Aristotle's biology

1202: 973: 1211: 774: 2402: 656: 2600: 230: 613: 889: 710: 316: 2460: 1089: 534:: it was not something extra, but the system consisting exactly of these mechanisms. The Aristotelian soul died with the animal and was thus purely biological. Different types of organism possessed different types of soul. Plants had a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth. Animals had both a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation. Humans, uniquely, had a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. 548: 2069: 6720: 6386: 436: 22: 2575:, which entertains the possibility of a selection process following the random combination of body parts. Darwin comments that "We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth". However, two things mitigate against this interpretation. Firstly, Aristotle immediately rejected the possibility of such a process of assembling body parts. Secondly, according to Leroi, Aristotle was in any case discussing 2283: 6397: 1270: 341:, but significantly different from it. Plato's Forms were eternal and fixed, being "blueprints in the mind of God". Real things in the world could, in Plato's view, at best be approximations to these perfect Forms. Aristotle heard Plato's view and developed it into a set of three biological concepts. He uses the same Greek word, 693:. This in turn causes a change in the heart's heat, which causes a quantitative change sufficient to make the heart transmit a mechanical impulse to a limb, which moves, moving the animal's body. The alteration in the heat of the heart also causes a change in the consistency of the joints, which helps the limb to move. 841:

is divided into vertebrae because, as it happens, the embryo twists about and snaps the column into pieces, is wrong. Aristotle argues instead that the process has a predefined goal: that the "seed" that develops into the embryo began with an inbuilt "potential" to become specific body parts, such as

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Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as

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The child's sex can be influenced by factors that affect temperature, including the weather, the wind direction, diet, and the father's age. Features other than sex also depend on whether the semen overpowers the menses, so if a man has strong semen, he will have sons who resemble him, while if the

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The system worked as follows. Heat is constantly lost from the body. Food products reach the heart and are processed into new blood, releasing fire during metabolism, which raises the blood temperature too high. That raises the heart temperature, causing lung volume to increase, in turn raising the

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was used in sexual reproduction. He admitted its use in mating 'only for the sake of attachment', but rejected the idea that it was useful for generation, since "it is outside the passage and indeed outside the body". In the 19th century, biologists found that the reported function was correct. He

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The mechanism only works if the air is cooler than the reference temperature. If the air is hotter than that, the system becomes a positive feedback cycle, the body's fire is put out, and death follows. The system as described damps out fluctuations in temperature. Aristotle however predicted that

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merged Aristotle's metaphysics with Christian theology. Whereas Albert had treated Aristotle's biology as science, writing that experiment was the only safe guide and joining in with the types of observation that Aristotle had made, Aquinas saw Aristotle purely as theory, and Aristotelian thought

2097:. His system had eleven grades, arranged according to the potentiality of each being, expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals gave birth to warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. The system was based on Aristotle's interpretation of the 111:

described. Aristotle's method, too, resembled the style of science used by modern biologists when exploring a new area, with systematic data collection, discovery of patterns, and inference of possible causal explanations from these. He did not perform experiments in the modern sense, but made

2699:, where the reader is instructed to look at the diagrams to understand how the animal parts described are arranged, and it has even been possible to reconstruct (admittedly with much associated uncertainty) what some of these illustrations may have looked like, from Aristotle's descriptions. 2690:

Aristotle did not write anything that resembles a modern, unified textbook of biology. Instead, he wrote a large number of "books" which, taken together, give an idea of his approach to the science. Some of these interlock, referring to each other, while others, such as the drawings of

2169:. It has an Aristotelian structure, but rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus described how plants functioned. Where Aristotle expanded on grand theories, Theophrastus was quietly empirical. Where Aristotle insisted that species have a fixed place on the 412:

Finally, Aristotle observed that the child does not take just any form, but is given it by the parents' seeds, which combine. These seeds thus contain form, or in modern terms information. Aristotle makes clear that he sometimes intends this third sense by giving the analogy of a

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observations of living animals and carried out dissections. He names some 500 species of bird, mammal, and fish; and he distinguishes dozens of insects and other invertebrates. He describes the internal anatomy of over a hundred animals, and dissected around 35 of these.

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Aristotle's theory has some symmetry, as semen movements carry maleness while the menses carry femaleness. If the semen is hot enough to overpower the cold menses, the child will be a boy; but if it is too cold to do this, the child will be a girl. Inheritance is thus

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were higher on the scale than the cold, dry, nearly mineral eggs of birds. However, Aristotle is careful never to insist that a group fits perfectly in the scale; he knows animals have many combinations of attributes, and that placements are approximate.

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There is thus a causal chain which transmits information from a sense organ to an organ capable of making decisions, and onwards to a motor organ. In this respect, the model is analogous to a modern understanding of information processing such as in

2591:. Darwin considered Aristotle the most important early contributor to biological thought; in an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle." 1014:, in the form of the five processes of metabolism, temperature regulation, information processing, embryonic development, and inheritance that he developed. Further, he provided mechanical, non-vitalist analogies for these theories, mentioning 868:. However, these charges need to be considered in the light of what was known in his own time. His systematic gathering of data, too, is obscured by the lack of modern methods of presentation, such as tables of data: for example, the whole of 627:

Aristotle's account of temperature regulation sought to explain how an animal maintained a steady temperature and the continued oscillation of the thorax needed for breathing. The system of regulation of temperature and breathing described in

2658:". Few practicing zoologists explicitly adhere to Aristotle's great chain of being, but its influence is still perceptible in the use of the terms "lower" and "upper" to designate taxa such as groups of plants. The evolutionary zoologist 562:

Aristotle's account of metabolism sought to explain how food was processed by the body to provide both heat and the materials for the body's construction and maintenance. The metabolic system for live-bearing tetrapods described in the

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relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an

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or embedded information). Aristotle further emphasises the informational nature of form by arguing that a body is compounded of elements like earth and fire, just as a word is compounded of letters in a specific order.

