374:
20:
582:
arsenical bronze was phased out due to its health effects. It is more likely that it was phased out in general use because alloying with tin gave castings which had similar strength to arsenical bronze but did not require further work-hardening to achieve useful strength. It is also probable that more certain results could be achieved with the use of tin, because it could be added directly to the copper in specific amounts, whereas the precise amount of arsenic being added was much harder to gauge due to the manufacturing process.
470:, the earliest known use of this complex technique. "Carbon-14 dating of the reed mat in which the objects were wrapped suggests that it dates to at least 3500 B.C. It was in this period that the use of copper became widespread throughout the Levant, attesting to considerable technological developments that parallel major social advances in the region."
508:(ZnS with more or less iron), for example, is not uncommon in copper sulfide deposits, and the metal smelted would be brass, which is both harder and more durable than copper.) The metals could theoretically be separated out, but the alloys resulting were typically much stronger than the metals individually.
531:. However it is still unclear as to whether arsenical bronze artefacts were imported or made locally, although the latter is suspected as being more likely due to possible local exploitation of mineral resources. On the other hand, the artefacts show typological connections to the Eurasian steppe.
356:
Second, the alloy is capable of greater work-hardening than is the case with pure copper, so that it performs better when used for cutting or chopping. An increase in work-hardening capability arises with an increasing percentage of arsenic, and the bronze can be work-hardened over a wide range of
581:
for the manufacture of trinkets and decorative objects, thus demonstrating that there was not a simple succession of alloys over time, with superior new alloys replacing older ones. There are few real advantages metallurgically for the superiority of tin bronze, and early authors suggested that
326:
Artifacts made of arsenical bronze cover the complete spectrum of metal objects, from axes to ornaments. The method of manufacture involved heating the metal in crucibles, and casting it into moulds made of stone or clay. After solidifying, it would be polished or, in the case of axes and other
415:
According to
Boscher (2016), at DeÄźirmentepe, arsenical copper objects were clearly manufactured around 4200 BC, yet the technological aspects of this production remain unclear. This is because the primary smelting of ore seems to have been undertaken elsewhere, perhaps already at the sites of
556:
of northwestern coastal Peru is famous for its use of arsenical bronze during the period 900 to 1350 AD. Arsenical bronze co-existed with tin bronze in the Andes, probably due to its greater ductility which meant it could be easily hammered into thin sheets which were valued in local society.
419:
In contrast, the related NorĹźuntepe site provides a better context of production, and demonstrates that some form of arsenic alloying was indeed taking place by the 4th millennium BC. Since the slag identified at NorĹźuntepe contains no arsenic, this means that arsenic in some form was added
247:), and therefore some contamination of the copper with arsenic would be unavoidable. However, it is still not entirely clear to what extent arsenic was deliberately added to copper and to what extent its use arose simply from its presence in copper ores that were then treated by
641:, defined as copper with under 0.5 wt% As, below the accepted percentage in archaeological artefacts. The presence of 0.5 wt% arsenic in copper lowers the electrical conductivity to 34% of that of pure copper, and even as little as 0.05 wt% decreases it by 15%.
322:
Furthermore, greater sophistication of metal workers is suggested by
Thornton et al. They suggest that iron arsenide was deliberately produced as part of the copper-smelting process, to be traded and used to make arsenical bronze elsewhere by addition to molten copper.
477:, use of arsenical bronze/copper is confirmed since the second phase of Naqada culture, and then used widely until the beginning of the New Kingdom, i.e. in the Egyptian Chalcolithic, Early and Middle Bronze Age, and within the same eras also in ancient Nubia. In the
412:, where arsenical bronze production was taking place before 4000 BC. Hearths or natural draft furnaces, slag, ore, and pigment had been recovered throughout these sites. This was in the context of architectural complexes typical of southern Mesopotamian architecture.
545:, arsenical bronze was the predominant alloy in Ecuador and north and central Peru, because of the rich arsenic bearing ores present there. By contrast, the south and central Andes, southern Peru, Bolivia and parts of Argentina, were rich in the tin ore
485:. Arsenical copper was also processed in the workshop uncovered at Giza's Heit el-Ghurab, "lost city of pyramid builders" from the reign of Menkaure. Egyptian and Nubian objects made of arsenical copper were identified in the collections in
1599:
364:
and other artifacts from different locations having an arsenic-rich surface layer which may well have been produced deliberately by ancient craftsmen, and
Mexican bells were made of copper with sufficient arsenic to color them silver.
