostra, C; Tafuri, MA; Profico, A; Boggioni, M; Di Vincenzo, F; Massani, D; Papini, A; Manzi, G (31 December 2018). "Survival to amputation in pre-antibiotic era: a case study from a Longobard necropolis (6th-8th centuries AD)".
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Nagaraja, Vikranth H.; Moulic, Soikat Ghosh; D’souza, Jennifer V.; Limesh, M.; Walters, Peter; Bergmann, Jeroen H. M. (December 2022). "A Novel Respiratory Control and Actuation System for Upper-Limb Prosthesis Users: Clinical Evaluation Study".
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Highsmith, M. Jason; Kahle, Jason T.; Bongiorni, Dennis R.; Sutton, Bryce S.; Groer, Shirley; Kaufman, Kenton R. (December 2010). "Safety, Energy Efficiency, and Cost Efficacy of the C-Leg for Transfemoral Amputees: A Review of the Literature".
1184:
In 2019, a project under AT2030 was launched in which bespoke sockets are made using a thermoplastic, rather than through a plaster cast. This is faster to do and significantly less expensive. The sockets were called Amparo Confidence sockets.
3768:
Ten radiocarbon dates on the prosthesis, human bones and wood pieces from the same grave suggest the most probable age of the burial is about 300–200 BC (68% confidence interval), thus introducing the oldest functional leg prosthesis known to
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Monolimbs are non-modular prostheses and thus require more experienced prosthetist for correct fitting, because alignment can barely be changed after production. However, their durability on average is better than low-cost modular solutions.
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to the titanium bolt and an abutment is attached to the titanium bolt. The abutment extends out of the stump and the (removable) artificial limb is then attached to the abutment. Some of the benefits of this method include the following:
7304:"Hawking, Pistorius open London's Paralympics: Wheelchair-bound physicist Stephen Hawking challenged athletes to 'look to the stars' as he helped open a record-setting Paralympics Games that will run for 11 days in near sold-out venues"
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significant improvement in upper limb motor function after stroke using robotics for upper limb rehabilitation. In order for a robotic prosthetic limb to work, it must have several components to integrate it into the body's function:
1078:, estimated that the man had lived sometime between the 6th and 8th centuries AD. Materials found near the man's body suggest that the knife prosthesis was attached with a leather strap, which he repeatedly tightened with his teeth.
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deficiency). In the prosthetic industry, a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a "BK" or below the knee prosthesis while the trans-femoral prosthetic leg is often referred to as an "AK" or above the knee prosthesis.
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Raspopovic, Stanisa; Capogrosso, Marco; Petrini, Francesco Maria; Bonizzato, Marco; Rigosa, Jacopo; Di Pino, Giovanni; et al. (5 February 2014). "Restoring Natural Sensory Feedback in Real-Time Bidirectional Hand Prostheses".
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pain. When compared to a body-powered prosthesis, a myoelectric prosthesis may not be as durable, may have a longer training time, may require more adjustments, may need more maintenance, and does not provide feedback to the user.
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Kuiken TA, Miller LA, Lipschutz RD, Lock BA, Stubblefield K, Marasco PD, Zhou P, Dumanian GA (February 3, 2007). "Targeted reinnervation for enhanced prosthetic arm function in a woman with a proximal amputation: a case study".
2089:, there has been consideration given to using advanced prostheses to replace healthy body parts with artificial mechanisms and systems to improve function. The morality and desirability of such technologies are being debated by
2702:, a professor of architecture, continues this line of thinking about how architecture supplements our natural capabilities, and argues that "a blurring of identity is produced by all prostheses." Some of this work relies on
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Most prostheses are attached to the exterior of the body in a non-permanent way. The stump and socket method can cause significant pain in the amputee, which is why the direct bone attachment has been explored extensively.
2507:
model utilized some variation of a compressible heel. The heel is compressed during initial ground contact, storing energy which is then returned during the latter phase of ground contact to help propel the body forward.
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An Italian surgeon recorded the existence of an amputee who had an arm that allowed him to remove his hat, open his purse, and sign his name. Improvement in amputation surgery and prosthetic design came at the hands of
1887:
announced in September 2013 that they have developed a robotic leg that translates neural impulses from the user's thigh muscles into movement, which is the first prosthetic leg to do so. It is currently in testing.
1989:
The main disadvantage of this method is that amputees with the direct bone attachment cannot have large impacts on the limb, such as those experienced during jogging, because of the potential for the bone to break.
5168:
Hruby, Laura A.; Sturma, Agnes; Mayer, Johannes A.; Pittermann, Anna; Salminger, Stefan; Aszmann, Oskar C. (November 2017). "Algorithm for bionic hand reconstruction in patients with global brachial plexopathies".
1114: – Prosthesis made of a wooden shank and socket, a steel knee joint and an articulated foot that was controlled by catgut tendons from the knee to the ankle. Came to be known as "Anglesey Leg" or "Selpho Leg".
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extremity prosthetics describe artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower. In the prosthetics industry, a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a "BK" or below the knee prosthesis.
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2032:, language, and memory. No neurocognitive prostheses are currently available but the development of implantable neurocognitive brain-computer interfaces has been proposed to help treat conditions such as
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is a recent artificial limb that has taken advantage of these more advanced processors. The arm allows movement in five axes and allows the arm to be programmed for a more customized feel. Recently the
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Prior to the 1980s, foot prostheses merely restored basic walking capabilities. These early devices can be characterized by a simple artificial attachment connecting one's residual limb to the ground.
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of everyday use. In addition, if the socket has fit issues, the socket must be replaced within several months from the onset of pain. If height is an issue, components such as pylons can be changed.
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5889:. World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering: XVIII International Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering and XI International Conference on Medical Physics. Nice, France.
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design is useful for those with short to mid-range below elbow absence. Longer limbs may require the use of a locking roll-on type inner liner or more complex harnessing to help augment suspension.
1735:
Brain control of 3D prosthetic arm movement (hitting targets). This movie was recorded when the participant controlled the 3D movement of a prosthetic arm to hit physical targets in a research lab.
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Two types of body-powered systems exist, voluntary opening "pull to open" and voluntary closing "pull to close". Virtually all "split hook" prostheses operate with a voluntary opening type system.
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movement, typically employing electrodes or other suitable tools. Subsequently, these acquired signals are converted into gripping patterns or postures that the artificial hand will then execute.
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Legro, MW; Reiber, G; del Aguila, M; Ajax, MJ; Boone, DA; Larsen, JA; Smith, DG; Sangeorzan, B (July 1999). "Issues of importance reported by persons with lower limb amputations and prostheses".
937:. It was likely made of bitumen paste that was covered with a thin layer of gold. The Egyptians were also early pioneers of foot prosthetics, as shown by the wooden toe found on a body from the
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Gottschalk, Frank A.; Kourosh, Sohrab; Stills, Melvin; McClellan, Bruce; Roberts, Jim (October 1989). "Does Socket Configuration Influence the Position of the Femur in Above-Knee Amputation?".
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One notable prosthesis was that belonging to an Italian man, who scientists estimate replaced his amputated right hand with a knife. Scientists investigating the skeleton, which was found in a
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Mamalis, AG; Ramsden, JJ; Grabchenko, AI; Lytvynov, LA; Filipenko, VA; Lavrynenko, SN (2006). "A novel concept for the manufacture of individual sapphire-metallic hip joint endoprostheses".
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Fit – athletic/active amputees, or those with bony residua, may require a carefully detailed socket fit; less-active patients may be comfortable with a 'total contact' fit and gel liner
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This solution is built using a bicycle seat post up side down as foot, generating flexibility and (length) adjustability. It is a very cheap solution, using locally available materials.
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Partial foot amputations (Pirogoff, Talo-Navicular and Calcaneo-cuboid (Chopart), Tarso-metatarsal (Lisfranc), Trans-metatarsal, Metatarsal-phalangeal, Ray amputations, toe amputations).
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Hafner B. J.; Sanders J. E.; Czerniecki J. M.; Ferguson J. (2002). "Transtibial energy-storage-and-return prosthetic devices: A review of energy concepts and a proposed nomenclature".
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However, some have some significant drawbacks that impair its use. They can be susceptible to water damage and thus great care must be taken to ensure that the prosthesis remains dry.
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A plan for a low-cost artificial leg, designed by Sébastien Dubois, was featured at the 2007 International Design Exhibition and award show in Copenhagen, Denmark, where it won the
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Hip disarticulations – This usually refers to when an amputee or congenitally challenged patient has either an amputation or anomaly at or in close proximity to the hip joint.
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Highsmith, M. Jason; Andrews, Casey R.; Millman, Claire; Fuller, Ashley; Kahle, Jason T.; Klenow, Tyler D.; Lewis, Katherine L.; Bradley, Rachel C.; Orriola, John J. (2016-09-16).
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as part of an inter-disciplinary team consisting of physiatrists, prosthetists, nurses, physical therapists, and occupational therapists. Prostheses can be created by hand or with
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Carey, Stephanie L.; Lura, Derek J.; Highsmith, M. Jason; CP.; FAAOP. (2015). "Differences in myoelectric and body-powered upper-limb prostheses: Systematic literature review".
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Ephraim, P. L.; Dillingham, T. R.; Sector, M; Pezzin, L. E.; MacKenzie, E. J. (2003). "Epidemiology of limb loss and congenital limb deficiency: A review of the literature".
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Nonetheless, there are certain elements of socket and foot mechanics that are invaluable for the athlete, and these are the focus of today's high-tech prosthetics companies:
5711:
Kannenberg, Andreas; Zacharias, Britta; Pröbsting, Eva (2014). "Benefits of microprocessor-controlled prosthetic knees to limited community ambulators: Systematic review".
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Unlike neuromotor prostheses, neurocognitive prostheses would sense or modulate neural function in order to physically reconstitute or augment cognitive processes such as
1707:
The USSR was the first to develop a myoelectric arm in 1958, while the first myoelectric arm became commercial in 1964 by the Central Prosthetic Research Institute of the
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7455:
Phoengsongkhro, S., Tangpornprasert, P., Yotnuengnit, P. et al. Development of four-bar polycentric knee joint with stance-phase knee flexion. Sci Rep 13, 22809 (2023).
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and foot prosthesis with a fixed position, adjustable harness, and knee lock control. The functionality of his advancements showed how future prosthetics could develop.
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such as injection molding. The same study also found that evidence on the functionality, durability and user acceptance of 3D printed hand prostheses is still lacking.
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create devices for developing countries. Their device which is manufactured by CR Equipments is a single-axis, manually operated locking polymer prosthetic knee joint.
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different from such sophisticated prosthetics as artificial lungs, eyes and kidneys. The consumption of manufactured things turns the body inside out, opening it up
1826:, the Pentagon's research division, is working to make even more advancements in this area. Their desire is to create an artificial limb that ties directly into the
1642:'s Rheo Knee, released in 2005, the Power Knee by Ossur, introduced in 2006, the Plié Knee from Freedom Innovations and DAW Industries' Self Learning Knee (SLK).
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In the USA an estimate was found of 32,500 children (<21 years) had a major paediatric amputation, with 5,525 new cases each year, of which 3,315 congenital.
1634:
To mimic the knee's functionality during gait, microprocessor-controlled knee joints have been developed that control the flexion of the knee. Some examples are
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4168:
2191:
There are multiple factors to consider when designing a transtibial prosthesis. Manufacturers must make choices about their priorities regarding these factors.
5110:
Smit, G; Bongers, RM; Van der Sluis, CK; Plettenburg, DH (2012). "Efficiency of voluntary opening hand and hook prosthetic devices: 24 years of development?".
2626:(23,500 annually), of which 10.3% had an onset of disability below the age of 14, amounting to a total of about 43,700 limb deficient children in India alone.
1081:
During the Renaissance, prosthetics developed with the use of iron, steel, copper, and wood. Functional prosthetics began to make an appearance in the 1500s.
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933:. Circa 3000-2800 BC, the earliest archaeological evidence of prosthetics is found in ancient Iran, where an eye prosthetic is found buried with a woman in
3736:"Archaeological and palaeopathological study on the third/second century BC grave from Turfan, China: Individual health history and regional implications"
3686:
Rosenfeld, Amnon; Dvorachek, Michael; Rotstein, Ilan (July 2000). "Bronze Single Crown-like Prosthetic Restorations of Teeth from the Late Roman Period".
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Wheeled prostheses have also been used extensively in the rehabilitation of injured domestic animals, including dogs, cats, pigs, rabbits, and turtles.
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Warwick K, Gasson M, Hutt B, Goodhew I, Kyberd P, Andrews B, Teddy P, Shad A (2003). "The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems".
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2582:". The group employs collaborators and volunteers to advance Prosthetics technology while attempting to lower the costs of these necessary devices.
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4270:
Burck, James M.; Bigelow, John D.; Harshbarger, Stuart D. (2011). "Revolutionizing Prosthetics: Systems Engineering Challenges and Opportunities".
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1105:
738:, Sonomyography, Myokinetic, and others. These methods function by detecting the minute electrical currents generated by contracted muscles during
3879:"Arms and Armor—Common Misconceptions and Frequently Asked Questions | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History"
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that can pass into and out of the cylinder, thus regulating the extension and compression of a piston connected to the upper section of the knee.
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Wrist units are either screw-on connectors featuring the UNF 1/2-20 thread (USA) or quick-release connector, of which there are different models.
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It is an endoskeletal modular lower limb from India, which uses thermoplastic parts. Its main advantages are the small weight and adaptability.
4555:"How artificial limb is made – Background, Raw materials, The manufacturing process of artificial limb, Physical therapy, Quality control"
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5423:
Jian, Yuancheng; Winter, DA; Ishac, MG; Gilchrist, L (1993). "Trajectory of the body COG and COP during initiation and termination of gait".
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The socket serves as an interface between the residuum and the prosthesis, ideally allowing comfortable weight-bearing, movement control and
1507:
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Advancements in the processors used in myoelectric arms have allowed developers to make gains in fine-tuned control of the prosthetic. The
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new prosthesis lighter. More sophisticated prostheses are equipped with advanced electronics, providing additional stability and control.
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6193:
5322:
Mak, A. F.; Zhang, M; Boone, D. A. (2001). "State-of-the-art research in lower-limb prosthetic biomechanics-socket interface: A review".
344:
5006:"With a new prosthetic, researchers have managed to restore the sense of touch for a Denmark man who lost his left hand nine years ago."
1912:
has developed artificial nerves system that will help prosthetic limbs feel. This synthetic nerve system enables prosthetic limbs sense
8938:
5500:
2510:
Since then, the foot prosthetics industry has been dominated by steady, small improvements in performance, comfort, and marketability.