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Islamic world. Translation of Arabic versions and commentaries into Latin brought knowledge of Aristotle back into Western Europe, but the only biological work widely taught in medieval universities was

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Aristotle remains largely unknown to modern scientists, though zoologists are perhaps most likely to mention him as "the father of biology"; the MarineBio Conservation Society notes that he identified "

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The system worked as follows. The father's semen and the mother's menses have movements that encode their parental characteristics. The model is partly asymmetric, as only the father's movements define

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is one of these indivisible forms: Socrates and the rest of us are all different individually, but we all have human form. More recent studies have shown that Aristotle used the terms γένος (génos) and

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lectured and wrote commentaries on Aristotle. Elsewhere, authors used Aristotle as one of their sources, alongside their own and their colleagues' observations, to create new encyclopedias such as

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Zoologists have frequently mocked Aristotle for errors and unverified secondhand reports. However, modern observation has confirmed one after another of his more surprising claims, including the

351:), to mean first of all the set of visible features that uniquely characterised a kind of animal. Aristotle used the word γένος (génos) to mean a kind. For example, the kind of animal called a 2863:, and some texts use that translation. Aristotle did not formulate a definition resembling that of a modern species, however, and some of his forms are other taxa such as genera or families. 601:(c. 460–c. 370 BC) had argued. The uniform parts can be arranged on a scale of Aristotelian qualities, from the coldest and driest, such as hair, to the hottest and wettest, such as milk. 814:

first makes the heart appear; this is vital, as the heart nourishes all other organs. Aristotle observed that the heart is the first organ seen to be active (beating) in a hen's egg. The

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of the species, while the movements of both the father's and the mother's uniform parts define features other than the form, such as the father's eye colour or the mother's nose shape.

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in the seas around it, especially of the Pyrrha lagoon in the island's centre. This study made him the earliest scientist whose written work survives. No similarly detailed work on

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was attempted until the sixteenth century; accordingly Aristotle remained highly influential for some two thousand years. He returned to Athens and founded his own school, the

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Kruk, R., 1979, The Arabic Version of Aristotle's Parts of Animals: book XI–XIV of the Kitab al-Hayawan, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam-Oxford 1979.

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airflow at the mouth. The cool air brought in through the mouth reduces the heart temperature, so the lung volume accordingly decreases, restoring the temperature to normal.

639:(one that maintains a desired property by opposing disturbances to it), with a few assumptions such as a desired temperature to compare the actual temperature against. 593:

All the tissues are in Aristotle's view completely uniform parts with no internal structure of any kind; a cartilage for example was the same all the way through, not

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model has been named the "centralized incoming and outgoing motions model". It sought to explain how changes in the world led to appropriate behaviour in the animal.

417:. It takes its form from wood (its material cause); the tools and carving technique used to make it (its efficient cause); and the design laid out for it (its 578:

is released as heat. Blood is made into flesh, the rest forming other earthy tissues such as bones, teeth, cartilages and sinews. Leftover blood is made into

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The system worked as follows. The incoming material, food, enters the body and is concocted into blood; waste is excreted as urine, bile, and faeces, and the

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Aristotle's inheritance model sought to explain how the parents' characteristics are transmitted to the child, subject to influence from the environment.

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to Syriac, then to Arabic, then to Latin in the Middle Ages. Aristotle remained the principal authority in biology for the next two thousand years. The

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period, Aristotle came to represent all that was obsolete, scholastic, and wrong, not helped by his association with medieval theology. In 1632,

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lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialised knowledge such as

5672: 1044:. For a biological system, these are however straightforward enough. The material cause is simply what a system is constructed from. The goal ( 5202: 293:, where he taught for the last dozen years of his life. His writings on zoology form about a quarter of his surviving work. Aristotle's pupil 2489: 2468: 5191: 5169: 960:, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, 6434: 5224: 5180: 5158: 4851: 3023:

guessed rightly or wrongly what Aristotle meant in his short descriptions. Sometimes an ancient Greek name must mean exactly one species –

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similarly helped to found modern zoology by arranging the animals according to Aristotle's theories, separating out folklore from his 1552

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After Theophrastus, though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of

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his system would cause lung oscillation (breathing), which is possible given extra assumptions such as of delays or non-linear responses.

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A World of Beasts: A Thirteenth-Century Illustrated Arabic Book on Animals (the Kitab Na't al-Hayawan) in the Ibn Bakhtishu' Tradition)

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As a father to the science, he stands alone. The next figures significant enough to be named in MarineBio's history, for example, are

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zoologist's informed attempt to identify the animals that Aristotle names, and to interpret and diagram his anatomical descriptions.

3031:, when it's a land animal; but sometimes a name referred to several similar species, as English names often do today: for instance, 1210: 874:

Book VI is taken up with a list of observations of the life histories of birds that "would now be summarized in a single table in

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to reject Aristotle. Criticism of his errors and secondhand reports continued for centuries. He has found better acceptance among

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medicine in Egypt continued Aristotle's inquiry into the mechanisms of the human body. Aristotle's biology was influential in the

4506: 2161: 2146: 1931:) with feathers and beaks instead of teeth, so they too formed a distinct group, of over 50 kinds. The egg-bearing tetrapods, 302: 176: 120: 5361: 3942: 5338: 5319: 5278: 4860: 4825: 4792: 4551: 4524: 4358: 4249: 3901: 3874: 3424: 2244: 107:. Each was defined in some detail, in some cases sufficient to enable modern biologists to create mathematical models of the 4747: 2997:: Most learned bachelor / Whom I esteem and honor, I would like to ask you the cause and reason why / Opium makes one sleep. 5973: 1119:

Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of

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stated in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome

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decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.