594:
point of 615 °C, such that arsenical oxide will be lost from the melt before or during casting, and fumes from fire setting for mining and ore processing have long been known to attack the nervous system, eyes, lungs, and skin.
344:
in the hot metal to form arsenous oxides which vaporize from the liquid metal. If a great deal of oxygen is dissolved in liquid copper, when the metal cools the copper oxide separates out at grain boundaries, and greatly reduces the
393:, a period of nearly 2,000 years. There was a great deal of variation in arsenic content of artefacts throughout this period, making it impossible to say exactly how much was added deliberately and how much came about by accident.
266:. Thus, the surface deposits would have been used first; with some work, deeper sulphidic ores would have been uncovered and worked, and it would have been discovered that the material from this level had better properties.
736:
Thornton, C. P.; Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C.; Liezers, M.; Young, S. M. M. (2002). "On pins and needles: tracing the evolution of copper-based alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS analysis of Common-place items".
538:, with the Remedello and Rinaldone cultures in 2800 to 2200 BC, saw the use of arsenical bronze. Indeed, it seems that arsenical bronze was the most common alloy in use in the Mediterranean basin at this time.
339:
While arsenic was most likely originally mixed with copper as a result of the ores already containing it, its use probably continued for a number of reasons. First, it acts as a deoxidizer, reacting with
357:
temperatures without fear of embrittlement. Its improved properties over pure copper can be seen with as little as 0.5 to 2 wt% As, giving a 10-to-30% improvement in hardness and tensile strength.
385:, followed by the adjacent Mesopotamian area, together covering modern Iran, Iraq and Syria, has the earliest arsenical bronze metallurgy in the world, as previously mentioned. It was in use from the
1312:. Specialist reports by Michael R. Cowell, Janet R. S. Lang; Richard Burleigh; Rowena Gale; Mavis Bimson; drawings by Marion Cox (1 ed.). London: British Museum Publications for the Trustees.
1638:
493:. In the Middle Kingdom, use of tin bronze is increasing in ancient Egypt and Nubia. One of the largest studies of such material was the research of the Egyptian and Nubian axe blades in the
377:
Reproductions of Bronze Age knives made from high-arsenic bronze (left) and tin bronze (center and right). Depending on the content of arsenic, the alloy is of pale red to silverish color.
258:
and oxidized minerals, but much of the copper and other minerals would have been washed further into the ore body, forming a secondary enrichment zone. This includes many minerals such as
254:
Reconstructing a possible sequence of events in prehistory involves considering the structure of copper ore deposits, which are mostly sulphides. The surface minerals would contain some
318:
together. This method has been demonstrated to work well, with little in the way of dangerous fumes given off during it, because of the reactions together among the different minerals.
1399:, ed: Jianjun Mei and Thilo Rehren. Proceedings of the 6th international conference on the beginnings of the use of meals and alloys (BUMA VI), 2009, Archetype publications, London.
1692:
720:. Ancient mining and metallurgy in southeast Europe, International symposium. Archaeological institute, Belgrade and the Museum of Mining and Metallurgy, Bor. p. 95.
602:, which can cause weakness in the legs and feet. It has been speculated that this lay behind the legend of lame smiths in many cultures and myths, such as the Greek god
353:
in the molten metal and its subsequent loss as a bubble (although any bubbles could be forge-welded and still leave the mass of the metal ready to be work-hardened).
331:
by beating the working edge with a hammer, thinning out the metal and increasing its strength. Finished objects could also be engraved or decorated as appropriate.
80:
is typically only applied to alloys with an arsenic content higher than 1% by weight, in order to distinguish it from potentially accidental additions of arsenic.
360:
Third, in the correct percentages, it can contribute a silvery sheen to the article being manufactured. There is evidence of arsenical bronze daggers from the
1155:"Copper for the afterlife in Predynastic to Old Kingdom Egypt: Provenance characterization by chemical and lead isotope analysis (RMAH collection, Belgium)"
69:. The use of arsenic with copper, either as the secondary constituent or with another component such as tin, results in a stronger final product and better
625:
in his hair. This, along with Ă–tzi's copper axe blade, which is 99.7% pure copper, has led scientists to speculate that he was involved in copper
1292:
1260:
Invisible connections : an archaeometallurgical analysis of the Bronze Age metalwork from the
Egyptian Museum of the University of Leipzig
771:
Lechtman, H.; Klein, S. (1999). "The
Production of Copper–Arsenic Alloys (Arsenic Bronze) by cosmelting: Modern Experiment, Ancient Practice".