2206:
Energy storage and return – storage of energy acquired through ground contact and utilization of that stored energy for propulsion
2132:
1818:
on the chest, rather than motor nerves rerouted to muscle. Recently, robotic limbs have improved in their ability to take signals from
1788:
mimics the actions of a muscle in producing force and movement. Examples include a motor that aids or replaces original muscle tissue.
1715:. The Myoelectric prosthesis are expensive requires regular maintenance, sensitive to sweat and moisture affecting sensor performance.
5625:
R. Stewart and A. Staros, "Selection and application of knee mechanisms," Bulletin of Prosthetics Research, vol. 18, pp. 90-158, 1972.
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3734:
Li, Xiao; Wagner, Mayke; Wu, Xiaohong; Tarasov, Pavel; Zhang, Yongbin; Schmidt, Arno; Goslar, Tomasz; Gresky, Julia (21 March 2013).
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5453:
Andrysek, Jan (December 2010). "Lower-limb prosthetic technologies in the developing world: A review of literature from 1994–2010".
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3526:. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby Year Book. pp. 389, 413, 429, 479, 501, 535, 885.
3198:"Electromyogram pattern recognition for control of powered upper-limb prostheses: State of the art and challenges for clinical use"
197:
4191:
Johannes, Matthew S.; Bigelow, John D.; Burck, James M.; Harshbarger, Stuart D.; Kozlowski, Matthew V.; Van Doren, Thomas (2011).
1589:. Socket problems, such as discomfort and skin breakdown, are rated among the most important issues faced by lower-limb amputees.
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activity specific device. The person's future goals and economical capabilities may help them choose between one or more devices.
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8739:
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include intra-oral and extra-oral prostheses. Extra-oral prostheses are further divided into hemifacial, auricular (ear), nasal,
6113:
5257:
1945:
is a method of attaching the artificial limb to the body by a prosthetic implant. This method is also sometimes referred to as
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Knee disarticulations – This usually refers to an amputation through the knee disarticulating the femur from the tibia.
8080:
2070:
1043:
made to hold his shield so that he could return to battle. A famous and quite refined historical prosthetic arm was that of
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2143:
information such as pressure across wearer's tissue, that can help improve further iteration of these types of prosthetic.
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which incorporates the users favourite colours, textures, and even aesthetics to look like superheroes or characters from
2274:
Transradial (below the elbow amputation) and transtibial prostheses (below the knee amputation) typically cost between US
2160:
appellate court stating that the overall set of advantages and disadvantages of Pistorius' limbs had not been considered.
1810:
A variant of this technique is called targeted sensory reinnervation (TSR). This procedure is similar to TMR, except that
1127: – Improved upon the Selpho leg. Added an anterior spring and concealed tendons to simulate natural-looking movement.
9049:
6455:
Liacouras, Peter C.; Sahajwalla, Divya; Beachler, Mark D.; Sleeman, Todd; Ho, Vincent B.; Lichtenberger, John P. (2017).
1982:
The ability to wear the prosthetic for an extended period of time; with the stump and socket method this is not possible.
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or vocational). An extensive overview and classification of passive devices can be found in a literature review by Maat
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8842:
8796:
3567:
3531:
1169:
384:
5932:"A Russian Bioelectric-Controlled Prosthesis: Report of a Research Team from the Rehabilitation Institute of Montreal"
1891:
Hugh Herr, head of the biomechatronics group at MIT's Media Lab developed a robotic transtibial leg (PowerFoot BiOM).
9142:
7665:
7433:
7051:
6544:
5039:
4607:"Influences and trends of various shape-capture methods on outcomes in trans-tibial prosthetics: A systematic review"
3622:
2136:
745:
In the prosthetics industry, a trans-radial prosthetic arm is often referred to as a "BE" or below elbow prosthesis.
488:
8111:
A systematic review of randomised controlled trials assessing effectiveness of prosthetic and orthotic interventions
6140:"Design and development of a novel 3D-printed non-metallic self-locking prosthetic arm for a forequarter amputation"
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2610:
1998:
Cosmetic prosthesis has long been used to disguise injuries and disfigurements. With advances in modern technology,
8641:
7580:
Krebs, D. E.; Edelstein, J. E.; Thornby, M. A. (1991). "Prosthetic management of children with limb deficiencies".
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510:
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217:
114:
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Few low-cost solutions have been created specially for children. Examples of low-cost prosthetic devices include:
2093:, other ethicists, and others in general. Body parts such as legs, arms, hands, feet, and others can be replaced.
1377:
Current technology allows body-powered arms to weigh around one-half to one-third of what a myoelectric arm does.
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9168:
9044:
8580:
8123:
6748:
6592:
Windrich, Michael; Grimmer, Martin; Christ, Oliver; Rinderknecht, Stephan; Beckerle, Philipp (19 December 2016).
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1481:
Voluntary opening split hook systems are simple, convenient, light, robust, versatile and relatively affordable.
17:
7985:
7537:
ten Kate, Jelle; Smit, Gerwin; Breedveld, Paul (2 February 2017). "3D-printed upper limb prostheses: a review".
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4054:
1016:
8958:
8902:
7886:"Psychological Consequences in Patients With Amputation of a Limb. An Interpretative-Phenomenological Analysis"
7752:
5634:
M. Greene, "Four bar linkage knee analysis," Prosthetics and Orthotics International, vol. 37, pp. 15-24, 1983.
3056:"Reimagining Prosthetic Control: A Novel Body-Powered Prosthetic System for Simultaneous Control and Actuation"
2120:
was able to mimic the actions of Warwick's own arm and provide a form of touch feedback again via the implant.
1302:
Most modern artificial limbs are attached to the residual limb (stump) of the amputee by belts and cuffs or by
721:
379:
236:
6413:
1970:
The method works by inserting a titanium bolt into the bone at the end of the stump. After several months the
1410:
split hook users are limited to forces their rubber or springs can generate which usually is below 20 pounds.
9009:
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7779:
Lupton and Miller (1992). "Streamlining: The Aesthetics of Waste" in Taylor, M. and Preston, J. (eds.) 2006.
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192:
167:
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7164:"Wearable system interfaces: How can electronic sensors be integrated into improved 3D printed prosthetics?"
2931:"How artificial limb is made – material, manufacture, making, used, parts, components, structure, procedure"
1279:
Over the years, there have been advancements in artificial limbs. New plastics and other materials, such as
798:
Lower extremity prostheses are often categorized by the level of amputation or after the name of a surgeon:
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9014:
8811:
8104:
6401:
4788:"Developments in the trans-tibial prosthetic socket fitting process: a review of past and present research"
4082:
Artificial Limbs and the Amputations which Afford the Most Appropriate Stumps in Civil and Military Surgery
2082:
patients have special limbs and devices to aid in the participation of sports and recreational activities.
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4299:
Bogue, Robert (21 August 2009). "Exoskeletons and robotic prosthetics: a review of recent developments".
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Prosthetic are made lightweight for better convenience for the amputee. Some of these materials include:
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323:
80:
31:
597:(CAD), a software interface that helps creators design and analyze the creation with computer-generated
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4841:
Ribeiro, Danielle; Cimino, Stephanie R.; Mayo, Amanda L.; Ratto, Matt; Hitzig, Sander L. (2019-08-16).
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4232:
3467:"Prosthetic rehabilitation for older dysvascular people following a unilateral transfemoral amputation"
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The research of robotic legs has made some advancement over time, allowing exact movement and control.
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85:
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the consequence of an inventiveness that functions beyond and perhaps in defiance of pragmatic need?"
2680:
A number of theorists have explored the meaning and implications of prosthetic extension of the body.
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7884:
Roșca, Andra Cătălina; Baciu, Cosmin Constantin; Burtăverde, Vlad; Mateizer, Alexandru (2021-05-26).
7657:
Disabled village children: A guide for community health workers, rehabilitation workers, and families
6722:
1248:
A prosthesis is a functional replacement for an amputated or congenitally malformed or missing limb.
333:
127:
109:
7067:
Anomaly, Jonny (2012). "Beyond Humanity? The Ethics of Biomedical Enhancement – by Allen Buchanan".
4284:
2139:
expected in 2017. The price offered at retail by Mobius Bionics is expected to be around $ 100,000.
1458:
artificial hand that was created by Silvestro Micera and researchers both in Switzerland and Italy.
984:
8978:
8953:
7390:
6457:"Using computed tomography and 3D printing to construct custom prosthetics attachments and devices"
5499:
Hofstad, Cheriel J; van der Linde, Harmen; van Limbeek, Jacques; Postema, Klaas (26 January 2004).
2904:"Prosthetic implants – Prosthetic limbs and body parts – Plastic surgery – Services A-Z – Services"
2883:
2579:
2171:
in London, Pistorius became the first amputee runner to compete at an Olympic Games. He ran in the
1656:
The sensory signals computed by the microprocessor are used to control the resistance generated by
1442:. This technology allows amputee patients to handle prosthetic hand systems in a more natural way.
1219:
212:
7043:
2096:
The first experiment with a healthy individual appears to have been that by the British scientist
2065:
1044:
9092:
9039:
9034:
8963:
6699:"An artificial nerve system gives prosthetic devices and robots a sense of touch | Stanford News"
6240:
6218:
2180:
2164:
1768:
detect signals from the user's nervous or muscular systems. It then relays this information to a
1431:
617:
461:
8037:
Edelstein, J. E. Prosthetic feet. State of the Art. Physical Therapy 68(12) Dec 1988: 1874–1881.
3318:
Clemente, Francesco; Ianniciello, Valerio; Gherardini, Marta; Cipriani, Christian (2019-07-17).
3151:"Mechanical design and performance specifications of anthropomorphic prosthetic hands: A review"
2163:
Pistorius did not qualify for the South African team for the Olympics, but went on to sweep the
9075:
8968:
5855:
4279:
4207:
2746:
2135:. Clinical trials began in 2008, with FDA approval in 2014 and commercial manufacturing by the
2049:
2037:
1774:
1446:
effectively modulate the grasping force of the prosthesis with no visual or auditory feedback.
1352:
Formation of plastic parts of the artificial limb – Different methods are used, including
1133: – Created prosthetic with a suction socket, polycentric knee, and multi-articulated foot.
1040:
1024:
783:
547:
451:
6676:
6197:
3612:
1286:
1218:
that "translates signals from a person's muscles to perform complex tasks," according to FDA.
1055:
44:
8666:
8033:'Biomechanics of running: from faulty movement patterns come injury.' Sports Injury Bulletin.
7163:
4766:
3131:
2823:
1646:
997:
684:
594:
202:
5145:
Robitzski, Dan (May 2017) . "Disabled Hands Successfully Replaced with Bionic Prosthetics".
4898:"State-of-the-art research in lower-limb prosthetic biomechanics-socket interface: a review"
2074:
Sgt. Jerrod Fields works out at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Chula Vista, California.
9163:
8999:
8983:
8948:
8882:
8040:
6669:"Stanford researchers create artificial nerve system for robots – Xinhua | English.news.cn"
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3695:
3331:
3264:
3097:
2954:
2601:
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2546:
2493:
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Energy absorption – minimizing the effect of high impact on the musculoskeletal system
2168:
2156:
2086:
1758:
1059:
992:
938:
680:
602:
254:
162:
90:
6962:
5901:
4936:
3413:"Gait Training Interventions for Lower Extremity Amputees: A Systematic Literature Review"
3054:
Nagaraja, Vikranth H.; da Ponte Lopes, Jhonatan; Bergmann, Jeroen H. M. (September 2022).
1803:
rerouted such that they reinnervate a small region of a large, intact muscle, such as the
8:
9132:
8651:
6334:"Restoration of Whole Body Movement: Toward a Noninvasive Brain-Machine Interface System"
3596:
1905:
1657:
1075:
774:(dysvascularity). This condition is often associated with many other medical conditions (
720:
An example of two upper-extremity prosthetics, one body-powered (right arm), and another
568:
483:
137:
6776:"Recycling shampoo bottles to make prosthetic limbs becomes retired hairdresser's dream"
6381:
6020:
4719:"A preliminary investigation into the development of 3-D printing of prosthetic sockets"
4370:
3747:
3699:
3335:
3268:
3101:
9065:
8887:
8615:
8146:
7920:
7885:
7814:
7696:"Design of monolimb using finite element modelling and statistics-based Taguchi method"
7562:
6935:
6910:
6891:
6856:"3D printing for developing patient specific cosmetic prosthetics at the point of care"
6620:
6593:
6491:
6456:
6358:
6333:
6309:
6285:"Modeling of Prosthetic Limb Rotation Control by Sensing Rotation of Residual Arm Bone"
6284:
6175:
6070:
5948:
5931:
5780:
5736:
5607:
5588:
5528:
5478:
5194:
5092:
4988:
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4754:
4694:
4661:
4642:
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4352:
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3499:
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3412:
3362:
3319:
3295:
3252:
3233:
3113:
3031:
3006:
2930:
2271:, which is being rolled out nationally between 2017 and 2020 also pays for prostheses.
2101:
2025:
1839:
1740:
1462:
771:
655:
621:
577:, is an artificial device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through
444:
70:
7714:
7011:
6984:
6117:
6088:
6058:
5300:
5154:
3815:
2979:"4: Prosthetic Management: Overview, Methods, and Materials | O&P Virtual Library"
1121: – A new method of ankle amputation that did not involve amputating at the thigh.
934:
9188:
9019:
8922:
8872:
8683:
8055:
8019:
7960:
7925:
7907:
7861:
7853:
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7661:
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7554:
7344:
7111:
7080:
7047:
7016:
6940:
6895:
6883:
6875:
6625:
6496:
6478:
6382:"Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago First to Develop Thought Controlled Robotic Leg"
6363:
6314:
6241:"Mind-controlled permanently-attached prosthetic arm could revolutionize prosthetics"
6179:
6167:
6159:
6062:
6012:
5976:
5953:
5912:
5838:
5772:
5728:
5609:
Evaluation and Design of a Globally Applicable Rear-locking Prosthetic Knee Mechanism
5580:
5572:
5533:
5470:
5436:
5409:
5358:
5331:
5304:
5265:
5186:
5127:
5084:
4992:
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4681:
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3300:
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3225:
3217:
3178:
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3117:
3036:
2518:
2155:, the "Blade Runner" of South Africa, was briefly ruled ineligible to compete in the
1535:
1357:
1252:
are responsible for the prescription, design, and management of a prosthetic device.
1012:
Iron prosthetic hand believed to have been owned by Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562)
1008:
954:
921:. The earliest recorded mention of eye prosthetics is from the Egyptian story of the
910:
779:
770:
In the United Kingdom, 75% of lower limb amputations are performed due to inadequate
670:
666:
637:
629:
625:
598:
585:). Prostheses are intended to restore the normal functions of the missing body part.