6607: 6582: 6334: 5080: 4626: 2250: 1201: 924:) finding a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opening it so as to be able to see the embryo's heart inside. 794:

The system worked as follows. First, the father's semen curdles the mother's menses, which Aristotle compares with how

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process, whereby animals take in matter, change its qualities, and distribute these to use to grow, live, and reproduce

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commented extensively on Aristotle, but added his own zoological observations and an encyclopedia of animals based on

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The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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of plants, animals, and humans, according to Aristotle, where humans are unique in having all three types of soul.

6554: 6494: 6464: 5914: 2815: 6761: 6529: 6254: 5504: 3919:"Aristotle's scientific contributions to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms" 3247: 791:

sought to explain how the inherited parental characteristics cause the formation and development of an embryo.

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and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.

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vertebrae. Further, each sort of animal gives rise to animals of its own kind: humans only have human babies.

662:: Leroi's "centralized incoming and outgoing motions model" of an animal's "sensitive soul"; the heart is the 6559: 6366: 6279: 5530: 5417: 1919:, also had blood and gave birth to live young, but did not have legs, and therefore formed a separate group ( 1077: 1031: 2558: 2123:(cold and dry). These are arranged from the most energetic to the least, so the warm, wet young raised in a 6544: 6524: 6371: 5752: 5389: 5375: 4201:

Annas, "Classical Greek Philosophy", 2001, p. 252. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (ed.)

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Renaissance zoologists made use of Aristotle's zoology in two ways. Especially in Italy, scholars such as

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Translating Image and Text in the Medieval Mediterranean World between the Tenth and Thirteenth Centuries

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from the father. Male aspects are shown in red; female aspects in blue. The model is not fully symmetric.

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translated much of Aristotle's biology into Latin, c. 1225, along with many of Averroes's commentaries.

1068:. The efficient cause is how a system develops and moves: to a modern biologist, those are explained by 6519: 5993: 5612: 5244: 2508:

Aristotle still represented the enemy of true science into the 20th century. Leroi noted that in 1985,

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and various worms: Aristotle did not classify these into groups, although Aristotle mentioned that the

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that he uses in his biological explanations opaque, something not helped by many centuries of confused

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Aristotle's use of explanation has been considered "fundamentally unscientific". The French playwright

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The relative importance of parental characteristics and environment became the subject of the modern

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Ogilvie, Brian W. (2010). "Zoology". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.).

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Aristotle's classification of animals: biology and the conceptual unity of the Aristotelian corpus

2533: 2466:'s champion-figure Salviati convinces Sagredo and defeats the Aristotelian Simplicio, in his 1632 2405: 1967:

instead of bones and were viviparous (Aristotle did not know that some selachians are oviparous).

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Leroi has written several papers on the subject, cited in his book, and made a BBC film about it.

2112: 1959:, had blood but no legs, and laid wet eggs, forming a definite group. Among them, the selachians 746: 266: 5255:(2010). "Function and Constraint in Aristotle and Evolutionary Theory". In Föllinger, S. (ed.). 4118: 900:

period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for

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of the limbs. He thus separated sensation from thought, unlike all previous philosophers except

6627: 6577: 6549: 6509: 5909: 5795: 5699: 5595: 3193: 2808: 2746: 1803: 861: 698: 524: 480: 458: 143: 96: 4348: 4239: 2373: 6648: 6023: 6018: 5998: 5800: 5513: 5268: 4970: 4541: 4295: 4078: 3950: 2952: 2723: 2571: 2520:, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". 2342: 2255: 2240: 1069: 990: 933: 520: 513: 131: 104: 3185: 2443:. The title and the philosophical approach were Aristotelian, but the work was largely new. 1253:. His accounts of about 35 animals are sufficiently detailed to convince biologists that he 401:) in a relative way. A taxon that is considered an eidos in one context can be considered a 6680: 6653: 6592: 6539: 6112: 6013: 6003: 5968: 5866: 5845: 5734: 2681:

is Aristotle, who was fascinated by the natural world but bewildered by its inner workings.

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Kruk, R., 2003, "La zoologie aristotélicienne. Tradition arabe", DPhA Supplement, 329–334

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Voultsiadou, E.; Gerovasileiou, V.; Vandepitte, L.; Ganias, K.; Arvanitidis, C. (2018) .

2731: 2562: 2451:. Aristotle's system of classification had thus remained influential for many centuries. 2352:

from the Moors in 1085, an Arabic translation of Aristotle's works, with commentaries by

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Among many other things, he gave accurate descriptions of the four-chambered stomachs of

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At each stage of metabolism, residual materials are excreted as faeces, urine, and bile.

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that resemble Aristotle's are the animals he was referring to, as zoologists including

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that all beings were arranged in a fixed scale of perfection, reflected in their form (

1943:) had blood and four legs, but were cold and laid eggs, so were a distinct group. The 1742: 1600: 1269: 1053: 870: 750: 506: 465: 461: 290: 254: 234: 125: 116: 38: 5257:

Was ist 'Leben'? Aristoteles' Anschauungen zur Entstehung und Funktionsweise von Leben

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Aristotelian doctor Argan blandly explaining that opium causes sleep by virtue of its

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is altered when it detects an object. This causes a perceptual change in the animal's

6484: 6401: 6361: 6289: 6274: 6249: 6072: 6062: 5704: 5647: 5553: 5492: 5334: 5315: 5293: 5274: 5131: 5076: 5027: 5017: 4948: 4856: 4831: 4821: 4798: 4788: 4753: 4693: 4622: 4547: 4520: 4448: 4354: 4301: 4245: 4210: 4122: 4086: 3897: 3870: 3420: 3243: 3197: 3186: 2616: 2612: 2588: 2426: 2349: 2204: 2098: 2088:). They stretched from minerals to plants and animals, and on up to man, forming the 1951:, similarly had blood, but no legs, and laid dry eggs, so were a separate group. The 1102: 1065: 709: 633: 375: 4705: 1018:, toy carts, the movement of water through porous pots, and even automatic puppets. 932:. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out 6700: 6244: 6102: 5945: 5785: 5617: 5578: 5572: 5473: 5367: 5139: 5121: 5009: 4938: 4926: 4685: 4512: 4487: 4409: 4046: 3930: 3468: 2739: 2706:(De Animalibus), namely, with the conventional abbreviations shown in parentheses: 2336: 1738: 1299: 957: 940: 888: 876: 838: 258: 238: 149: 34: 4421: 6690: 6314: 6210: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5881: 5840: 5709: 5600: 5433: 3891: 3864: 2888: 2770: 2484: 2369: 2286: 1148: 953: 338: 274: 85: 6412: 5108:

Fürst von Lieven, Alexander; Humar, Marcel; Scholtz, Gerhard (1 February 2021).