504:
Sulfide deposits frequently are a mix of different metal sulfides, such as copper, zinc, silver, arsenic, mercury, iron and other metals. (
1700:
938:
Thornton, C. P.; Rehren, T.; Piggot, V. C. (2009). "The production of speiss (iron arsenide) during the Early Bronze Age in Iran".
269:
Using these various ores, there are four possible methods that may have been used to produce arsenical bronze alloys. These are:
973:
Ryndina, N. (2009). "The potential of metallography in investigations of early objects made of copper and copper-based alloys".
1582:
1317:
1268:
1744:
1355:
Rademakers, Frederik W.; Verly, Georges; Degryse, Patrick; Vanhaecke, Frank; Marchi, SĂ©verine; Bonnet, Charles (2022).
1212:"Invisible connections. Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom Egyptian metalwork in the Egyptian Museum of Leipzig University"
637:
Arsenical bronze has seen little use in the modern period. It appears that the closest equivalent goes by the name of
606:. As Hephaestus was an iron-age smith, not a bronze-age smith, the connection would be one from ancient folk memory.
373:
1341:
874:
443:
rivers and centres of the trade networks which spread arsenical bronze across the Middle East during the Bronze Age.
486:
1426:
Hörz, G.; Kallfass, M. (December 1998). "Metalworking in Peru, ornamental objects from the Royal Tombs of Sipan".
349:
of the resulting object. However, its use can lead to a greater risk of porous castings, owing to the solution of
1739:
1708:
19:
903:
Lechtman, Heather (Winter 1996). "Arsenic Bronze: Dirty Copper or Chosen Alloy? A View from the
Americas".
76:
Copper ore is often naturally contaminated with arsenic; hence, the term "arsenical bronze" when used in
1073:
481:, era of the largest pyramids' builders, the arsenical copper was used for the production of tools at
1128:
1211:
1154:
573:
and the
Caucasus suggests that arsenical bronze was produced for a time alongside tin bronze. At
1734:
220:
599:
528:
497:, and it provided comparable results. Similar situation can be observed in Middle Bronze Age
396:
These matters were clarified considerably by 2016. The two relevant ancient sites in eastern
216:
1309:
Catalogue of
Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum. 7: Tools and weapons ; 1: Axes
1614:
1223:
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1085:
947:
780:
742:
482:
478:
1574:
1568:
1006:
Reconstructing the
Arsenical Copper Production Process in Early Bronze Age Southwest Asia.
993:
Reconstructing the
Arsenical Copper Production Process in Early Bronze Age Southwest Asia.
8:
1729:
1598:
Bonani, Georges; Ivy, Susan D.; Hajdas, Irena; Niklaus, Thomas R.; Suter, Martin (1994).
1409:
1021:
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951:
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Arsenical bronze was used by many societies and cultures across the globe. Firstly, the
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1335:
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1035:"Near eastern alloying and some textual evidence for the early use of arsenical copper"
920:
796:
698:
490:
511:
The use of arsenical bronze spread along trade routes into northwestern China, to the
1600:"AMS 14C age determination of tissue, bone and grass samples from the Ă–tztal Ice Man"
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1492:
1447:
1382:
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1243:
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1101:
1072:
Odler, Martin; Kmošek, JiĹ™Ă; Fikrle, Marek; Erban Kochergina, Yulia V. (2021-04-01).
1054:
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224:
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401:
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1357:"Copper at ancient Kerma: A diachronic investigation of alloys and raw materials"
1097:
836:
681:
Charles, J. A. (January 1967). "Early Arsenical Bronzes – A Metallurgical view".
655:
382:
289:
228:
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Rademakers, Frederik W.; Verly, Georges; Delvaux, Luc; Degryse, Patrick (2018).
1034:
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494:
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to produce an alloy high in arsenic and antimony. This is entirely practicable.