289:
249:
132:
8045:
7566:
7365:
6074:
5784:
5482:
5198:
5096:
4827:
4356:
4256:
4159:
Pike, Alvin (May/June 1999). "The New High Tech Prostheses". InMotion Magazine 9 (3)
3831:
3524:
Atlas of limb prosthetics : surgical, prosthetic, and rehabilitation principles
3237:
1924:
Prosthetics are being made from recycled plastic bottles and lids around the world.
9112:
9107:
9004:
8917:
8661:
8337:
8268:
7952:
7915:
7897:
7845:
7806:
7710:
7589:
7546:
7336:
7103:
7076:
7039:
7006:
6996:
6930:
6922:
6867:
6615:
6605:
6594:"Active lower limb prosthetics: a systematic review of design issues and solutions"
6486:
6468:
6353:
6345:
6304:
6296:
6151:
6054:
5943:
5830:
5764:
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5720:
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3424:
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3105:
3067:
3026:
3018:
2788:
2019:
1971:
1960:
1942:
1933:
1865:
1804:
1616:
1570:
1461:
In July 2019, this technology was expanded on even further by researchers from the
1439:
1136:
814:
735:
420:
415:
284:
157:
7681:
7550:
7282:"Oscar Pistorius, South African 4×400m relay team finish 8th as Bahamas wins gold"
7210:
4858:
4717:
Herbert, Nicholas; Simpson, David; Spence, William D.; Ion, William (March 2005).
4096:
1091:
8821:
8286:
8099:
7956:
7641:
7474:
7001:
5768:
5695:
5650:
5466:
5080:
4976:
4528:
3802:
Finch, Jacqueline (February 2011). "The ancient origins of prosthetic medicine".
3755:
2870:
2768:
2762:
2752:
2681:
2152:
2105:
1964:
1769:
1661:
1561:
1423:
and biofeedback so that the user can feel how much force that they are applying.
1346:
sheet around the model – This is then used to test the fit of the prosthetic
1048:
1032:
957:
have also been found, but their use could have been more aesthetic than medical.
824:
752:
578:
259:
7107:
3109:
3005:
Maat, Bartjan; Smit, Gerwin; Plettenburg, Dick; Breedveld, Paul (1 March 2017).
2978:
9070:
8678:
8543:
8453:
8401:
8258:
7944:
7695:
7229:
Oscar Pistorius makes Olympic history in 400 meters, and moves on to semi-final
6871:
5973:
Powered Upper Limb Prostheses: Control, Implementation and Clinical Application
5223:
UK woman can ride bike for first time with 'world's most lifelike bionic hand'
4677:
4248:
3735:
3672:
3197:
3150:
3149:
Belter, Joseph T.; Segil, Jacob L.; Dollar, Aaron M.; Weir, Richard F. (2013).
2774:
2550:
2124:
2090:
2078:
In addition to the standard artificial limb for everyday use, many amputees or
2041:
1827:
1712:
1586:
1547:
deficiency they found an estimate between 3.5 and 7.1 cases per 10,000 births.
1473:
Terminal devices contain a range of hooks, prehensors, hands or other devices.
1353:
1211:
1063:
1036:
703:
676:
641:
456:
430:
318:
7902:
6926:
6803:"Canberra family turning bottle caps into plastic hands and arms for children"
6610:
6473:
6349:
5834:
5724:
5568:
5501:"Prescription of prosthetic ankle-foot mechanisms after lower limb amputation"
5123:
4803:
4734:
4312:
3994:
3213:
3166:
3072:
3055:
2706:'s earlier characterization of man's relation to objects as one of extension.
2647:
disabled village children, displays manuals of production of these solutions.
2517:, it is possible to manufacture a single product without having to have metal
1645:
The idea was originally developed by Kelly James, a Canadian engineer, at the
1333:
Measurement of the body to determine the size required for the artificial limb
9157:
8907:
8673:
8478:
8468:
7911:
7857:
7849:
7722:
7488:"Robot arm startup taps 3-D printers in quest to make prosthetics affordable"
7456:
7348:
7308:
6879:
6482:
6300:
6163:
6155:
5902:"Pattern-recognition arm prosthesis: A historical perspective-a final report"
5576:
4913:
4866:
4811:
4742:
4685:
4630:
4622:
4588:
3763:
3577:
3490:
3353:
3286:
3221:
3174:
3022:
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2818:
2703:
2686:
2280:
2097:
1811:
1493:
1435:
1343:
1001:
965:
914:
651:
274:
122:
8105:
I have one of the most advanced prosthetic arms in the world – and I hate it
8018:. United States of America: Charles C Thomas Publisher, Ltd. pp. 3–31.
7801:
Wigley, Mark (1991). "Prosthetic Theory: The Disciplining of Architecture".
7329:"How To Get A Story Wrong: Technoableism, Simulation, and Cyborg Resistance"
6985:"Is It Ethical to Use Enhancement Technologies to Make Us Better than Well?"
6855:
6139:
5552:
5182:
4897:
4787:
4718:
4606:
3541:
3428:
2480:
1576:
Symes – This is an ankle disarticulation while preserving the heel pad.
1299:
are often used to assist in the design and manufacture of artificial limbs.
9024:
8892:
8852:
8463:
8059:
7929:
7865:
7730:
7558:
7419:
7115:
7020:
6944:
6887:
6629:
6500:
6367:
6318:
6171:
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6016:
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5860:
5842:
5776:
5732:
5584:
5537:
5474:
5362:
5335:
5308:
5190:
5131:
5088:
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4921:
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4819:
4750:
4703:
4638:
4348:
3952:
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3707:
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3371:
3304:
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3182:
3040:
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2113:
1754:
1708:
1701:
1685:
1280:
922:
918:
688:
389:
338:
264:
7601:
6828:
4423:"Dean Kamen's "Luke Arm" Prosthesis Receives FDA Approval - IEEE Spectrum"
4193:"An Overview of the Developmental Process for the Modular Prosthetic Limb"
4040:
2484:
Low-cost above-knee prosthetic limbs: ICRC Knee (left) and LC Knee (right)
1959:
are prosthetic joint implants which remain wholly inside the body such as
9102:
8548:
8473:
8374:
8236:
8221:
8115:
5916:
5643:
5396:
Stark, Gerald (2005). "Perspectives on How and Why Feet are Prescribed".
3781:
2813:
2803:
2699:
2615:
2605:
2558:
2554:
2525:
2514:
2296:
1844:
1819:
1792:
1750:
1498:
1419:
around the object being held. Voluntary closing systems provide directly
1363:
1264:
1249:
1193:
1173:
775:
425:
7340:
6569:"Elan – Carbon, Feet, Hydraulic – Endolite USA – Lower Limb Prosthetics"
6568:
4529:"Custom Prosthetics, Artificial Limbs LI, NY | Progressive O&P"
4080:
3638:
2563:
2212:
Ground compliance – stability independent of terrain type and angle
9097:
8610:
8596:
8518:
8391:
8342:
8216:
8168:
8160:
8154:
7818:
5887:
Microcontroller system for myoelectric prosthesis with sensory feedback
5551:
Andrysek, Jan; Naumann, Stephen; Cleghorn, William L. (December 2004).
4504:"The Evolution of Prosthetic Limbs: Current Technological Advancements"
3971:"Archaeologists Find Ancient Knife-Hand Prosthesis on Medieval Warrior"
3944:
3253:"Controlling Upper Limb Prostheses Using Sonomyography (SMG): A Review"
2497:
2305:
Table. List of knee joint technologies based on the literature review.
2128:
2079:
1765:
1540:
1427:
1326:
Artificial limbs are typically manufactured using the following steps:
1207:
1118:
1058:
is also reported to have had an iron hand, as is, in the 17th century,
969:
942:
913:
circa 3000 BCE, with the earliest evidence of prosthetics appearing in
586:
582:
407:
55:
5498:
5211:
3562:(2nd ed.). Sweden: Centre for Partial Foot Amputees. p. 21.
3344:
3277:
8897:
8490:
8369:
8206:
6749:"These researchers are turning plastic bottles into prosthetic limbs"
6138:
Binedell, Trevor; Meng, Eugene; Subburaj, Karupppasamy (2020-08-25).
5245:
A helping hand: EU researchers develop bionic hand that imitates life
4169:
One small step for an amputee and a giant leap for Amparo and GDI Hub
3904:"This Medieval Italian Man Replaced His Amputated Hand With a Weapon"
3317:
2798:
2758:
2117:
2109:
2029:
1848:
1635:
1523:
1071:
961:
659:
269:
7810:
7149:"DARPA's Mind-Controlled Arm Prosthesis Preps for Commercial Launch"
4961:
2492:. It would be able to create an energy-return prosthetic leg for US
1094:. Among his inventions was an above-knee device that was a kneeling
751:
provide replacements at varying levels of amputation. These include
9029:
8498:
8418:
8253:
8186:
6089:"Blogs: TR Editors' blog: Patients Test an Advanced Prosthetic Arm"
5109:
2003:
1999:
1785:
1773:
growing through them. One type of these biosensors are employed in
1554:
Other, less prevalent lower extremity cases include the following:
946:
633:
531:
38:
8755:
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
8041:
Gailey, Robert. The Biomechanics of Amputee Running. October 2002.
7530:
6454:
5557:
IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering
4605:
Suyi Yang, Eddie; Aslani, Navid; McGarry, Anthony (October 2019).
3320:"Development of an Embedded Myokinetic Prosthetic Hand Controller"
2884:"Prosthetic implant provides realistic wrist movement to amputees"
1745:
Powered exoskeleton § Current products (powered exoskeletons)
1698:
XVIII World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering
716:
8708:
8433:
8379:
8325:
8315:
8201:
6591:
3000:
2998:
2793:
1913:
1860:
1800:
1501:
gripping the myoelectric prosthetic arm of a United States Marine
1303:
1296:
1236:
1095:
950:
901:
394:
75:
8081:
Can modern prosthetics actually help reclaim the sense of touch?
7434:"ICRC: Trans-Femoral Prosthesis – Manufacturing Guidelines"
7131:"Dean Kamen's "Luke Arm" Prosthesis Readies for Clinical Trials"
6263:"Trials imminent for implantable thought-controlled robotic arm"
4786:
Sewell, P.; Noroozi, S.; Vinney, J.; Andrews, S. (August 2000).
4574:
4117:
1822:
and translate those signals into motion in the artificial limb.
960:
An early mention of a prosthetic comes from the Greek historian
808:
Ankle disarticulation (more commonly known as Syme's amputation)
669:
which may be either single or bilateral, full breast devices or
8448:
8423:
8364:
8357:
8352:
8347:
8291:
8231:
8211:
6902:
5857:
International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering
4190:
2808:
2530:
2045:
2033:
1859:
Proto 1. Besides the Proto 1, the university also finished the
1796:
1269:
1004:. This is "the oldest functional leg prosthesis known to date".
973:
794:
Types of prosthesis used for replacing joints in the human body
706:
prostheses include both upper- and lower-extremity prostheses.
648:
7745:
The State of Architecture at the Beginning of the 21st Century
7516:
6219:"World premiere of muscle and nerve controlled arm prosthesis"
5998:"Robotic Assistance For Upper Extremity Training After Stroke"
5861:"World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering"
3132:"Oxford researchers develop breathing-powered prosthetic hand"
3053:
2995:
2221:
Suspension – how the socket will join and fit to the limb
1927:
1084:
8565:
8528:
8508:
8458:
8438:
8428:
8384:
8330:
8320:
8306:
8263:
8191:
8093:
What is prosthesis, prosthetic limb and its various component
7360:
7358:
5753:
5286:
5022:"Artificial hand offering immediate touch response a success"
4449:"Winner: The Revolution Will Be Prosthetized - IEEE Spectrum"
3661:"A Brief Review of the History of Amputations and Prostheses"
3410:
2849:
2534:
1823:
1639:
1202:
930:
926:
7943:
Hansson, Sven Ove (2015), Clausen, Jens; Levy, Neil (eds.),
7883:
7212:
Oscar Pistorius makes Olympic history in 400m at London 2012
5710:
5706:
5704:
4097:"Normal Shape-Normal Alignment (NSNA) Above-Knee Prosthesis"
3004:
1791:
Targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) is a technique in which
1339:
Creation of a model of the liner worn over the residual limb
1039:, whose right hand was cut off while campaigning and had an
8533:
8523:
8513:
8443:
8296:
8278:
8196:
8181:
8176:
6522:
4453:
4427:
3929:
3611:
Pine, Keith R.; Sloan, Brian H.; Jacobs, Robert J. (2015).
3086:
2104:
was interfaced directly into Warwick's nervous system. The
1815:
561:
7660:(1st ed.). Palo Alto, CA, USA: Hesperian Foundation.
7355:
6741:
6282:
5167:
5065:"Efficiency of Voluntary Closing Hand and Hook Prostheses"
4785:
3685:
2675:
1916:, feel the sense of touch and respond to the environment.
1397:
8538:
8503:
8410:
8248:
8243:
8226:
7233:
6959:"Enhancements, Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics"
6723:"Affordable prosthetics made from recycled plastic waste"
6043:
5701:
5348:
4111:
3658:
3007:"Passive prosthetic hands and tools: A literature review"
2230:
The buyer is also concerned with numerous other factors:
2007:
941:
circa 1000 BC. Another early textual mention is found in
739:
691:
procedures in cisgender men, and to build a new penis in
7093:
5422:
6331:
5550:
4716:
4325:
4269:
2771:(born 1986), South African former professional sprinter
2085:
Within science fiction, and, more recently, within the
1781:
monitoring and control of the movements of the device.
1259:
1028:
Artificial iron hand believed to date from 1560 to 1600
7767:
The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World
5553:"Design characteristics of pediatric prosthetic knees"
4840:
4604:
3202:
The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
3155:
The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
2959:
Department of Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine
2777:(1914–2002), WWII veteran, Academy Award-winning actor
2736:
2279:
typically needs to be replaced every 3–4 years due to
1660:
in the knee-joint. Small valves control the amount of
1297:
Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing
8745:
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
8075:
Afghan amputees tell their stories at Texas gathering
7951:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 785–797,
7579:
7536:
7189:"Oscar Pistorius makes history, leaves without medal"
5995:
5820:
4847:
Disability & Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology
4660:
Sharma, Hemant; Prabu, Dhanasekara (September 2013).
3148:
2955:"Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Treatment Team"
1985:
The ability for transfemoral amputees to drive a car.
1517:
1362:
Creation of metal parts of the artificial limb using
1108: – First non-locking below-knee (BK) prosthesis.