5008:. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 222. pp. 5–18, discussion 18–23. 4644:

Physikalische Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin

4476:"Aristotle as an ichthyologist: Exploring Aegean fish diversity 2,400 years ago" 4051: 4034: 3459:

Corcilius, Klaus; Gregoric, Pavel (2013). "Aristotle's Model of Animal Motion".

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From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of

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Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that

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Deep Homology?: Uncanny Similarities of Humans and Flies Uncovered by Evo-Devo

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Aristotle further noted that there are many bird forms within the bird kind –

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Aristotle used the analogy of the movement of water through a porous pot (an

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The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature

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that a thing takes its form both from its design and from the material used.

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that advances in biology resumed. The first medical teacher at Alexandria,

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model. Food is converted to the body's uniform parts and excreted residues.

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Aristotle's main biological works are the five books sometimes grouped as

2513: 780:: Aristotle saw the chick embryo's heart beating. 19th century drawing by 6660: 6227: 6067: 6057: 5762: 5559: 5525: 4474:

Ganias, Kostas; Mezarli, Charikleia; Voultsiadou, Eleni (November 2017).

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classical works including those of Aristotle were transmitted from Greek

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some; he mentions the internal anatomy of roughly 110 animals in total.

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The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

5307: 4689: 4035:"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals" 3935: 3918: 2982: 2965: 2896: 2651: 2604: 2580: 2540:

admired Aristotle's biology and investigated some of his observations.

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had blood and laid eggs, but had only 2 legs and were a distinct form (

1847: 1254: 1190: 1182: 1165: 1157: 1073: 1061: 1006:. Argan's explanation is at best empty (devoid of mechanism), at worst 920:

to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures, such as (in

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onwards for at least two reasons: his scientific style, and his use of

837:, he argues that what he describes as a theory of Empedocles, that the 828: 598: 473: 270: 92: 4491: 2768:

In addition, a group of seven short works, conventionally forming the

1911:), being warm, having four legs, and giving birth to their young. The 985: 64:. Many of his observations were made during his stay on the island of 6670: 6617: 6612: 6587: 6344: 6161: 6139: 6097: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5904: 5894: 5657: 5635: 5606: 5498: 5447: 3071: 2913: 2859:

In modern terms, it has been argued that these roughly correspond to

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commented extensively on Aristotle's zoology, adding more of his own.

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Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500

435: 52:, grounded in systematic observation and collection of data, mainly 6665: 6156: 6144: 6134: 6107: 5899: 5652: 5378:(1910). "Historia animalium". In Ross, W. D.; Smith, J. A. (eds.). 3303: 2794: 2667: 2631: 2576: 2549: 2494: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2316: 2312: 2298: 2128: 2047: 2019: 1995: 1979: 1596: 1490: 1242: 1232: 1228: 1135:, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. 1041: 1007: 995: 977: 945: 929: 905: 806:. This forms the embryo; it is then developed by the action of the 716:: model of transmission of movements from parents to child, and of 189: 21: 5402: 5101: 3862: 3711: 6232: 6220: 5691: 5509: 4428: 3048:

Aristotle did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of

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has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood.

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notes that biologists will at once think in this context of the

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semen is weak, he will have daughters who resemble their mother.

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to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between

2182: 2166: 2124: 1952: 1842: 1778: 1769: 1669: 1555: 1413: 1220: 1124: 1120: 1093: 864:. His explanations are in turn made cryptic by his complicated 799: 795: 488: 298: 278: 65: 4985: 6339: 5641: 5628: 5541: 5486: 3028: 2847: 2662:

has taken an interest in Aristotle's biology. The concept of

2583:

coming into being of an individual from component parts, not

2389:

curriculum omitted most of Aristotle's biology, but included

2228: 2212: 2178: 1975: 1944: 1704: 1634: 1481: 1456: 1388: 1383: 1290: 1285:

Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals,

1178: 1172:. He reported that fishermen had asserted that the octopus’s 949: 901: 831:, order "spontaneously" appears in the developing embryo. In 690: 587: 586:

or hard lard. Some fat from all around the body is made into

392: 387: 363: 342: 262: 91:

The theory describes five major biological processes, namely

81: 5225:

De Juventute et Senectute, De Vita et Morte, De Respiratione

5107: 4642:

Müller, J. (1840). "Ueber den glatten Hai des Aristoteles".

4613: 1227:(left) was attached by a cord to something like a mammalian 856:

Aristotle has been called unscientific by philosophers from

4330: 4328: 4326: 4083:

The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea

3682:"Seventeenth Century Medical Practice according to Molière" 3577: 3575: 3573: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3521: 3519: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3386: 3384: 3382: 3357: 3355: 3353: 3351: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3328: 3261: 3259: 3074:, but Aristotle saw it as a permanent, eternal arrangement. 3061:

Aristotle did not nest his groups into a hierarchical tree.

2635: 2220: 2023: 1877: 1812: 1673: 1591: 1422: 583: 379: 367: 352: 5004:

Panchen, A. L. (1999). "Homology — History of a Concept".

4918: 4028: 4026: 4024: 2774:("Short treatises on Nature"), is also mainly biological: 980:

shown) to help explain biological processes as mechanisms.