1626:
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821:"An overview of Mesopotamian bronze metallurgy during the 3rd millennium BC"
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Kmošek, JiĹ™Ă; Odler, Martin; Fikrle, Marek; Kochergina, Yulia V. (2018).
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77:
603:
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259:
147:
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924:
702:
1693:"Arsenical copper carpenters tools from Naxos, circa 2700 to 2200 BC"
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The reduction of roasted copper sulfarsenides such as tennantite and
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916:
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361:
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1074:"Arsenical copper tools of Old Kingdom Giza craftsmen: First data"
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contains a number of arsenical bronze (4–12% arsenic) and perhaps
1071:
622:
516:
293:
277:
to molten copper. This method, although possible, lacks evidence.
274:
232:
189:
70:
50:
618:
1354:
436:
397:
341:
303:. This method would result in the production of toxic fumes of
236:
66:
62:
58:
24:
273:
The direct addition of arsenic-bearing metals or ores such as
1512:"Possible toxic metal exposure of prehistoric bronze workers"
1463:"Possible toxic metal exposure of prehistoric bronze workers"
1152:
741:. 29 If a great deal of oxygen is dissolved (29): 1451–1460.
566:
512:
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281:
46:
766:
764:
716:
Budd, P.; Ottoway, B. S. (1995). Jovanovic, Borislav (ed.).
368:
1416:, occasional paper 17, British Museum Publications, London.
1209:
570:
263:
240:
1709:"Results page, with some information on arsenical bronze"
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585:
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and the loss of much of the arsenic present in the ores.
428:
1597:
1408:
Eaton, E. R. 1980. Early metallurgy in Italy. In: ed.
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The co-smelting of oxidic and sulphidic ores such as
632:
621:, showed high levels of both copper particles and
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1721:
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896:
894:
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890:
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613:of a man who lived around 3,200 BC found in the
1397:Metallurgy and Civilisation, Eurasia and beyond
814:
812:
810:
770:
718:Eneolithic Arsenical copper – chance or choice?
676:
674:
672:
670:
244:
1711:. Sican archaeological project. Archived from
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1573:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp.
1419:
1008:Ph.D. Thesis. University College London. p.77
995:Ph.D. Thesis. University College London. p.75
931:
883:
853:
724:
423:Societies using arsenical bronze include the
1454:
1033:Eaton, E. R.; McKerrell, Hugh (1976-10-01).
975:Journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society
819:De Ryck, I.; Adriens, A.; Adams, F. (2005).
807:
667:
715:
1291:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1078:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
869:(2nd ed.). London: Maney publishing.
1543:
1486:
1372:
1186:
844:
369:Arsenical bronze, sites and civilisations
83:
372:
215:Although arsenical bronze occurs in the
18:
1126:
972:
549:and thus did not use arsenical bronze.
1722:
1516:British Journal of Industrial Medicine
1509:
1467:British Journal of Industrial Medicine
1305:
586:Health effects of arsenical bronze use
1566:
1256:
561:Arsenical bronze after the Bronze Age
1246:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1199:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1570:Civilization Before Greece and Rome
1263:. Jiřà Kmošek. Summertown, Oxford.
937:
902:
864:
735:
598:Chronic arsenic poisoning leads to
13:
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818:
680:
243:(see table at right, adapted from
53:, as opposed to or in addition to
14:
1761:
1685:
1460:
1216:Journal of Archaeological Science
1159:Journal of Archaeological Science
1129:"Copper at Giza: the Latest News"
940:Journal of Archaeological Science
773:Journal of Archaeological Science
739:Journal of Archaeological Science
262:, with their arsenic, copper and
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1136:Copper at Giza: The Latest News
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683:American Journal of Archaeology
633:Modern uses of arsenical bronze
219:across the globe, the earliest
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709:
335:Advantages of arsenical bronze
223:so far known, dating from the
1:
1340:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1127:Odler, Martin; Kmošek, JiĹ™Ă.
1051:10.1080/00438243.1976.9979662
661:
590:Arsenic is an element with a
565:The archaeological record in
32:
1361:Advances in Archaeomaterials
1098:10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102868
1018:"The Nahal Mishmar Treasure"
905:Journal of Field Archaeology
837:10.1016/j.culher.2005.04.002
825:Journal of Cultural Heritage
7:
1414:Aspects of early metallurgy
644:
577:its use continued into the
10:
1766:
1510:Harper, M (October 1987).