6137:
2595:
1711:, and distributed by the Hangar Limb Factory of the
925:
dated circa 3000 BC, which involves the left eye of
7684:. School of Industrial Design, Carleton University.
7539:
Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology
5900:Wirta, R. W.; Taylor, D. R.; Finley, F. R. (1978).
3391:"Getting an artificial leg up – Cathy Johnson"
2218:
Weight – maximizing comfort, balance and speed
2116:. The signals produced were detailed enough that a
1857:
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
1438:, developed an upper limb and hand prosthesis with
573:'addition, application, attachment'), or a
27:
Artificial device that replaces a missing body part
8048:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
7122:
5823:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5799:"Amputees control bionic legs with their thoughts"
5713:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5351:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5324:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
5112:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
4902:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
4896:Mak, A. F.; Zhang, M.; Boone, D. A. (March 2001).
4723:Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development
3851:. London: S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington.
1309:
7743:Grosz, Elizabeth (2003). "Prosthetic Objects" in
5899:
3733:
2540:
1875:
1188:
1155:
9155:
8014:Murdoch, George; Wilson, A. Bennett Jr. (1997).
7087:
6854:Thomas, Daniel J.; Singh, Deepti (August 2020).
5689:"Otto Bock C-leg: A review of its effectiveness"
5289:Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
4180:Changing Prosthetic Service Delivery with Amparo
2755:(1900–74), child survivor of industrial accident
1197:DARPA Revolutionizing Prosthetics - The LUKE Arm
1101:Other major improvements before the modern era:
6432:"Brain-Controlled Bionic Legs Are Finally Here"
5062:
3864:The Psychological Rehabilitation of the Amputee
3610:
3195:
2761:(1958–81), Canadian athlete, humanitarian, and
2709:
2641:
1951:(attaching an artificial limb to the bone), or
1229:
1020:"Illustration of mechanical hand", c. 1564
7617:"Pain and Rehabilitation from Landmine Injury"
6238:
4938:Myoelectric Prostheses with Sensorial Feedback
4843:"3D printing and amputation: a scoping review"
4107:(4): 9–14 – via O&P Virtual Library.
3251:Nazari, Vaheh; Zheng, Yong-Ping (2023-02-08).
1530:
8750:Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons
8581:
8131:
8013:
7694:Lee, Winson C. C.; Zhang, Ming (2005-08-01).
7225:
7203:
7186:
6982:
6911:"Techniques and devices to restore cognition"
6908:
6332:Contreras-Vidal José L.; et al. (2012).
5665:"Titanium and Sensors Replace Ahab's Peg Leg"
5448:
5446:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5321:
4955:
4895:
3782:"The Iron Hand of the Goetz von Berlichingen"
3521:
2925:
2923:
2743:Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey
979:
589:rehabilitation is primarily coordinated by a
511:
8016:A Primer on Amputations and Artificial Limbs
7945:"Ethical Implications of Sensory Prostheses"
6794:
6645:"Researchers Create Artificial Nerve System"
6005:Studies in Health Technology and Informatics
5816:
5814:
5812:
5681:
4771:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
4662:"Plaster of Paris: Past, present and future"
4155:
4153:
4019:Romm, Sharon (July 1989). "Arms by Design".
3844:
2179:finals. He also competed in 5 events in the
1919:
1895:move his limbs with a wireless transmitter.
1214:became the first prosthetic arm approved by
693:female-to-male gender reassignment surgeries
605:as well as analysis and optimization tools.
581:, disease, or a condition present at birth (
7128:
6853:
6642:
6289:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
4934:
4666:Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma
4659:
4577:Journal of Biological Physics and Chemistry
3883:The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
3592:"An Amazing Menagerie of Animal Prostheses"
3471:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
3250:
2521:, so the costs can be drastically reduced.
2002:, the creation of lifelike limbs made from
1928:Direct bone attachment and osseointegration
1085:Technology progress before the 20th century
1035:also recorded the tale of a Roman general,
976:captors and replaced it with a wooden one.
945:circa 1200 BC, involving the warrior queen
841:
9138:
8939:Augmentative and alternative communication
8588:
8574:
8145:
8138:
8124:
7614:
7457:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-49879-4
7423:, 5 July 2005. Retrieved 11 February 2007.
6961:. Practicalethics.ox.ac.uk. Archived from
6696:
5653:, DAW Industries. Retrieved 16 March 2008.
5443:
5369:
5040:"A Robot Hand Helps Amputees "Feel" Again"
3522:Bowker, John H.; Michael, John W. (2002).
2920:
2650:
2256:
2215:Rotation – ease of changing direction
1168:After the Second World War, a team at the
518:
504:
7919:
7901:
7312:. Reuters. 29 August 2012. Archived from
7279:
7044:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587810.001.0001
7010:
7000:
6934:
6619:
6609:
6490:
6472:
6357:
6308:
5947:
5809:
5527:
5149:. Vol. 316, no. 5. p. 17.
5144:
4693:
4283:
4150:
3557:
3498:
3436:
3361:
3343:
3294:
3276:
3071:
3030:
2247:
2059:
1629:
7693:
7033:
5970:
5662:
5452:
4568:
4549:
4547:
4545:
4327:brain–computer interface technologies".
4059:inMotion: A Brief History of Prosthetics
3861:
3464:
2609:
2562:
2479:
2186:
2177:4 × 400 metres relay race
2069:
1979:Better muscle control of the prosthetic.
1722:
1534:
1492:
1451:École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
1285:
1263:
1192:
1159:
1023:
1015:
1007:
991:
983:
900:
789:
715:
43:
8974:Disproportionality in special education
7942:
7834:"The social meanings of prosthesis use"
7066:
6144:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
5929:
5757:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
5508:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
5455:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
5069:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
4792:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
4611:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
4475:"The LUKE/DEKA advanced prosthetic arm"
3385:
3383:
3381:
3196:Scheme, Erik; Englehart, Kevin (2011).
3011:Prosthetics and Orthotics International
2749:was amputated at the Battle of Waterloo
2676:Cultural and social theory perspectives
2328:Four-bar with stance-phase knee flexion
1592:
1398:Voluntary opening and voluntary closing
972:who cut off his own foot to escape his
929:being plucked out and then restored by
665:Somato prostheses of the torso include
48:A man with a lower-extremity prosthesis
14:
9156:
7879:
7877:
7875:
7831:
7800:
7781:Intimus: Interior Design Theory Reader
7764:
7653:
7485:
7408:
7161:
6983:Caplan, Arthur; Elliott, Carl (2004).
6800:
6106:
3866:. Springfield, IL.: Charles C. Thomas.
3848:A Short History of the Canadian People
3465:Barr, Steven; Howe, Tracey E. (2018).
2881:
2311:Name of technology (country of origin)
2131:developed the "Luke arm", an advanced
1847:, invented in Edinburgh, Scotland, by
115:Individualized Education Program (IEP)
8569:
8119:
7515:. Openprosthetics.org. Archived from
6809:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
6782:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
6573:Endolite USA – Lower Limb Prosthetics
6283:Li, Guanglin; Kuiken, Todd A (2008).
6196:. Ric.org. 2007-05-01. Archived from
5621:
5619:
5494:
5492:
5395:
5037:
4600:
4598:
4542:
4498:
4496:
4494:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4298:
4233:"The revolution will be prosthetized"
3968:
3964:
3962:
3925:
3923:
3801:
3553:
3551:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3393:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1718:
385:Disabled Peoples' International (DPI)
7326:
6773:
6260:
6037:
5936:Canadian Medical Association Journal
5884:
5605:
5398:Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics
4230:
4120:Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics
4101:Clinical Prosthetics & Orthotics
4094:
4088:
4018:
3876:
3378:
2269:National Disability Insurance Scheme
1898:
1372:
1260:Current technology and manufacturing
1243:
309:Social Security Disability Insurance
9081:Disability in children's literature
7872:
7280:Greenberg, Chris (10 August 2012),
6697:University, Stanford (2018-05-31).
6515:"Home – BionX Medical Technologies"
6402:Is This the Future of Robotic Legs?
5383:Prosthetics in Developing Countries
3933:Journal of Anthropological Sciences
2882:Nathan, Stuart (28 November 2018).
2737:Notable users of prosthetic devices
2718:
2108:, which contained around a hundred
2066:Powered exoskeleton § Research
1885:Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago
1468:
1449:In February 2013, researchers from
1268:Knee prosthesis manufactured using
1212:DEKA Research and Development Corp.
1164:An artificial limbs factory in 1941
539:
24:
8944:Emotional or behavioral disability
7747:. pp. 96–97. The Monacelli Press.
7415:"Cost of Prosthetics Stirs Debate"
6774:Bell, Sarah Jane (21 April 2019).
5616:
5489:
4595:
4491:
4410:
4272:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest
4200:Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest
4079:Bigg, Henry Robert Heather (1885)
4021:Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
3959:
3920:
3727:
3659:Vanderwerker, Earl E. Jr. (1976).
3548:
3453:
2632:
2146:
1518:Commercial providers and materials
1226:also participated in the program.
1224:U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs
1170:University of California, Berkeley
1143: – First aluminium prosthesis
698:
25:
9200:
8068:
7715:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.03.015
6542:
6221:. Sciencedaily.com. February 2013
5687:Martin, Craig W. (November 2003)
5644:"The SLK, The Self-Learning Knee"
5255:
5155:10.1038/scientificamerican0517-17
3901:
3688:Journal of Archaeological Science
2596:Low-cost prosthetics for children
2570:themed "Hero Arm" by Open Bionics
2137:Universal Instruments Corporation
1290:Manufacturing a prosthetic finger
905:Prosthetic toe from ancient Egypt
9137:
9128:
9127:
7986:"Not everyone uses a prosthesis"
7978:
7936:
7825:
7794:
7773:
7758:
7737:
7687:
7674:
7647:
7634:
7608:
7594:10.1097/01241398-199205000-00033
7573:
7505:
7479:
7461:
7449:
7426:
7383:
7320:
7296:
7273:
7244:
7219:
7187:Robert Klemko (10 August 2012),
7180:
7155:
7141:
7081:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01964.x
7060:
7027:
6976:
6951:
6860:International Journal of Surgery
6847:
6821:
6767:
6715:
6690:
6661:
6636:
6585:
6561:
6536:
6507:
6448:
6424:
6414:"Transtibial Powered Prostheses"
6406:
6395:
6374:
6325:
6276:
6254:
6232:
6211:
6186:
6131:
6081:
5989:
5964:
5923:
5909:Bulletin of Prosthetics Research
5893:
5410:10.1097/00008526-200510001-00007
5386:. oandp.org Retrieved 2019-03-11
4132:10.1097/00008526-198910000-00009
4055:"A Brief History of Prosthetics"
4033:10.1097/00006534-198907000-00029
2614:Artificial limbs for a juvenile
2578:Prosthetics forum known as the "
2380:LIMBS International M1 knee (US)
1330:Measurement of the residual limb
1060:René-Robert Cavalier de la Salle
887:Carbon fiber reinforced polymers
628:. Intra-oral prostheses include
478:
477:
375:National Telecommuting Institute
7252:"Men's 400m – semi-finals"
7226:Bill Chappell (4 August 2012),
7162:Garner, Courtney (2019-04-05).
6384:. Medgadget.com. September 2013
5878:
5849:
5791:
5747:
5663:Marriott, Michel (2005-06-20).
5656:
5637:
5628:
5599:
5544:
5416:
5389:
5342:
5315:
5280:
5249:
5238:
5227:
5216:
5205:
5161:
5138:
5103:
5063:Smit G, Plettenburg DH (2010).
5056:
5031:
5015:
4999:
4928:
4889:
4834:
4779:
4710:
4653:
4521:
4467:
4441:
4385:
4363:
4329:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
4319:
4292:
4263:
4224:
4184:
4173:
4162:
4138:
4073:
4047:
4012:
3987:
3895:
3870:
3855:
3838:
3795:
3774:
3714:
3679:
3652:
3639:"No. 1705: A 3000-Year-Old Toe"
3631:
3604:
3584:
3515:
3404:
3311:
3244:
3189:
3142:
3124:
2405:Single-axis with automatic lock
1833:
1310:Production of prosthetic socket
909:Prosthetics originate from the
647:Prostheses of the neck include
8959:Disability and LGBT identities
8595:
7486:Nagata, Kazuaki (2015-05-10).
6909:Serruya MD, Kahana MJ (2008).
5996:Reinkensmeyer David J (2009).
5520:10.1002/14651858.CD003978.pub2
4965:Science Translational Medicine
4341:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.07.019
3483:10.1002/14651858.CD005260.pub4
3080:
3047:
2971:
2947:
2896:
2875:
2842:
2541:Open-source robotic prosthesis
2194:
1876:Robotic transtibial prostheses
1795:, which previously controlled
1674:
1638:'s C-leg, introduced in 1997,
1189:Upper extremity modern history
1156:Lower extremity modern history
380:Society for Disability Studies
237:Unlicensed assistive personnel
13:
1:
8771:Services for mental disorders
7832:Murray, Craig D. (May 2005).
7642:A Report on Amputees in India
7551:10.1080/17483107.2016.1253117
7391:"Funding for your prosthesis"
6801:Conway, Elle (26 June 2019).
6598:BioMedical Engineering OnLine
6239:Williams, Adam (2012-11-30).
6059:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60193-7
5301:10.1016/S0003-9993(02)04932-8
4859:10.1080/17483107.2019.1646825
4393:"Revolutionizing Prosthetics"
3816:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60190-6
2830:
2658:
1855:Another neural prosthetic is
1610:
1434:, a researcher in bionics in
1349:Formation of permanent socket
996:A wooden prosthetic leg from
8776:Services for disabled people
7957:10.1007/978-94-007-4707-4_46
7838:Journal of Health Psychology
7682:A victim assistance solution
7002:10.1371/journal.pmed.0010052
5769:10.3109/03093646.2010.520054
5606:Wyss, Dominik (2012-11-27).
5467:10.3109/03093646.2010.520060
5437:10.1016/0966-6362(93)90038-3
5081:10.3109/03093646.2010.486390
4977:10.1126/scitranslmed.3006820
4935:Rios Poveda, Alvaro (2002).
4231:Adee, Sally (January 2009).
4145:"Blatchford Company History"
3995:"The History of Prosthetics"
3756:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.05.010
2835:
2710:Negative social implications
2642:Bamboo, PVC or plaster limbs
2496:8.00, composed primarily of
2361:Single-axis with ext. assist
2339:Single-axis with manual lock
2261:
2013:
1512:Medical University of Vienna
1273:Computer Aided Manufacturing
1230:Design trends moving forward
562:
314:Supplemental Security Income
76:Ableism / Disablism
7:
9059:Arts, media, culture, sport
7366:"Cost of a Prosthetic Limb"
7327:Shew, Ashley (2022-03-16).