571:, a branching tree of flows of material through the body. 4869: 4764: 3804: 3802: 3723: 3701: 3699: 3096:

Gessner borrowed the title from one of Aristotle's books.

2900: 2493:(Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems) by the 1774: 1418: 579: 4787:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 15. 4619:

Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology

4580: 4473: 4323: 4183: 4135: 3985: 3787: 3608: 3570: 3543: 3531: 3516: 3479: 3396: 3379: 3348: 3325: 3256: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 2912:

Like the ancient Egyptians, Aristotle believed that the

880:– and in the Online Supplementary Information at that". 493:

an information processing model whereby animals receive

4597: 4595: 4059: 4021: 3975: 3973: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3315: 3313: 1923:, defined by a set of functioning "parts"). The birds, 1177:

separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that

464:, Aristotle's biology included five major interlocking 4925:

Rigato, Emanuele; Minelli, Alessandro (28 June 2013).

4376: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4171: 3844: 3834: 3832: 3799: 3751: 3696: 3283: 1123:

and the surrounding seas, including in particular the

180:, no research of comparable scope was carried out in 4881: 4818:

The Heart's Vortex: Intracardiac Blood Flow Phenomena

4671:"Aristotle's Statement on the Reproduction of Sharks" 4434: 4147: 3856: 3210: 3140: 3138: 3015:

It is not safe to assume that species or groups with

1970:

Animals without blood were divided into soft-shelled

632:

26 is sufficiently detailed to permit modelling as a

5089: 4809: 4724: 4712: 4650: 4592: 4009: 3997: 3970: 3658: 3646: 3587: 3504: 3433: 3310: 3006:, Of which it is the nature / To stupefy the senses. 1903:

Animals with blood included live-bearing tetrapods,

948:

has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a

916:

in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term

4435:Fürst von Lieven, Alexander; Humar, Marcel (2008). 4367: 4219: 4159: 3829: 3632:"Aristotle's Lagoon: Embryo Inside a Chicken's Egg" 3271: 3002:: ... The reason is that in opium resides / A 2327:, Averroes criticising Avempace's interpretations. 2211:, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the 333:Aristotle's biology is constructed on the basis of 5920:On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration 4498: 4467: 4397: 4195: 4117:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4113:Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His thought 4110: 3135: 2823:On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration 2528:Zoologists working in the 19th century, including 115:Aristotle's writings on biology, the first in the 6442: 6125: 6048: 4033:Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (10 January 2022). 3458: 2594: 6738: 5333:. Harvard University Press. pp. 1000–1001. 4511:. Boca Raton, Fl: CRC Press. pp. xv + 209. 2677:The deep thinker who would be most amused by .. 810:(literally, breath or spirit) in the semen. The 382:within the fish kind. He sometimes called these 4237: 3083:Scot translated HA, GA, and PA, and all of the 2654:, so he "is often referred to as the father of 2615:of the octopus and the ability of elephants to 2173:, Theophrastus suggests that one kind of plant 217:, and some of his long-derided observations in 68:, including especially his descriptions of the 5381:The works of Aristotle translated into English 4815: 4077: 3890:Rhodes, Frank Harold Trevor (1 January 1974). 2646:, and that marine vertebrates could be either 1303:. Aristotle distinguished animals with blood, 1281:) was one of the many fish named by Aristotle. 6676:History of the creation-evolution controversy 6428: 5418: 4924: 4898: 4896: 4848: 4776: 4392: 3863:Carl T. Bergstrom; Lee Alan Dugatkin (2012). 3820:Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in 3742: 3740: 3738: 3231: 3183: 3070:To a modern biologist, such a scale suggests 2501:proved Aristotle wrong by demonstrating that 2490:Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo 378:, and so on, just as there are many forms of 6196: 5110:"Aristotle's lobster: the image in the text" 5075:. Cambridge University Press. p. viii. 5063: 5061: 5006:Novartis Foundation Symposium 222 - Homology 4852:Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage 4408:(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 3188:Ancient Natural History: Histories of Nature 2850:derive from this, and have related meanings. 1111:(labelled "Calona") where Aristotle studied 221:have been found in modern times to be true. 201:, as well as errors in his theories, caused 197:. The association of his work with medieval 80:, which derives from but is markedly unlike 4855:. Yale University Press. pp. 236–239. 4752:(6th ed.). John Murray. p. xiii. 4441:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 4032: 3052:, but of a different kind from vertebrates. 677:The system worked as follows. The animal's 261:, remaining there for about 20 years. Like 6435: 6421: 5425: 5411: 5360:(1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology". 5270:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science 4904:"A History of the Study of Marine Biology" 4893: 4546:. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. 3883: 3735: 2188: 685:, which Aristotle believed was the heart ( 281:, where he spent about two years, and the 6706:Relationship between religion and science 5259:. Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 261–284. 5143: 5125: 5058: 4969:. Knight Ayton Management. Archived from 4942: 4346: 4293: 4203:The Oxford History of the Classical World 4050: 3934: 3675: 3673: 3452: 3237: 2497:Simplicio ("Simpleton"). That same year, 2454: 2396: 749:(definitely one trait or another), as in 650: 607: 245: 5388: 5374: 4927:"The great chain of being is still here" 4730: 4718: 3717: 2914:seat of the rational and sensitive souls 2603:Elephant swimming, using its trunk as a 2598: 2458: 2400: 2281: 2067: 2026:). Other animals without blood included 1268: 1087: 971: 967: 887: 772: 708: 654: 611: 546: 434: 314: 228: 20: 5328: 5238: 5003: 4959: 4842: 4782: 4621:. Oxford University Press. p. 28. 4405:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 4380: 3289: 2523: 2151:Aristotle's pupil and successor at the 6739: 5356: 5347: 4742: 4668: 4641: 4566: 4539: 4504: 3979: 3889: 3746: 3670: 3652: 3510: 3319: 3156: 2330: 2177:into another, as when a field sown to 2147:Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book) 802:from a cow's stomach) curdles milk in 6416: 6267: 6176: 5406: 5287: 5263: 5251: 5095: 4991: 4887: 4875: 4770: 4656: 4601: 4586: 4334: 4225: 4189: 4177: 4165: 4141: 4105: 4015: 4003: 3991: 3850: 3838: 3808: 3793: 3757: 3729: 3705: 3664: 3626: 3614: 3593: 3581: 3564: 3537: 3525: 3498: 3446: 3402: 3390: 3373: 3361: 3342: 3277: 3265: 3225: 3150: 3144: 2245:Science in the medieval Islamic world 2234: 1083: 1010:. But the real Aristotle did provide 818:then makes the other organs develop. 310: 5974:On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias 5306: 5067: 4386: 4153: 4065: 3414: 2964:Thus features are, in modern terms, 2668:evolutionary developmental biologist 1036:Readers of Aristotle have found the 1021: 5432: 3163:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1156:are detailed, as is his writing on 883: 319:Aristotle argued by analogy with a 13: 6583:Central dogma of molecular biology 6335:Transmission of the Greek Classics 3684:. University of California, Irvine 3679: 2619:with their trunks while swimming. 2140: 2072:Aristotle reported correctly that 896:decreases with body mass, whereas 159:, as well as the lost drawings of 123:. The main biology texts were the 14: 6773: 6009:The Situations and Names of Winds 5214:De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae 4931:Evolution: Education and Outreach 4678:Journal of the History of Biology 3772:, Book V, 541b9-541b12, 544a6-14. 2695:are lost, but referred to in the 2057: 1264: 1249:embryological development of the 1189:(roughly, the modern zoologist's 1185:were part of the group he called 630:Youth and Old Age, Life and Death 621:Youth and Old Age, Life and Death 430: 233:Aristotle spent some 20 years at 6719: 6718: 6395: 6385: 6384: 5218: 5207: 5196: 5185: 5174: 5163: 5152: 4906:. MarineBio Conservation Society 4736: 4543:Astronomy: The Evolving Universe 4505:Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023). 3116: 3099: 2887:In modern terms, this implies a 1209: 1200: 1078:explanations of these same kinds 768: 337:, which is derived from Plato's 5915:On Length and Shortness of Life 4662: 4635: 4607: 4560: 4533: 4340: 4314: 4287: 4278: 4231: 4099: 4071: 3910: 3814: 3775: 3763: 3628:Leroi, Armand Marie (Presenter) 3620: 3599: 3419:. Duckworth. pp. 126–129. 