1306:Davies, W. Vivian (1987).
245:Lechtman & Klein, 1999
235:is present in a number of
38:) made of arsenical bronze
1745:Coinage metals and alloys
1627:10.1017/S0033822200040534
1440:10.1007/s11837-998-0298-2
1374:10.1016/j.aia.2022.01.001
1236:10.1016/j.jas.2018.04.004
1179:10.1016/j.jas.2018.04.005
960:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.017
534:The Eneolithic period in
466:artifacts made using the
227:, have been found on the
1567:Saggs, H. W. F. (1989).
1004:LoĂŻc C. Boscher (2016),
991:LoĂŻc C. Boscher (2016),
865:Tylecote, R. F. (1992).
89:Copper and arsenic ores
1395:Jianjun Mei, page 9 in
867:A History of Metallurgy
435:, all based around the
1257:Odler, Martin (2020).
793:10.1006/jasc.1998.0324
755:10.1006/jasc.2002.0809
529:Tianshanbeilu cultures
378:
251:to produce the metal.
84:Origins in pre-history
39:
1740:History of metallurgy
1664:"Iceman's final meal"
1528:10.1136/oem.44.10.652
1479:10.1136/oem.44.10.652
617:, popularly known as
600:peripheral neuropathy
376:
217:archaeological record
57:or other constituent
22:
1428:Journal of Materials
1670:. 16 September 2002
1619:1994Radcb..36..247B
1461:Harper, M. (1987).
1228:2018JArSc..96..191K
1171:2018JArSc..96..175R
1090:2021JArSR..36j2868O
1022:Metropolitan Museum
952:2009JArSc..36..308T
785:1999JArSc..26..497L
747:2002JArSc..29.1451T
452:Nahal Mishmar hoard
90:
61:, is combined with
379:
88:
40:
1584:978-0-300-04440-9
1319:978-0-7141-0934-3
1270:978-1-78969-741-4
1039:World Archaeology
609:A well-preserved
519:region, with the
391:2nd millennium BC
387:4th millennium BC
225:5th millennium BC
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97:Chemical formula
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1699:. Archived from
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651:Arsenical copper
639:arsenical copper
468:lost-wax process
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402:Malatya Province
290:copper arsenates
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43:Arsenical bronze
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1522:(10): 652–656.
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389:through to mid
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1715:on 2010-04-07.
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1703:on 2007-11-09.
1697:British Museum
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1686:External links
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911:(4): 477–514.
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852:
846:1854/LU-329902
831:(3): 261–268.
806:
779:(5): 497–526.
760:
723:
708:
695:10.2307/501586
665:
663:
660:
659:
658:
653:
646:
643:
634:
631:
587:
584:
562:
559:
536:Northern Italy
495:British Museum
370:
367:
336:
333:
320:
319:
308:
305:arsenous oxide
297:
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211:
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2:
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1735:Copper alloys
1733:
1731:
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1727:
1725:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
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1644:on 2017-02-28
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876:0-901462-88-8
872:
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830:
826:
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815:
813:
811:
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790:
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583:
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554:Sican Culture
550:
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543:South America
539:
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532:
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526:
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500:
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492:
488:
484:
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475:ancient Egypt
471:
469:
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457:
456:Judean Desert
453:
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438:
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394:
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329:work-hardened
324:
317:
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298:
295:
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287:
283:
279:
276:
272:
271:
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256:native copper
252:
250:
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193:
191:
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172:
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133:
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116:
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100:
96:
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92:
81:
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68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
30:
26:
21:
1713:the original
1701:the original
1672:. Retrieved
1667:
1658:
1646:. Retrieved
1639:the original
1610:
1606:
1593:
1569:
1562:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1431:
1427:
1421:
1413:
1404:
1396:
1391:
1364:
1360:
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1308:
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1259:
1252:
1219:
1215:
1205:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1139:
1135:
1122:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1042:
1038:
1028:
1013:
1000:
987:
978:
974:
968:
943:
939:
933:
908:
904:
866:
828:
824:
776:
772:
738:
717:
711:
689:(1): 21–26.
686:
682:
636:
608:
597:
592:vaporization
589:
564:
551:
540:
533:
510:
503:
472:
458:west of the
448:Chalcolithic
445:
422:
420:separately.