7108:10.1001/archneur.60.10.1369
7034:Buchanan, Allen E. (2011).
6116:. Darpa.mil. Archived from
4371:"The Pentagon's Bionic Arm"
4206:(3): 207–16. Archived from
3877:Breiding, Authors: Dirk H.
3862:Friedman, Lawrence (1978).
3614:Clinical Ocular Prosthetics
3110:10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3226697
2781:
2666:
2468:SATHI friction knee (India)
2424:None provided (New Zealand)
2290:
2133:nerve-controlled prosthetic
1993:
1814:are surgically rerouted to
1531:Lower-extremity prosthetics
1413:
1336:Fitting of a silicone liner
329:Disabled students allowance
324:Disability Living Allowance
32:Prosthesis (disambiguation)
10:
9205:
9086:Disability in horror films
8878:Activities of daily living
8006:
7769:. Oxford University Press.
7513:"Open Prosthetics Website"
7215:, BBC Sport, 4 August 2012
7129:Adee, Sarah (2008-02-01).
6872:10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.04.023
6261:Ford, Jason (2012-11-28).
5930:Sherman, E. David (1964).
5698:. WCB Evidence Based Group
4678:10.1016/j.jcot.2013.09.004
4249:10.1109/MSPEC.2009.4734314
3671:(5): 15–16. Archived from
2850:
2727:
2599:
2544:
2529:, an artificial limb from
2457:Wedgelock knee (Australia)
2294:
2063:
2054:activities of daily living
2017:
1931:
1799:on an amputated limb, are
1748:
1738:
1614:
1455:Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna
1380:
980:Wood and metal prosthetics
896:
870:Rubber (early prosthetics)
749:Lower-extremity prostheses
710:Upper-extremity prostheses
551:
188:Disability rights movement
36:
29:
9123:
9058:
8992:
8931:
8865:
8830:
8784:
8763:
8727:
8701:
8694:
8634:
8603:
8489:
8409:
8400:
8305:
8277:
8167:
8153:
7903:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.537493
7473:February 2, 2009, at the
6927:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.04.007
6611:10.1186/s12938-016-0284-9
6474:10.1186/s41205-017-0016-1
6350:10.1109/mpul.2011.2175635
6114:"Defense Sciences Office"
5835:10.1682/JRRD.2014.08.0192
5725:10.1682/JRRD.2014.05.0118
5569:10.1109/TNSRE.2004.838444
5124:10.1682/JRRD.2011.07.0125
4941:. Myoelectric Symposium.
4804:10.1080/03093640008726532
4735:10.1682/jrrd.2004.08.0134
4557:. Madehow.com. 1988-04-04
4373:. CBS News. 10 April 2009
4313:10.1108/01439910910980141
3558:Söderberg, Bengt (2001).
3417:Technology and Innovation
3214:10.1682/jrrd.2010.09.0177
3167:10.1682/jrrd.2011.10.0188
3073:10.3390/prosthesis4030032
2698:the culture of objects."
2471:Weight-activated friction
2460:Weight-activated friction
2449:Weight-activated friction
2350:Weight-activated friction
1920:Use of recycled materials
1910:Seoul National University
1580:
1539:A prosthetic leg worn by
1389:
964:, who tells the story of
802:Transfemoral (Above-knee)
334:Disabled Persons Railcard
8979:Sexuality and disability
8954:Disability and disasters
8866:Structural and assistive
7850:10.1177/1359105305051431
6301:10.1109/tbme.2008.923914
6156:10.1177/0309364620948290
5971:Muzumdar, Ashok (2004).
4623:10.1177/0309364619865424
4589:10.4024/30601.jbpc.06.03
4061:. November–December 2007
3740:Quaternary International
3560:Partial foot amputations
3023:10.1177/0309364617691622
2580:Open Prosthetics Project
2225:
1693:Prof. Alvaro Ríos Poveda
1488:
1476:
1220:Johns Hopkins University
867:Wood (early prosthetics)
842:Prosthetic raw materials
805:Transtibial (Below-knee)
608:
347:the Severely Handicapped
303:Socioeconomic assistance
213:Sexuality and disability
37:Not to be confused with
9093:Disability in the media
8964:Disability and religion
8903:Personal Care Assistant
8089:, Fayetteville Observer
8077:, Fayetteville Observer
7949:Handbook of Neuroethics
7890:Frontiers in Psychology
7765:Scarry, Elaine (1985).
7468:INDEX:2007 INDEX: AWARD
6461:3D Printing in Medicine
5183:10.3171/2016.6.JNS16154
5171:Journal of Neurosurgery
4737:(inactive 2024-06-26).
3429:10.21300/18.2-3.2016.99
2866:A Greek–English Lexicon
2651:Adjustable bicycle limb
2474:Limited data available
2427:Roto-molded single-axis
2336:ICRC knee (Switzerland)
2257:Cost and source freedom
2181:2012 Summer Paralympics
2165:2008 Summer Paralympics
1601:
1453:in Switzerland and the
1368:Assembly of entire limb
988:The Capua leg (replica)
618:Craniofacial prostheses
462:Disability in the media
9174:Biomedical engineering
9169:Biological engineering
9076:Disability in the arts
8969:Disability and poverty
8908:Physical accessibility
8147:Human regional anatomy
7654:Werner, David (1987).
7492:The Japan Times Online
4095:Long, Ivan A. (1985).
3708:10.1006/jasc.1999.0517
2619:
2574:There is currently an
2571:
2537:, costs about US$ 40.
2485:
2463:Technical development
2452:Technical development
2441:Technical development
2438:Six-bar with squatting
2331:Technical development
2248:Design for Prosthetics
2075:
2060:Prosthetic enhancement
2038:traumatic brain injury
1775:myoelectric prostheses
1736:
1681:myoelectric prosthesis
1630:Microprocessor control
1543:
1502:
1291:
1276:
1198:
1165:
1054:Around the same time,
1029:
1021:
1013:
1005:
989:
906:
837:Van Nes rotationplasty
795:
725:
452:Disability in the arts
275:Physical accessibility
49:
8667:driver rehabilitation
7703:Clinical Biomechanics
7624:Update in Anaesthesia
7096:Archives of Neurology
6194:"Proto 1 and Proto 2"
5885:Rios, Alvaro (1997).
5234:Bebionic robotic hand
4508:premierprosthetic.com
3969:Killgrove, Kristina.
3845:Bryce, Geore (1887).
2857:Liddell, Henry George
2824:Whole brain emulation
2613:
2566:
2483:
2435:None provided (India)
2413:None provided (Nepal)
2372:Compliant polycentric
2369:DAV/Seattle knee (US)
2187:Design considerations
2175:semi-finals, and the
2073:
2064:Further information:
1751:Robotics § Touch
1749:Further information:
1734:
1647:University of Alberta
1538:
1496:
1289:
1267:
1196:
1163:
1045:Götz von Berlichingen
1027:
1019:
1011:
998:Shengjindian cemetery
995:
987:
904:
821:Hip disarticulation,
811:Knee disarticulation
793:
719:
595:computer-aided design
203:People-first language
181:Societal implications
47:
9000:Models of disability
8984:Youth and disability
8949:Invisible disability
8898:Orthotics and braces
8883:Assistive technology
8695:Rights, law, support
7333:Including Disability
7316:on 2 September 2012.
6753:World Economic Forum
5859:(17 December 2012).
5268:on 10 September 2015
5038:DelViscio, Jeffery.
4510:. September 28, 2023
3742:. 290–291: 335–343.
3641:. Uh.edu. 2004-08-01
2983:www.oandplibrary.org
2908:www.royalfree.nhs.uk
2602:open-source hardware
2547:Open-source hardware
2325:4BSF knee (Thailand)
2173:400 metres race
2169:2012 Summer Olympics
2157:2008 Summer Olympics
2112:, was placed in the
2087:scientific community
1972:bone attaches itself
1759:Open-source hardware
1593:Shank and connectors
1421:proportional control
873:Lightweight metals:
681:erectile dysfunction
270:Orthotics and braces
255:Assistive technology
30:For other uses, see
9179:Egyptian inventions
8652:Learning disability
7615:Carr, D.B. (1998).
7341:10.51357/id.vi1.169
7262:on 16 December 2012
6649:www.engineering.com
6265:. Theengineer.co.uk
5147:Scientific American
5044:Scientific American
4479:www.research.va.gov
4147:, Blatchford Group.
3784:. Karlofgermany.com
3748:2013QuInt.290..335L
3700:2000JArSc..27..641R
3597:Scientific American
3336:2019Senso..19.3137C
3269:2023Senso..23.1885N
3138:. 14 December 2022.
3102:2022IEEEA..10l8764N
2050:Alzheimer's disease
1906:Stanford University
1883:Researchers at the
1658:hydraulic cylinders
1076:Povegliano Veronese
1056:François de la Noue
753:hip disarticulation
583:congenital disorder
231:Personal assistance
138:Learning disability
9184:Iranian inventions
9066:Disability culture
8993:Disability studies
8888:Independent living
8616:Disability studies
8098:2022-07-18 at the
7644:. oandplibrary.org
7494:. Japantimes.co.jp
7370:Cost Helper Health
6835:. 19 February 2020
5694:2016-12-28 at the
5669:The New York Times
5649:2012-04-25 at the
5425:Gait & Posture
5380:Strait, E. (2006)
5028:, February 7, 2014
5012:, February 5, 2014
3945:10.4436/JASS.96001
2620:
2618:survivor 1961–1965
2572:
2486:
2446:Friction knee (US)
2391:JaipurKnee (India)
2358:POF/OTRC knee (US)
2353:Independent field
2342:Independent field
2076:
2026:executive function
1953:endo-exoprosthesis
1840:Boston Digital Arm
1741:Neural prosthetics
1737:
1719:Robotic prostheses
1544:
1503:
1463:University of Utah
1432:Álvaro Ríos Poveda
1292:
1277:
1199:
1166:
1030:
1022:
1014:
1006:
990:
907:
796:
726:
679:are used to treat
575:prosthetic implant
345:Assured Income for
50:
9151:
9150:
9020:Neuroqueer theory
8923:Web accessibility
8873:Accessible toilet
8861:
8860:
8714:Disability rights
8709:Ableism/disablism
8563:
8562:
8559:
8558:
8107:by Britt H. Young
8025:978-0-398-06801-1
7966:978-94-007-4707-4
7789:978-0-470-01570-4
7680:Cheng, V. (2004)
7640:Mohan, D. (1986)
7292:on 10 August 2012
7199:on 11 August 2012
7102:(10): 1369–1373.
6729:. 14 January 2019
6673:www.xinhuanet.com
6643:ENGINEERING.com.
6093:Technology Review
5982:978-3-540-40406-4
5942:(24): 1268–1270.
5719:(10): 1469–1496.
4948:978-1-55131-029-9
3902:Starr, Michelle.
3345:10.3390/s19143137
3278:10.3390/s23041885
3096:: 128764–128778.
2478:
2477:
2317:Highest level of
2314:Brief description
2243:Size availability
1899:Prosthesis design
1732:
1373:Body-powered arms
1358:injection molding
1244:Patient procedure
1206:Arm developed by
1141:Charles Desoutter
1000:, circa 300 BCE,
911:ancient Near East
713:below the elbow.
677:Penile prostheses
671:nipple prostheses
667:breast prostheses
630:dental prostheses
572:
560:
528:
527:
290:Web accessibility
250:Accessible toilet
133:Special education
71:Disability theory
64:Theory and models
16:(Redirected from
9196:
9141:
9140:
9131:
9130:
9113:Special Olympics
9005:Inspiration porn
8918:Universal design
8719:Pejorative terms
8699:
8698:
8662:Physical therapy
8590:
8583:
8576:
8567:
8566:
8407:
8406:
8338:Vertebral column
8140:
8133:
8126:
8117:
8116:
8063:
8029:
8000:
7999:
7997:
7996:
7982:
7976:
7975:
7974:
7973:
7940:
7934:
7933:
7923:
7905:
7881:
7870:
7869:
7829:
7823:
7822:
7798:
7792:
7777:
7771:
7770:
7762:
7756:
7741:
7735:
7734:
7700:
7691:
7685:
7678:
7672:
7671:
7651:
7645:
7638:
7632:
7631:
7621:
7612:
7606:
7605:
7582:Physical Therapy
7577:
7571:
7570:
7534:
7528:
7527:
7525:
7524:
7509:
7503:
7502:
7500:
7499:
7483:
7477:
7465:
7459:
7453:
7447:
7446:
7444:
7443:
7438:
7430:
7424:
7412:
7406:
7405:
7403:
7401:
7387:
7381:
7380:
7378:
7376:
7362:
7353:
7352:
7324:
7318:
7317:
7300:
7294:
7293:
7288:, archived from
7277:
7271:
7270:
7269:
7267:
7258:, archived from
7248:
7242:
7241:
7240:on 4 August 2012
7236:, archived from
7223:
7217:
7216:
7207:
7201:
7200:
7195:, archived from
7184:
7178:
7177:
7175:
7174:
7159:
7153:
7152:
7145:
7139:
7138:
7126:
7120:
7119:
7091:
7085:
7084:
7064:
7058:
7057:
7036:Beyond Humanity?
7031:
7025:
7024:
7014:
7004:
6980:
6974:
6973:
6971:
6970:
6955:
6949:
6948:
6938:
6906:
6900:
6899:
6851:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6840:
6829:"Envision Hands"
6825:
6819:
6818:
6816:
6814:
6798:
6792:
6791:
6789:
6787:
6771:
6765:
6764:
6762:
6760:
6755:. 4 October 2019
6745:
6739:
6738:
6736:
6734:
6727:MaterialDistrict
6719:
6713:
6712:
6710:
6709:
6694:
6688:
6687:
6685:
6684:
6675:. Archived from
6665:
6659:
6658:
6656:
6655:
6640:
6634:
6633:
6623:
6613:
6589:
6583:
6582:
6580:
6579:
6565:
6559:
6558:
6556:
6555:
6540:
6534:
6533:
6531:
6530:
6521:. Archived from
6519:www.bionxmed.com
6511:
6505:
6504:
6494:
6476:
6452:
6446:
6445:
6443:
6442:
6428:
6422:
6421:
6420:. MIT Media Lab.
6410:
6404:
6399:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6389:
6378:
6372:
6371:
6361:
6329:
6323:
6322:
6312:
6295:(9): 2134–2142.
6280:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6270:
6258:
6252:
6251:
6249:
6248:
6236:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6215:
6209:
6208:
6206:
6205:
6190:
6184:
6183:
6135:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6125:
6110:
6104:
6103:
6101:
6100:
6085:
6079:
6078:
6053:(9559): 371–80.