3408: 3295: 3090: 3077: 3064: 3055: 3042: 3009: 2988: 2971: 2958: 2945: 2932: 2919: 2906: 2816:On Length and Shortness of Life 2727:(De Generatione Animalium) (GA) 1115:is in the centre of the island. 1076:. Biologists continue to offer 757:model which was continuous and 16:Aristotle's theories of biology 6608:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis 5505:Correspondence theory of truth 4785:Species: a history of the idea 3177: 3157:Lennox, James (27 July 2011). 2881: 2866: 2853: 2836: 2666:began with Aristotle, and the 2595:20th and 21st century interest 2297:(d. 850), and commented on by 2165:, the first classical book of 1659:, but placenta like tetrapods 704: 532:what Aristotle called the soul 297:later wrote a similar book on 72:of the Pyrrha lagoon, now the 1: 5851:Constitution of the Athenians 5241:A History of Greek Philosophy 4816:Pasipoularides, Ares (2010). 3129: 2903:which give form to organisms. 2376:. Later in the 13th century, 2076:were able to stun their prey. 1311:) and animals without blood, 542: 497:information, alter it in the 5753:On Generation and Corruption 5314:. Harvard University Press. 4576:. Frankfurt: Wilhelm Fitzer. 4422:UK public library membership 4399:"Wotton, Edward (1492–1555)" 4085:. Harvard University Press. 3923:Mediterranean Marine Science 2916:was the heart, not the brain 2743:(De Partibus Animalium) (PA) 2135: 2104:On Generation and Corruption 1219:Aristotle recorded that the 852:History of scientific method 537: 39:change colour when disturbed 7: 5395:On Aristotle as a biologist 5288:Mason, Stephen F. (1962) . 5170:De Memoria et Reminiscentia 4353:. Springer. pp. 502–. 4052:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1 3896:. Golden Press. p. 7. 3823:Oxford Classical Dictionary 3417:Aristotle on Life and Death 3113:, some two millennia later. 2755:(De Incessu Animalium) (IA) 121:writings that have survived 10: 6778: 5994:On Marvellous Things Heard 5613:Potentiality and actuality 5390:Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth 5376:Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth 5363:Greek Biology and Medicine 5352:. Oxford University Press. 5350:A Short History of Biology 5245:Cambridge University Press 5239:Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). 5232: 5127:10.1007/s12064-020-00322-6 4396:; Wallis, Patrick (2004). 4347:Lagerlund, Henrik (2010). 3376:, pp. 79–80, 143–145. 3238:Pellegrin, Pierre (1986). 3035:means any of 4 species of 2981:(whales and dolphins) and 2334: 2293:The book was mentioned by 2238: 2195:Medicine in ancient Greece 2192: 2144: 2061: 1626:(Among egg-laying fishes): 1032:Tinbergen's four questions 1025: 849: 723: 530:The five processes formed 487:, but which progressively 446: 393: 343: 326: 224: 99:, information processing, 6714: 6636: 6568: 6455: 6380: 6357:Commentaries on Aristotle 6327: 6041: 5944: 5928: 5880: 5859: 5825: 5809: 5771: 5733: 5690: 5681: 5466: 5440: 5290:A History of the Sciences 5203:De Divinatione per Somnum 5014:10.1002/9780470515655.ch2 4617:; Medawar, J. S. (1984). 3720:, p. Prefatory Note. 3473:10.1163/15685284-12341242 2938:In modern terms, this is 2719:(Historia Animalium) (HA) 2449:De differentiis animalium 2319:(Ibn Rushd) commented on 2231:while the former do not. 2227:, noting that the latter 2006:); and divisible animals 1058:biologist, such teleology 845: 821:Aristotle asserts in his 619:: Leroi's model based on 425: 76:. His theory is based on 5348:Singer, Charles (1931). 5159:De Sensu et Sensibilibus 4994:, pp. 3 and passim. 4967:"Professor Armand Leroi" 4669:Bodson, Liliane (1983). 4540:Zeilik, Michael (2002). 4294:Contadini, Anna (2012). 4244:. Brill. pp. 288–. 4238:Hoffman, Eva R. (2013). 2878:, I form, give shape to. 2829: 2735:(De Motu Animalium) (DM) 2685: 2080:Aristotle stated in the 2054:was in its "own group". 1804:Spontaneously generating 1307:(the modern zoologist's 405:(which includes various 253:(384–322 BC) studied at 6752:Philosophy of Aristotle 5725:Sophistical Refutations 5331:The Classical Tradition 4207:Oxford University Press 3826:, 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92. 3784:, Book I, 720b16-721a2. 3415:King, R. A. H. (2001). 2381:became associated with 2321:On the Parts of Animals 2273:On the Parts of Animals 2209:Herophilus of Chalcedon 2189:On Hellenistic medicine 2094:or great chain of being 1963:(sharks and rays), had 1048:) and formal cause are 485:maintain a steady state 174:, who wrote a matching 25:Among Aristotle's many 6628:Spontaneous generation 6578:Germ theory of disease 6555:Zoology (through 1859) 5910:On Divination in Sleep 5596:Horror vacui (physics) 4944:10.1186/1936-6434-6-18 4849:Forbes, Peter (2009). 4783:Wilkins, John (2009). 4414:10.1093/ref:odnb/29999 4039:Comptes Rendus Palevol 3958:Cite journal requires 3869:. Norton. p. 35. 3192:. Routledge. pp. 3184:French, Roger (1994). 2809:On Divination in Sleep 2752:On the Gait of Animals 2748:Progression of Animals 2716:Inquiries into Animals 2683: 2608: 2472: 2455:Early Modern rejection 2422: 2397:On Renaissance science 2360:emerged into European 2290: 2077: 1414:Live-bearing tetrapods 1282: 1257:those species, indeed 1116: 1064:under the pressure of 981: 909: 784: 721: 699:sensory-motor coupling 672:information processing 667: 660:Information processing 651:Information processing 624: 617:Temperature regulation 608:Temperature regulation 567:can be modelled as an 559: 525:spontaneous generation 481:temperature regulation 459:evolutionary biologist 444: 441:structure of the souls 324: 246:Aristotle's background 242: 170:Apart from his pupil, 163:which accompanied the 144:Progression of Animals 97:temperature regulation 42: 6762:Ancient Greek science 6649:Philosophy of biology 6402:Philosophy portal 6024:Rhetoric to Alexander 5114:Theory in Biosciences 4517:10.1201/9781003092827 3782:Generation of Animals 3165:. Stanford University 3159:"Aristotle's Biology" 2953:nature-nurture debate 2724:Generation of Animals 2675: 2607:, as Aristotle stated 2602: 2572:The Origin of Species 2534:Johannes Peter Müller 2462: 2404: 2343:Alfonso VI of Castile 2335:Further information: 2325:Generation of Animals 2285: 2277:Generation of Animals 2239:Further information: 2193:Further information: 2071: 2062:Further information: 1272: 1091: 1070:developmental biology 1050:what something is for 1012:biological mechanisms 991:The Imaginary Invalid 975: 968:Mechanism and analogy 922:Generation of Animals 912:Aristotle did not do 891: 850:Further information: 787:Aristotle's model of 776: 712: 658: 615: 595:subdivided into atoms 550: 521:embryonic development 449:Soul § Aristotle 438: 386:, indivisible forms. 318: 232: 132:Generation of Animals 24: 6681:Human Genome Project 6593:Great chain of being 6560:Zoology (since 1859) 6495:Evolutionary thought 6465:Agricultural science 6113:Andronicus of Rhodes 6014:On Virtues and Vices 5969:On Indivisible Lines 5890:Sense and Sensibilia 5860:Rhetoric and poetics 5673:mathematical realism 5358:Taylor, Henry Osborn 3943:"Supplementary data" 3732:, pp. 196, 248. 