418:
414:
410:DeÄźirmentepe
395:
380:
359:
355:
338:
325:
321:
316:arsenopyrite
268:
253:
239:-containing
214:
103:Arsenopyrite
75:
42:
41:
1674:28 February
1648:28 February
1607:Radiocarbon
1367:(1): 1–18.
1222:: 191–207.
1165:: 175–190.
1142:(2): 12–17.
615:Ă–tztal Alps
547:cassiterite
479:Old Kingdom
427:, those of
78:archaeology
36: 1800
1730:Bronze Age
1724:Categories
1410:W. A. Oddy
1279:1225889327
1188:1887/75148
1084:: 102868.
662:References
604:Hephaestus
575:Tepe Yahya
506:Sphalerite
431:, and the
406:NorĹźuntepe
260:tennantite
148:Tennantite
73:behavior.
1536:0007-1072
1448:136482156
1434:(12): 8.
1383:249590931
1336:cite book
1328:911316687
1287:cite book
1244:134290735
1197:134631377
1114:233577883
1106:2352-409X
1059:0043-8243
801:128547259
489:, and in
441:Euphrates
425:Akkadians
347:ductility
312:malachite
288:-bearing
282:reduction
221:artifacts
169:Malachite
130:Olivenite
49:in which
23:A seated
1668:BBC News
1635:52971052
645:See also
627:smelting
579:Iron Age
487:Brussels
460:Dead Sea
450:-period
433:Amorites
416:mining.
362:Caucasus
351:hydrogen
301:enargite
286:antimony
249:smelting
113:Enargite
94:Ore name
65:to make
29:Thailand
1750:Arsenic
1615:Bibcode
1575:200–201
1554:3314977
1545:1007896
1497:3314977
1488:1007896
1224:Bibcode
1167:Bibcode
1086:Bibcode
981:: 1–18.
948:Bibcode
781:Bibcode
743:Bibcode
623:arsenic
517:Qinghai
491:Leipzig
454:in the
327:tools,
294:fahlore
275:realgar
233:Arsenic
190:Azurite
71:casting
51:arsenic
1633:
1581:
1552:
1542:
1534:
1495:
1485:
1446:
1381:
1326:
1316:
1277:
1267:
1242:
1195:
1112:
1104:
1057:
925:530550
923:
873:
799:
703:501586
701:
437:Tigris
404:) are
398:Turkey
342:oxygen
237:copper
107:FeAsS
67:bronze
63:copper
59:metals
45:is an
25:Buddha
1642:(PDF)
1631:S2CID
1603:(PDF)
1444:S2CID
1379:S2CID
1240:S2CID
1193:S2CID
1132:(PDF)
1110:S2CID
921:JSTOR
797:S2CID
699:JSTOR
611:mummy
567:Egypt
525:Qijia
513:Gansu
499:Kerma
47:alloy
27:from
16:Alloy
1676:2023
1650:2023
1579:ISBN
1550:PMID
1532:ISSN
1493:PMID
1342:link
1324:OCLC
1314:ISBN
1293:link
1275:OCLC
1265:ISBN
1102:ISSN
1055:ISSN
871:ISBN
619:Ă–tzi
571:Peru
552:The
527:and
521:Siba
483:Giza
446:The
439:and
408:and
314:and
280:The
264:iron
241:ores
198:(OH)
177:(OH)
142:)OH
138:(AsO
1623:doi
1540:PMC
1524:doi
1483:PMC
1475:doi
1436:doi
1369:doi
1232:doi
1183:hdl
1175:doi
1094:doi
1047:doi
956:doi
913:doi
841:hdl
833:doi
789:doi
751:doi
691:doi
541:In
501:.
473:In
292:or
284:of
202:(CO
121:AsS
55:tin
1726::
1695:.
1666:.
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1621:.
1611:36
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1577:.
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885:^
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787:.
777:26
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763:^
749:.
726:^
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687:71
685:.
669:^
629:.
569:,
523:,
429:Ur
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194:Cu
181:CO
173:Cu
162:13
156:As
154:12
152:Cu
134:Cu
117:Cu
33:c.
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753::
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693::
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400:(
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204:3
200:2
196:3
183:3
179:2
175:2
160:S
158:4
140:4
136:2
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119:3
31:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