6041:
6035:
6034:
6032:
6031:
6025:
6019:. Archived from
6002:
5993:
5987:
5986:
5968:
5962:
5961:
5951:
5927:
5921:
5920:
5906:
5897:
5891:
5890:
5882:
5876:
5875:
5873:
5871:
5853:
5847:
5846:
5818:
5807:
5806:
5795:
5789:
5788:
5751:
5745:
5744:
5708:
5699:
5685:
5679:
5678:
5676:
5675:
5660:
5654:
5641:
5635:
5632:
5626:
5623:
5614:
5613:
5612:(Thesis thesis).
5603:
5597:
5596:
5548:
5542:
5541:
5531:
5505:
5496:
5487:
5486:
5450:
5441:
5440:
5420:
5414:
5413:
5393:
5387:
5378:
5367:
5366:
5346:
5340:
5339:
5319:
5313:
5312:
5284:
5278:
5277:
5275:
5273:
5264:. Archived from
5253:
5247:
5242:
5236:
5231:
5225:
5220:
5214:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5177:(5): 1163–1171.
5165:
5159:
5158:
5142:
5136:
5135:
5107:
5101:
5100:
5060:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5050:
5035:
5029:
5019:
5013:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4971:(222): 222ra19.
4959:
4953:
4952:
4932:
4926:
4925:
4893:
4887:
4886:
4838:
4832:
4831:
4783:
4777:
4776:
4770:
4762:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4697:
4657:
4651:
4650:
4602:
4593:
4592:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4551:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4536:
4525:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4515:
4500:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4485:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4461:
4445:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4419:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4367:
4361:
4360:
4323:
4317:
4316:
4301:Industrial Robot
4296:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4228:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4218:
4212:
4197:
4188:
4182:
4177:
4171:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4148:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4115:
4109:
4108:
4092:
4086:
4077:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4066:
4051:
4045:
4044:
4016:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4006:
3991:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3981:
3966:
3957:
3956:
3927:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3914:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3859:
3853:
3852:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3799:
3793:
3792:
3790:
3789:
3778:
3772:
3771:
3731:
3725:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3555:
3546:
3545:
3519:
3513:
3512:
3502:
3477:(10): CD005260.
3462:
3451:
3450:
3440:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3387:
3376:
3375:
3365:
3347:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3298:
3280:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3034:
3002:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2927:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2890:
2879:
2873:
2853:
2852:
2846:
2789:Artificial heart
2719:Ethical concerns
2308:
2307:
2020:Neuroprosthetics
1943:Osseointegration
1934:Osseointegration
1866:osseointegration
1805:pectoralis major
1733:
1700:, 1997, held in
1653:the prosthesis.
1617:Knee replacement
1571:knee replacement
1469:Terminal devices
1440:sensory feedback
1210:and his team at
1137:Marcel Desoutter
815:knee replacement
736:Electromyography
685:penile deformity
567:
565:
555:
553:
541:
520:
513:
506:
481:
480:
421:Paralympic Games
416:Special Olympics
285:Universal design
208:Pejorative terms
52:
51:
21:
9204:
9203:
9199:
9198:
9197:
9195:
9194:
9193:
9154:
9153:
9152:
9147:
9119:
9054:
8988:
8927:
8857:
8831:Activist groups
8826:
8780:
8759:
8723:
8690:
8630:
8599:
8594:
8564:
8555:
8485:
8396:
8301:
8273:
8163:
8149:
8144:
8100:Wayback Machine
8087:A hand for Rick
8071:
8066:
8026:
8009:
8004:
8003:
7994:
7992:
7984:
7983:
7979:
7971:
7969:
7967:
7941:
7937:
7882:
7873:
7830:
7826:
7811:10.2307/3171122
7799:
7795:
7783:. pp. 204–212.
7778:
7774:
7763:
7759:
7742:
7738:
7698:
7692:
7688:
7679:
7675:
7668:
7652:
7648:
7639:
7635:
7619:
7613:
7609:
7578:
7574:
7535:
7531:
7522:
7520:
7511:
7510:
7506:
7497:
7495:
7484:
7480:
7475:Wayback Machine
7466:
7462:
7454:
7450:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7432:
7431:
7427:
7413:
7409:
7399:
7397:
7389:
7388:
7384:
7374:
7372:
7364:
7363:
7356:
7325:
7321:
7302:
7301:
7297:
7286:Huffington Post
7278:
7274:
7265:
7263:
7250:
7249:
7245:
7224:
7220:
7209:
7208:
7204:
7185:
7181:
7172:
7170:
7160:
7156:
7147:
7146:
7142:
7127:
7123:
7092:
7088:
7065:
7061:
7054:
7032:
7028:
6981:
6977:
6968:
6966:
6957:
6956:
6952:
6915:Behav Brain Res
6907:
6903:
6852:
6848:
6838:
6836:
6827:
6826:
6822:
6812:
6810:
6799:
6795:
6785:
6783:
6772:
6768:
6758:
6756:
6747:
6746:
6742:
6732:
6730:
6721:
6720:
6716:
6707:
6705:
6695:
6691:
6682:
6680:
6679:on June 7, 2018
6667:
6666:
6662:
6653:
6651:
6641:
6637:
6590:
6586:
6577:
6575:
6567:
6566:
6562:
6553:
6551:
6541:
6537:
6528:
6526:
6513:
6512:
6508:
6453:
6449:
6440:
6438:
6436:Popular Science
6430:
6429:
6425:
6418:Biomechatronics
6412:
6411:
6407:
6400:
6396:
6387:
6385:
6380:
6379:
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6330:
6326:
6281:
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6000:
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5990:
5983:
5969:
5965:
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5924:
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5894:
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5869:
5867:
5854:
5850:
5819:
5810:
5797:
5796:
5792:
5752:
5748:
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5702:
5696:Wayback Machine
5686:
5682:
5673:
5671:
5661:
5657:
5651:Wayback Machine
5642:
5638:
5633:
5629:
5624:
5617:
5604:
5600:
5549:
5545:
5514:(1): CD003978.
5503:
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5421:
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5320:
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5285:
5281:
5271:
5269:
5254:
5250:
5243:
5239:
5232:
5228:
5221:
5217:
5212:3D bionic hands
5210:
5206:
5166:
5162:
5143:
5139:
5108:
5104:
5061:
5057:
5048:
5046:
5036:
5032:
5026:Channelnewsasia
5020:
5016:
5004:
5000:
4960:
4956:
4949:
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4929:
4894:
4890:
4839:
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4763:
4715:
4711:
4658:
4654:
4603:
4596:
4573:
4569:
4560:
4558:
4553:
4552:
4543:
4534:
4532:
4531:. Progoandp.com
4527:
4526:
4522:
4513:
4511:
4502:
4501:
4492:
4483:
4481:
4473:
4472:
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4391:
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4386:
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4374:
4369:
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4364:
4324:
4320:
4297:
4293:
4285:10.1.1.685.6772
4268:
4264:
4229:
4225:
4216:
4214:
4210:
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4189:
4185:
4178:
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4116:
4112:
4093:
4089:
4078:
4074:
4064:
4062:
4053:
4052:
4048:
4017:
4013:
4004:
4002:
3993:
3992:
3988:
3979:
3977:
3967:
3960:
3939:(96): 185–200.
3928:
3921:
3912:
3910:
3900:
3896:
3887:
3885:
3875:
3871:
3860:
3856:
3843:
3839:
3810:(9765): 548–9.
3800:
3796:
3787:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3775:
3732:
3728:
3719:
3715:
3684:
3680:
3657:
3653:
3644:
3642:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3625:
3609:
3605:
3590:
3589:
3585:
3570:
3556:
3549:
3534:
3520:
3516:
3463:
3454:
3423:(2–3): 99–113.
3409:
3405:
3396:
3394:
3389:
3388:
3379:
3316:
3312:
3249:
3245:
3194:
3190:
3147:
3143:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3085:
3081:
3052:
3048:
3003:
2996:
2987:
2985:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2963:
2961:
2953:
2952:
2948:
2939:
2937:
2935:www.madehow.com
2929:
2928:
2921:
2912:
2910:
2902:
2901:
2897:
2888:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2871:Perseus Project
2847:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2784:
2769:Oscar Pistorius
2763:cancer research
2753:Marie Moentmann
2739:
2730:
2721:
2712:
2682:Elizabeth Grosz
2678:
2669:
2661:
2653:
2644:
2635:
2633:Pole and crutch
2608:
2598:
2561:
2543:
2402:LCKnee (Canada)
2347:ATLAS knee (UK)
2299:
2293:
2264:
2259:
2250:
2228:
2197:
2189:
2153:Oscar Pistorius
2151:In early 2008,
2149:
2147:Oscar Pistorius
2106:electrode array
2068:
2062:
2022:
2016:
1996:
1965:hip replacement
1936:
1930:
1922:
1901:
1878:
1836:
1820:the human brain
1770:microcontroller
1761:
1747:
1739:Main articles:
1723:
1721:
1677:
1662:hydraulic fluid
1632:
1619:
1613:
1604:
1595:
1583:
1562:hip replacement
1533:
1520:
1491:
1479:
1471:
1416:
1400:
1392:
1383:
1375:
1312:
1262:
1246:
1232:
1191:
1158:
1125:Benjamin Palmer
1087:
1067:in daily life.
1033:Pliny the Elder
982:
953:. Roman bronze
935:Shahr-i Shōkhta
899:
844:
831:Hemi-pelvictomy
825:hip replacement
701:
699:Limb prostheses
642:dental implants
611:
579:physical trauma
524:
493:
467:
466:
447:
437:
436:
435:
410:
400:
399:
370:
369:
353:
352:
349:
346:
304:
296:
295:
294:
260:Assisted living
232:
224:
223:
222:
182:
174:
173:
172:
152:
144:
143:
142:
105:
97:
96:
95:
65:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Artificial Limb
15:
12:
11:
5:
9202:
9192:
9191:
9186:
9181:
9176:
9171:
9166:
9149:
9148:
9146:
9145:
9135:
9124:
9121:
9120:
9118:
9117:
9116:
9115:
9110:
9105:
9095:
9090:
9089:
9088:
9083:
9073:
9071:Disability art
9068:
9062:
9060:
9056:
9055:
9053:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9012:
9007:
9002:
8996:
8994:
8990:
8989:
8987:
8986:
8981:
8976:
8971:
8966:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8946:
8941:
8935:
8933:
8929:
8928:
8926:
8925:
8920:
8915:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8890:
8885:
8880:
8875:
8869:
8867:
8863:
8862:
8859:
8858:
8856:
8855:
8850:
8845:
8840:
8834:
8832:
8828:
8827:
8825:
8824:
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8794:
8788:
8786:
8782:
8781:
8779:
8778:
8773:
8767:
8765:
8761:
8760:
8758:
8757:
8752:
8747:
8742:
8737:
8731:
8729:
8725:
8724:
8722:
8721:
8716:
8711:
8705:
8703:
8696:
8692:
8691:
8689:
8688:
8687:
8686:
8681:
8671:
8670:
8669:
8659:
8654:
8649:
8644:
8638:
8636:
8632:
8631:
8629:
8628:
8623:
8618:
8613:
8607:
8605:
8601:
8600:
8593:
8592:
8585:
8578:
8570:
8561:
8560:
8557:
8556:
8554:
8553:
8552:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8531:
8521:
8516:
8511:
8506:
8501:
8495:
8493:
8487:
8486:
8484:
8483:
8482:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8466:
8461:
8456:
8451:
8441:
8436:
8431:
8426:
8421:
8415:
8413:
8404:
8398:
8397:
8395:
8394:
8389:
8388:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8367:
8362:
8361:
8360:
8355:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8334:
8333:
8328:
8323:
8312:
8310:
8303:
8302:
8300:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8283:
8281:
8275:
8274:
8272:
8271:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8251:
8246:
8241:
8240:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8219:
8214:
8209:
8204:
8199:
8194:
8189:
8179:
8173:
8171:
8165:
8164:
8159:
8157:
8151:
8150:
8143:
8142:
8135:
8128:
8120:
8114:
8113:
8108:
8102:
8090:
8084:
8083:, PBS Newshour
8078:
8070:
8069:External links
8067:
8065:
8064:
8043:
8038:
8035:
8030:
8024:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8002:
8001:
7977:
7965:
7935:
7871:
7844:(3): 425–441.
7824:
7793:
7772:
7757:
7736:
7709:(7): 759–766.
7686:
7673:
7666:
7646:
7633:
7607:
7588:(12): 920–34.
7572:
7545:(3): 300–314.
7529:
7504:
7478:
7460:
7448:
7425:
7407:
7382:
7354:
7319:
7295:
7272:
7256:london2012.com
7243:
7218:
7202:
7179:
7168:SciTech Europa
7154:
7140:
7121:
7086:
7075:(7): 391–392.
7059:
7052:
7026:
6975:
6950:
6901:
6846:
6820:
6793:
6766:
6740:
6714:
6689:
6660:
6635:
6584:
6560:
6545:"PROPRIO FOOT"
6535:
6506:
6447:
6423:
6405:
6394:
6373:
6324:
6275:
6253:
6231:
6210:
6185:
6130:
6105:
6080:
6036:
5988:
5981:
5963:
5922:
5892:
5877:
5848:
5829:(3): 247–262.
5808:
5805:. 20 May 2015.
5790:
5763:(4): 362–377.
5746:
5700:
5680:
5655:
5636:
5627:
5615:
5598:
5563:(4): 369–378.
5543:
5488:
5461:(4): 378–398.
5442:
5415:
5388:
5368:
5341:
5314:
5279:
5262:cityviewnc.com
5256:Onken, Sarah.
5248:
5237:
5226:
5215:
5204:
5160:
5137:
5118:(4): 523–534.
5102:
5075:(4): 411–427.
5055:
5030:
5014:
4998:
4954:
4947:
4927:
4908:(2): 161–174.
4888:
4853:(2): 221–240.
4833:
4778:
4729:(2): 141–146.
4709:
4672:(3): 107–109.
4652:
4617:(5): 540–555.
4594:
4583:(3): 113–117.
4567:
4541:
4520:
4490:
4466:
4440:
4409:
4384:
4362:
4318:
4307:(5): 421–427.
4291:
4262:
4223:
4183:
4172:
4161:
4149:
4137:
4110:
4087:
4072:
4046:
4011:
3986:
3958:
3919:
3894:
3869:
3854:
3837:
3794:
3773:
3726:
3713:
3694:(7): 641–644.
3678:
3675:on 2007-10-14.
3651:
3630:
3623:
3603:
3583:
3569:978-9163107566
3568:
3547:
3533:978-0892032754
3532:
3514:
3452:
3403:
3377:
3310:
3243:
3208:(6): 643–659.
3188:
3141:
3123:
3079:
3066:(3): 394–413.
3046:
2994:
2970:
2946:
2919:
2895:
2874:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2775:Harold Russell
2772:
2766:
2756:
2750:
2738:
2735:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2711:
2708:
2677:
2674:
2668:
2665:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2634:
2631:
2597:
2594:
2551:Modular design
2542:
2539:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2292:
2289:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2227:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2185:
2148:
2145:
2100:. In 2002, an
2091:transhumanists
2061:
2058:
2042:cerebral palsy
2018:Main article:
2015:
2012:
1995:
1992:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1980:
1957:Endoprosthesis
1932:Main article:
1929:
1926:
1921:
1918:
1900:
1897:
1877:
1874:
1835:
1832:
1828:nervous system
1812:sensory nerves
1720:
1717:
1676:
1673:
1631:
1628:
1615:Main article:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1591:
1587:proprioception
1582:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1574:
1565:
1532:
1529:
1519:
1516:
1490:
1487:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1467:
1415:
1412:
1399:
1396:
1391:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1360:
1354:vacuum forming
1350:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1311:
1308:
1261:
1258:
1245:
1242:
1231:
1228:
1190:
1187:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1134:
1131:Dubois Parmlee
1128:
1122:
1115:
1109:
1106:Pieter Verduyn
1086:
1083:
1064:Henri de Tonti
1049:leg from Capua
1037:Marcus Sergius
981:
978:
898:
895:
891:
890:
889:
888:
882:
881:
880:
877:
871:
868:
865:
864:
863:
860:
857:
854:
843:
840:
839:
838:
835:
832:
829:
819:
809:
806:
803:
776:co-morbidities
700:
697:
662:replacements,
610:
607:
526:
525:
523:
522:
515:
508:
500:
497:
496:
495:
494:
492:
491:
486:
474:
469:
468:
465:
464:
459:
457:Disability art
454:
448:
443:
442:
439:
438:
434:
433:
431:Invictus Games
428:
423:
418:
412:
411:
406:
405:
402:
401:
398:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
371:
368:
367:
364:
360:
359:
358:
355:
354:
351:
350:
343:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
319:Ticket to Work
316:
311:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
293:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
246:
245:
244:
233:
230:
229:
226:
225:
221:
220:
218:Women's health
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
184:
183:
180:
179:
176:
175:
171:
170:
165:
160:
154:
153:
150:
149:
146:
145:
141:
140:
135:
130:
128:Special school
125:
119:
118:
117:
112:
106:
103:
102:
99:
98:
94:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
67:
66:
63:
62:
59:
58:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9201:
9190:
9187:
9185:
9182:
9180:
9177:
9175:
9172:
9170:
9167:
9165:
9162:
9161:
9159:
9144:
9136:
9134:
9126:
9125:
9122:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9100:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9078:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9067:
9064:
9063:
9061:
9057:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9016:
9013:
9011:
9008:
9006:
9003:
9001:
8998:
8997:
8995:
8991:
8985:
8982:
8980:
8977:
8975:
8972:
8970:
8967:
8965:
8962:
8960:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8940:
8937:
8936:
8934:
8932:Social issues
8930:
8924:
8921:
8919:
8916:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8874:
8871:
8870:
8868:
8864:
8854:
8851:
8849:
8846:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8835:
8833:
8829:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8790:
8789:
8787:
8783:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8768:
8766:
8762:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8732:
8730:
8726:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8706:
8704:
8700:
8697:
8693:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8676:
8675:
8674:Special needs
8672:
8668:
8665:
8664:
8663:
8660:
8658:
8657:Mainstreaming
8655:
8653:
8650:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8640:
8639:
8637:
8633:
8627:
8624:
8622:
8621:Medical model
8619:
8617:
8614:
8612:
8609:
8608:
8606:
8602:
8598:
8591:
8586:
8584:
8579:
8577:
8572:
8571:
8568:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8526:
8525:
8522:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8505:
8502:
8500:
8497:
8496:
8494:
8492:
8488:
8480:
8477:
8475:
8472:
8470:
8467:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8457:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8446:
8445:
8442:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8417:
8416:
8414:
8412:
8408:
8405:
8403:
8399:
8393:
8390:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8372:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8359:
8356:
8354:
8351:
8350:
8349:
8346:
8344:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8332:
8329:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8318:
8317:
8314:
8313:
8311:
8308:
8304:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8284:
8282:
8280:
8276:
8270:
8267:
8265:
8262:
8260:
8257:
8255:
8252:
8250:
8247:
8245:
8242:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8218:
8215:
8213:
8210:
8208:
8205:
8203:
8200:
8198:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8184:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8175:
8174:
8172:
8170:
8166:
8162:
8158:
8156:
8152:
8148:
8141:
8136:
8134:
8129:
8127:
8122:
8121:
8118:
8112:
8109:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8097:
8094:
8091:
8088:
8085:
8082:
8079:
8076:
8073:
8072:
8061:
8057:
8053:
8049:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8036:
8034:
8031:
8027:
8021:
8017:
8012:
8011:
7991:
7987:
7981:
7968:
7962:
7958:
7954:
7950:
7946:
7939:
7931:
7927:
7922:
7917:
7913:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7880:
7878:
7876:
7867:
7863:
7859:
7855:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7839:
7835:
7828:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7797:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7776:
7768:
7761:
7754:
7750:
7746:
7740:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7716:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7697:
7690:
7683:
7677:
7669:
7667:0-942364-06-6
7663:
7659:
7658:
7650:
7643:
7637:
7629:
7625:
7618:
7611:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7591:
7587:
7583:
7576:
7568:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7540:
7533:
7519:on 2006-10-04
7518:
7514:
7508:
7493:
7489:
7482:
7476:
7472:
7469:
7464:
7458:
7452:
7435:
7429:
7422:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7396:
7392:
7386:
7371:
7367:
7361:
7359:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7330:
7323:
7315:
7311:
7310:
7309:Yahoo! Sports
7305:
7299:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7276:
7261:
7257:
7253:
7247:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7230:
7222:
7214:
7213:
7206:
7198:
7194:
7190:
7183:
7169:
7165:
7158:
7150:
7144:
7136:
7135:IEEE Spectrum
7132:
7125:
7117:
7113:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7090:
7082:
7078:
7074:
7070:
7063:
7055:
7053:9780199587810
7049:
7045:
7041:
7037:
7030:
7022:
7018:
7013:
7008:
7003:
6998:
6994:
6990:
6989:PLOS Medicine
6986:
6979:
6965:on 2016-12-28
6964:
6960:
6954:
6946:
6942:
6937:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6921:(2): 149–65.
6920:
6916:
6912:
6905:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6850:
6834:
6830:
6824:
6808:
6804:
6797:
6781:
6777:
6770:
6754:
6750:
6744:
6728:
6724:
6718:
6704:
6703:Stanford News
6700:
6693:
6678:
6674:
6670:
6664:
6650:
6646:
6639:
6631:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6588:
6574:
6570:
6564:
6550:
6549:www.ossur.com
6546:
6539:
6525:on 2017-12-03
6524:
6520:
6516:
6510:
6502:
6498:
6493:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6451:
6437:
6433:
6427:
6419:
6415:
6409:
6403:
6398:
6383:
6377:
6369:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6328:
6320:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6279:
6264:
6257:
6242:
6235:
6220:
6214:
6200:on 2011-07-27
6199:
6195:
6189:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6134:
6120:on 2009-04-26
6119:
6115:
6109:
6094:
6090:
6084:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6040:
6026:on 2016-12-28
6022:
6018:
6014:
6010:
6006:
5999:
5992:
5984:
5978:
5974:
5967:
5959:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5926:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5903:
5896:
5888:
5881:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5852:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5828:
5824:
5817:
5815:
5813:
5804:
5800:
5794:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5750:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5707:
5705:
5697:
5693:
5690:
5684:
5670:
5666:
5659:
5652:
5648:
5645:
5640:
5631:
5622:
5620:
5611:
5610:
5602:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5547:
5539:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5502:
5495:
5493:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5449:
5447:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5419:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5392:
5385:
5384:
5377:
5375:
5373:
5364:
5360:
5357:(3): 155–63.
5356:
5352:
5345:
5337:
5333:
5330:(2): 161–74.
5329:
5325:
5318:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5295:(5): 747–61.
5294:
5290:
5283:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5252:
5246:
5241:
5235:
5230:
5224:
5219:
5213:
5208:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5164:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5141:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5106:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5059:
5045:
5041:
5034:
5027:
5023:
5018:
5011:
5007:
5002:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4966:
4958:
4950:
4944:
4940:
4939:
4931:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4892:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4837:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4798:(2): 97–107.
4797:
4793:
4789:
4782:
4774:
4768:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4713:
4705:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4656:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4601:
4599:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4571:
4556:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4530:
4524:
4509:
4505:
4499:
4497:
4495:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4444:
4430:
4429:
4424:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4398:
4394:
4388:
4372:
4366:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4322:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4295:
4286:
4281:
4278:(3): 186–97.
4277:
4273:
4266:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4237:IEEE Spectrum
4234:
4227:
4213:on 2017-09-19
4209:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4187:
4181:
4176:
4170:
4165:
4156:
4154:
4146:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4114:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4091:
4084:
4083:
4076:
4060:
4056:
4050:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4027:(1): 158–63.
4026:
4022:
4015:
4000:
3996:
3990:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3963:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3926:
3924:
3909:
3905:
3898:
3884:
3880:
3873:
3865:
3858:
3850:
3849:
3841:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3798:
3783:
3777:
3770:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3722:The Histories
3717:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3655:
3640:
3634:
3626:
3624:9783319190570
3620:
3616:
3615:
3607:
3600:. March 2013.
3599:
3598:
3593:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3561:
3554:
3552:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3518:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3448:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3392:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3314:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3247:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3145:
3137:
3133:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3083:
3074:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2999:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2960:
2956:
2950:
2936:
2932:
2926:
2924:
2909:
2905:
2899:
2885:
2878:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2862:
2861:Scott, Robert
2858:
2854:
2845:
2841:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2819:Transhumanism
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:(1768–1854),
2744:
2741:
2740:
2734:
2725:
2716:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2687:Elaine Scarry
2683:
2673:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2639:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2482:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2298:
2288:
2284:
2282:
2281:wear and tear
2277:
2272:
2270:
2254:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2192:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2144:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2098:Kevin Warwick
2094:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2072:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1949:
1948:exoprosthesis
1944:
1940:
1935:
1925:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1841:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1742:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1682:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1608:
1599:
1590:
1588:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1566:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1542:
1537:
1528:
1525:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1500:
1495:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1466:
1464:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1436:Latin America
1433:
1429:
1426:In 1997, the
1424:
1422:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1395:
1387:
1378:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1344:thermoplastic
1342:Formation of
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1307:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1288:
1284:
1282:
1274:
1271:
1266:
1257:
1253:
1251:
1241:
1238:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1162:
1153:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1092:Ambroise Paré
1082:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1018:
1010:
1003:
1002:Turpan Museum
999:
994:
986:
977:
975:
971:
967:
966:Hegesistratus
963:
958:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
915:ancient Egypt
912:
903:
894:
886:
885:
883:
878:
875:
874:
872:
869:
866:
861:
858:
856:Polypropylene
855:
852:
851:
849:
848:
847:
836:
833:
830:
828:
826:
820:
818:
816:
810:
807:
804:
801:
800:
799:
792:
788:
785:
784:heart disease
781:
777:
773:
768:
764:
760:
756:
754:
750:
746:
743:
741:
737:
732:
723:
718:
714:
711:
707:
705:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
672:
668:
663:
661:
657:
653:
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
570:
564:
558:
549:
548:Ancient Greek
545:
537:
533:
521:
516:
514:
509:
507:
502:
501:
499:
498:
490:
487:
485:
476:
475:
473:
472:
471:
470:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
449:
446:
441:
440:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
413:
409:
404:
403:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
372:
366:Organizations
365:
362:
361:
357:
356:
348:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
306:
300:
299:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
247:
242:
238:
235:
234:
228:
227:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
198:Normalization
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
185:
178:
177:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
155:
148:
147:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
123:Special needs
121:
120:
116:
113:
111:
110:Mainstreaming
108:
107:
101:
100:
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89:
87:
84:
82:
81:Medical model
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
68:
61:
60:
57:
54:
53:
46:
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9035:Anthropology
9025:Deaf studies
9015:Crip as verb
8912:
8893:Mobility aid
8853:Reach Canada
8626:Social model
8287:Adam's apple
8051:
8047:
8015:
7993:. Retrieved
7990:Limbs 4 life
7989:
7980:
7970:, retrieved
7948:
7938:
7893:
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7837:
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7805:(15): 6–29.
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7538:
7532:
7521:. Retrieved
7517:the original
7507:
7496:. Retrieved
7491:
7481:
7463:
7451:
7440:. Retrieved
7428:
7420:Boston Globe
7418:
7410:
7398:. Retrieved
7394:
7385:
7373:. Retrieved
7369:
7335:(1): 13–36.
7332:
7322:
7314:the original
7307:
7298:
7290:the original
7285:
7275:
7264:, retrieved
7260:the original
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7238:the original
7228:
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7205:
7197:the original
7192:
7182:
7171:. Retrieved
7167:
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6963:the original
6953:
6918:
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6837:. Retrieved
6832:
6823:
6811:. Retrieved
6806:
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6779:
6769:
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6743:
6731:. Retrieved
6726:
6717:
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6702:
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6681:. Retrieved
6677:the original
6672:
6663:
6652:. Retrieved
6648:
6638:
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6576:. Retrieved
6572:
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6552:. Retrieved
6548:
6538:
6527:. Retrieved
6523:the original
6518:
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6464:
6460:
6450:
6439:. Retrieved
6435:
6426:
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6386:. Retrieved
6376:
6344:(1): 34–37.
6341:
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6278:
6267:. Retrieved
6256:
6245:. Retrieved
6243:. Gizmag.com
6234:
6223:. Retrieved
6213:
6202:. Retrieved
6198:the original
6188:
6147:
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6133:
6122:. Retrieved
6118:the original
6108:
6097:. Retrieved
6095:. 2009-02-10
6092:
6083:
6050:
6046:
6039:
6028:. Retrieved
6021:the original
6008:
6004:
5991:
5975:. Springer.
5972:
5966:
5939:
5935:
5925:
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5895:
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5880:
5868:. Retrieved
5864:
5851:
5826:
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5760:
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5749:
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5683:
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5668:
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5282:
5270:. Retrieved
5266:the original
5261:
5251:
5240:
5229:
5218:
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5174:
5170:
5163:
5146:
5140:
5115:
5111:
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5072:
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5058:
5047:. Retrieved
5043:
5033:
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4767:cite journal
4726:
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4580:
4576:
4570:
4559:. Retrieved
4533:. Retrieved
4523:
4512:. Retrieved
4507:
4482:. Retrieved
4478:
4469:
4458:. Retrieved
4452:
4443:
4432:. Retrieved
4426:
4400:. Retrieved
4396:
4387:
4375:. Retrieved
4365:
4332:
4328:
4321:
4304:
4300:
4294:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4240:
4236:
4226:
4215:. Retrieved
4208:the original
4203:
4199:
4186:
4175:
4164:
4140:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4104:
4100:
4090:
4081:
4075:
4063:. Retrieved
4058:
4049:
4024:
4020:
4014:
4003:. Retrieved
4001:. 2015-09-21
3998:
3989:
3978:. Retrieved
3974:
3936:
3932:
3911:. Retrieved
3908:ScienceAlert
3907:
3897:
3886:. Retrieved
3882:
3872:
3863:
3857:
3847:
3840:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3786:. Retrieved
3776:
3767:
3739:
3729:
3721:
3716:
3691:
3687:
3681:
3673:the original
3668:
3664:
3654:
3643:. Retrieved
3633:
3617:. Springer.
3613:
3606:
3595:
3586:
3559:
3523:
3517:
3474:
3470:
3420:
3416:
3406:
3395:. Retrieved
3330:(14): 3137.
3327:
3323:
3313:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3205:
3201:
3191:
3158:
3154:
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3126:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3063:
3059:
3049:
3017:(1): 66–74.
3014:
3010:
2986:. Retrieved
2982:
2973:
2962:. Retrieved
2958:
2949:
2938:. Retrieved
2934:
2911:. Retrieved
2907:
2898:
2887:. Retrieved
2877:
2864:
2844:
2731:
2722:
2713:
2695:
2691:
2679:
2670:
2662:
2654:
2645:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2588:
2584:Open Bionics
2573:
2567:
2524:
2523:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2502:
2490:Index: Award
2487:
2318:
2304:
2300:
2285:
2273:
2265:
2251:
2229:
2198:
2190:
2162:
2150:
2141:
2122:
2114:median nerve
2095:
2084:
2077:
2023:
1997:
1988:
1969:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1923:
1902:
1893:
1890:
1882:
1879:
1870:
1854:
1837:
1834:Robotic arms
1809:
1793:motor nerves
1790:
1783:
1779:
1762:
1755:3-D printing
1706:
1702:Nice, France
1697:
1691:
1686:phantom limb
1680:
1678:
1670:
1666:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1633:
1624:
1620:
1605:
1596:
1584:
1568:
1559:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1521:
1504:
1483:
1480:
1472:
1460:
1448:
1444:
1425:
1417:
1408:
1404:
1401:
1393:
1384:
1376:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1301:
1293:
1281:carbon fiber
1278:
1254:
1250:Prosthetists
1247:
1233:
1200:
1183:
1179:
1167:
1150:
1100:
1088:
1080:
1074:cemetery in
1069:
1053:
1031:
959:
923:Eye of Horus
908:
892:
884:Composites:
862:Polyurethane
853:Polyethylene
845:
822:
812:
797:
787:approaches.
778:) including
769:
765:
761:
757:
748:
747:
744:
730:
727:
709:
708:
702:
689:phalloplasty
675:
664:
646:
616:
612:
603:3-D graphics
574:
543:
535:
529:
390:Visitability
339:Freedom Pass
279:
265:Mobility aid
163:Occupational
91:Other models
86:Social model
9164:Prosthetics
9108:Paralympics
9103:Deaflympics
8913:Prosthetics
8604:Main topics
8054:(1): 1–11.
6866:: 241–242.
6604:(S3): 140.
5404:: S18–S22.
4243:(1): 44–8.
4065:23 November
3720:Herodotus,
3263:(4): 1885.
3090:IEEE Access
2814:Robotic arm
2804:Cybernetics
2700:Mark Wigley
2616:thalidomide
2606:3D printing
2576:open-design
2559:Thingiverse
2555:3D printing
2526:Jaipur foot
2515:3D printers
2416:Single-axis
2297:3D printing
2240:Ease of use
2195:Performance
2183:in London.
2127:company of
1845:I-LIMB Hand
1675:Myoelectric
1522:Hosmer and
1508:Laura Hruby
1499:Owen Wilson
1364:die casting
1174:James Foort
1112:James Potts
939:New Kingdom
772:circulation
724:(left arm).
722:myoelectric
652:substitutes
591:physiatrist
426:Deaflympics
280:Prosthetics
9158:Categories
9098:Parasports
8635:Approaches
8611:Disability
8597:Disability
8454:Fingernail
7995:2023-11-27
7972:2023-11-27
7896:: 537493.
7803:Assemblage
7753:1580931340
7523:2016-12-28
7498:2016-12-28
7442:2010-10-03
7400:28 January
7395:Limbs4life
7173:2019-05-06
6995:(3): e52.
6969:2016-12-28
6839:3 November
6813:3 November
6786:3 November
6759:3 November
6733:3 November
6708:2018-06-08
6683:2018-06-08
6654:2018-06-08
6578:2018-01-08
6554:2018-01-08
6529:2018-01-08
6441:2018-12-01
6388:2016-12-28
6338:IEEE Pulse
6269:2016-12-28
6247:2016-12-28
6225:2016-12-28
6204:2010-10-03
6124:2010-10-03
6099:2010-10-03
6030:2016-12-28
5674:2008-10-30
5049:2020-06-12
4561:2010-10-03
4535:2016-12-28
4514:2023-11-27
4484:2024-06-04
4460:2024-06-04
4434:2024-06-04
4217:2017-10-05
4005:2018-04-17
3980:2018-04-17
3913:2018-04-17
3888:2024-04-15
3804:The Lancet
3788:2009-11-03
3645:2013-03-13
3397:2010-10-03
3161:(5): 599.
3060:Prosthesis
2988:2017-10-24
2964:2019-02-24
2940:2017-10-24
2913:2019-01-30
2889:2019-01-30
2831:References
2659:Sathi Limb
2600:See also:
2545:See also:
2498:fiberglass
2295:See also:
2129:Dean Kamen
2110:electrodes
2080:congenital
1967:implants.
1801:surgically
1766:Biosensors
1611:Knee joint
1541:Ellie Cole
1208:Dean Kamen
1172:including
1119:James Syme
968:, a Greek
943:South Asia
850:Plastics:
823:(also see
813:(also see
687:, perform
683:, correct
660:esophageal
658:and upper
638:obturators
632:, such as
563:prósthesis
544:prostheses
536:prosthesis
484:Disability
408:Parasports
56:Disability
9045:Education
9040:Geography
8684:education
8647:Inclusion
8370:Genitalia
7912:1664-1078
7858:1359-1053
7723:0268-0033
7349:2817-6731
7193:USA Today
7069:Bioethics
6896:216047962
6880:1743-9159
6483:2365-6271
6180:221326246
6164:1746-1553
6150:: 94–99.
6011:: 25–39.
5577:1534-4320
5272:24 August
5258:"Dive In"
5010:USA Today
4993:206682721
4914:0748-7711
4883:201018681
4867:1748-3115
4812:0309-3646
4743:1938-1352
4686:0976-5662
4647:198999869
4631:1746-1553
4397:darpa.mil
4335:: 52–67.
4280:CiteSeerX
4126:(1): 94.
3764:1040-6182
3578:152577368
3491:1469-493X
3354:1424-8220
3287:1424-8220
3222:0748-7711
3175:0748-7711
3118:254339929
2851:πρόσθεσις
2836:Citations
2799:Capua Leg
2759:Terry Fox
2747:whose leg
2589:Star Wars
2568:Star Wars
2319:evidence
2262:High-cost
2234:Cosmetics
2118:robot arm
2030:attention
2014:Cognition
1849:David Gow
1636:Otto Bock
1524:Otto Bock
1428:Colombian
1201:In 2005,
1072:Longobard
1041:iron hand
962:Herodotus
740:upper arm
557:romanized
552:πρόσθεσις
193:Inclusion
104:Education
9189:Robotics
9133:Category
9050:Journals
9030:Eugenics
9010:Bodymind
8817:Students
8764:Services
8499:Buttocks
8419:Shoulder
8254:Mandible
8187:Forehead
8096:Archived
8060:11926321
7930:34122200
7866:15857872
7731:15963612
7630:(2): 91.
7567:38036558
7559:28152642
7471:Archived
7375:13 April
7266:4 August
7116:14568806
7021:15630464
6945:18539345
6888:32311524
6833:Envision
6807:ABC News
6780:ABC News
6630:28105948
6501:29782612
6467:(1): 8.
6368:22344949
6319:18713682
6172:32842869
6075:20041254
6067:17276777
6017:19592784
5958:14226106
5911:: 8–35.
5870:19 March
5843:26230500
5785:23608311
5777:20969495
5733:25856664
5692:Archived
5647:Archived
5585:15614992
5538:14974050
5483:27233705
5475:21083505
5431:: 9–22.
5363:10659798
5336:11392649
5309:12736892
5199:28143731
5191:28093018
5132:22773256
5097:22327910
5089:20849359
4985:24500407
4922:11392649
4875:31418306
4828:20147798
4820:11061196
4751:15944878
4704:26403547
4639:31364475
4357:14678623
4349:25107852
4257:34235585
4085:. London
3953:29717991
3832:42637892
3824:21341402
3542:54693136
3509:30350430
3447:28066520
3372:31319463
3305:36850483
3238:14883575
3230:21938652
3183:24013909
3136:BBC News
3041:28190380
2782:See also
2765:activist
2667:Monolimb
2394:Four-bar
2383:Four-bar
2291:Low-cost
2004:silicone
2000:cosmesis
1994:Cosmesis
1786:actuator
1414:Feedback
1275:software
1222:and the
1147:leather.
947:Vishpala
879:Aluminum
876:Titanium
859:Acrylics
780:diabetes
634:dentures
532:medicine
158:Physical
39:Orthotic
8785:Support
8544:Toenail
8434:Forearm
8380:Scrotum
8326:Midriff
8316:Abdomen
8309:(Trunk)
8259:Occiput
8202:Eyebrow
8007:Sources
7921:8189153
7819:3171122
7602:1946626
6936:3051349
6621:5249019
6543:Össur.
6492:5954798
6359:3357625
6310:3038244
5949:1927453
5803:Reuters
5741:5942534
5593:1860735
5529:8762647
4759:9385882
4695:3880430
4402:June 4,
4041:2660173
3744:Bibcode
3696:Bibcode
3500:6517199
3438:5218520
3363:6679265
3332:Bibcode
3324:Sensors
3296:9959820
3265:Bibcode
3257:Sensors
3098:Bibcode
3032:5810914
2869:at the
2794:Bionics
2728:Debates
2102:implant
1914:braille
1861:Proto 2
1797:muscles
1510:of the
1381:Sockets
1304:suction
1237:bionics
1096:peg leg
974:Spartan
970:diviner
951:Rigveda
949:in the
897:History
656:trachea
622:orbital
587:Amputee
571:
559::
546:; from
445:Culture
395:WeThe15
239: (
151:Therapy
8702:Rights
8679:school
8479:Little
8469:Middle
8449:Finger
8424:Axilla
8365:Pelvis
8358:Nipple
8353:Breast
8348:Thorax
8292:Throat
8269:Temple
8232:Tongue
8212:Eyelid
8058:
8022:
7963:
7928:
7918:
7910:
7864:
7856:
7817:
7787:
7751:
7729:
7721:
7664:
7600:
7565:
7557:
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7050:
7019:
7012:539045
7009:
6943:
6933:
6894:
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6878:
6628:
6618:
6499:
6489:
6481:
6366:
6356:
6317:
6307:
6178:
6170:
6162:
6073:
6065:
6047:Lancet
6015:
5979:
5956:
5946:
5917:365281
5915:
5841:
5783:
5775:
5739:
5731:
5591:
5583:
5575:
5536:
5526:
5481:
5473:
5361:
5334:
5307:
5197:
5189:
5130:
5095:
5087:
4991:
4983:
4945:
4920:
4912:
4881:
4873:
4865:
4826:
4818:
4810:
4757:
4749:
4741:
4702:
4692:
4684:
4645:
4637:
4629:
4355:
4347:
4282:
4255:
4039:
3975:Forbes
3951:
3830:
3822:
3762:
3724:. 9.37
3621:
3576:
3566:
3540:
3530:
3507:
3497:
3489:
3445:
3435:
3370:
3360:
3352:
3303:
3293:
3285:
3236:
3228:
3220:
3181:
3173:
3116:
3039:
3029:
2809:Cyborg
2557:, and
2531:Jaipur
2430:Field
2419:Field
2408:Field
2397:Field
2386:Field
2375:Field
2364:Field
2048:, and
2046:autism
2034:stroke
1757:, and
1581:Socket
1497:Actor
1430:Prof.
1390:Wrists
1270:WorkNC
1139:&
955:crowns
731:et.al.
649:larynx
640:, and
626:ocular
482:
363:Groups
168:Speech
9143:Lists
8848:MINDS
8529:Ankle
8509:Thigh
8464:Index
8459:Thumb
8439:Wrist
8429:Elbow
8402:Limbs
8385:Vulva
8375:Penis
8331:Navel
8321:Waist
8307:Torso
8264:Scalp
8237:Tooth
8222:Mouth
8192:Cheek
7815:JSTOR
7699:(PDF)
7620:(PDF)
7563:S2CID
7437:(PDF)
6892:S2CID
6176:S2CID
6071:S2CID
6024:(PDF)
6001:(PDF)
5905:(PDF)
5865:IFMBE
5781:S2CID
5737:S2CID
5589:S2CID
5504:(PDF)
5479:S2CID
5195:S2CID
5093:S2CID
4989:S2CID
4879:S2CID
4824:S2CID
4755:S2CID
4643:S2CID
4377:9 May
4353:S2CID
4253:S2CID
4211:(PDF)
4196:(PDF)
3828:S2CID
3769:date.
3234:S2CID
3114:S2CID
2704:Freud
2535:India
2519:molds
2513:With
2226:Other
1824:DARPA
1640:Ossur
1489:Hands
1477:Hooks
1203:DARPA
931:Thoth
927:Horus
609:Types
489:Lists
8822:CNIB
8807:SSDI
8802:Rail
8797:ODSP
8735:AODA
8549:Sole
8534:Heel
8524:Foot
8519:Calf
8514:Knee
8474:Ring
8444:Hand
8392:Anus
8343:Back
8297:Nape
8279:Neck
8217:Nose
8197:Chin
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