2780:Sense and Sensibilia 2550:classically educated 2524:19th century revival 2215:, and connected the 2119:(cold and wet); and 2064:Great chain of being 1734:Hard-shelled animals 1585:except scales, eggs 1550:except scales, eggs 1521:Egg-laying tetrapods 1339:(given by Aristotle) 1329:(highest to lowest) 1138:His observations on 1000:dormitive principle 834:The Parts of Animals 726:Telegony (pregnancy) 6686:Humboldtian science 6623:Sequence hypothesis 6530:Molecular evolution 6083:Strato of Lampsacus 5715:Posterior Analytics 5467:Ideas and interests 5265:Leroi, Armand Marie 5253:Leroi, Armand Marie 5181:De Somno et Vigilia 4878:, pp. 137–138. 4773:, pp. 272–275. 4589:, pp. 355–361. 4337:, pp. 354–355. 4192:, pp. 296–297. 4068:, pp. 201–202. 3994:, pp. 111–119. 3796:, pp. 384–385. 3680:Becker, Barbara J. 3617:, pp. 361–365. 3605:Taylor, 1922. p. 42 3584:, pp. 365–368. 3567:, pp. 369–373. 3540:, pp. 181–182. 3528:, pp. 197–200. 3501:, pp. 215–221. 3405:, pp. 176–177. 3393:, pp. 403–404. 3364:, pp. 261–284. 3345:, pp. 400–401. 3268:, pp. 370–373. 2732:Movement of Animals 2374:Thomas of Cantimpré 2341:When the Christian 2331:On medieval science 2309:The Book of Healing 2263:) is a 9th-century 1330: 1231:(right), in fact a 1109:lagoon near Kalloni 934:testable hypotheses 457:As analysed by the 304:Enquiry into Plants 205:scientists such as 177:Enquiry into Plants 138:Movement of Animals 78:his concept of form 46:Aristotle's biology 6757:History of zoology 6747:History of biology 6696:Natural philosophy 6644:History of science 6444:History of biology 6127:Islamic Golden Age 6050:Peripatetic school 5836:Nicomachean Ethics 5531:Future contingents 5398:. Clarendon Press. 5384:. Clarendon Press. 4973:on 24 October 2013 4690:10.1007/bf00582408 4480:Fish and Fisheries 4144:, p. 276–278. 3936:10.12681/mms.13874 3770:History of Animals 3107:Captain James Cook 2712:History of Animals 2697:History of Animals 2609: 2548:in 1910, making a 2546:History of Animals 2473: 2440:Historia Animalium 2423: 2418:Historia Animalium 2387:natural philosophy 2301:(Ibn Sīnā) in his 2291: 2269:History of Animals 2235:On Islamic zoology 2181:turns to the weed 2082:History of Animals 2078: 1905:Zōiotoka tetrapoda 1322: 1295:History of Animals 1283: 1117: 1084:Empirical research 982: 910: 871:History of Animals 827:that according to 785: 751:Mendelian genetics 722: 689:) rather than the 668: 664:seat of perception 625: 560: 503:to drive movements 483:, whereby animals 445: 335:his theory of form 325: 311:Aristotelian forms 243: 126:History of Animals 117:history of science 43: 6732: 6731: 6598:Hierarchy of life 6545:Plant systematics 6525:Molecular biology 6410: 6409: 6362:Metabasis paradox 6323: 6322: 6263: 6262: 6250:Pietro Pomponazzi 6192: 6191: 6172: 6171: 6121: 6120: 6073:Eudemus of Rhodes 6063:Clearchus of Soli 6037: 6036: 5705:On Interpretation 5648:Temporal finitism 5536:Genus–differentia 5493:Category of being 5370:on 27 March 2006. 5340:978-0-674-07227-5 5321:978-0-674-36446-2 5292:. P. F. Collier. 5280:978-1-4088-3622-4 5071:(February 2017). 4862:978-0-300-12539-9 4827:978-1-60795-033-2 4794:978-0-520-27139-5 4553:978-0-521-80090-7 4526:978-1-003-09282-7 4492:10.1111/faf.12223 4420:(Subscription or 4360:978-1-4020-9728-7 4251:978-90-04-25034-5 4180:, pp. 32–33. 4156:, pp. 90–91. 3903:978-0-307-64360-5 3876:978-0-393-92592-0 3853:, pp. 46–47. 3811:, pp. 72–74. 3760:, pp. 71–72. 3708:, pp. 91–92. 3426:978-0-7156-2982-6 3228:, pp. 88–90. 2925:Corresponding to 2765:(De Anima) (DA). 2613:active camouflage 2589:natural selection 2427:Pietro Pomponazzi 2385:. The scholastic 2350:Kingdom of Toledo 2162:History of Plants 1933:Ōiotoka tetrapoda 1901: 1900: 1621:, including eggs 1066:natural selection 1022:Complex causality 683:seat of sensation 634:negative feedback 519:the processes of 499:seat of sensation 277:of the island of 48:is the theory of 6769: 6722: 6721: 6701:Natural theology 6437: 6430: 6423: 6414: 6413: 6400: 6399: 6398: 6388: 6387: 6265: 6264: 6245:Jacopo Zabarella 6194: 6193: 6174: 6173: 6123: 6122: 6103:Diodorus of Tyre 6046: 6045: 5688: 5687: 5618:Substance theory 5579:Moderate realism 5573:Minima naturalia 5474:Active intellect 5427: 5420: 5413: 5404: 5403: 5399: 5385: 5371: 5366:. Archived from 5353: 5344: 5325: 5303: 5284: 5260: 5248: 5227: 5222: 5216: 5211: 5205: 5200: 5194: 5189: 5183: 5178: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5129: 5105: 5099: 5093: 5087: 5086: 5065: 5056: 5055: 5049: 5045: 5043: 5035: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4978: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4946: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4900: 4891: 4885: 4879: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4813: 4807: 4806: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4761: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4722: 4716: 4710: 4709: 4675: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4590: 4584: 4578: 4577: 4564: 4558: 4557: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4502: 4496: 4495: 4486:(6): 1038–1055. 4471: 4465: 4464: 4432: 4426: 4425: 4417: 4401: 4390: 4384: 4378: 4365: 4364: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4321: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4291: 4285: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4269: 4265: 4263: 4255: 4235: 4229: 4223: 4217: 4199: 4193: 4187: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4116: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4075: 4069: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4030: 4019: 4013: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3983: 3977: 3968: 3967: 3961: 3956: 3954: 3946: 3940: 3938: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3887: 3881: 3880: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3827: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3797: 3791: 3785: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3755: 3749: 3744: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3694: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3677: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3641: 3639: 3624: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3568: 3562: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3477: 3476: 3456: 3450: 3444: 3431: 3430: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3377: 3371: 3365: 3359: 3346: 3340: 3323: 3317: 3308: 3299: 3293: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3254: 3253: 3235: 3229: 3223: 3208: 3207: 3191: 3181: 3175: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3123: 3120: 3114: 3103: 3097: 3094: 3088: 3081: 3075: 3068: 3062: 3059: 3053: 3046: 3040: 3013: 3007: 3004:dormitive virtue 2992: 2986: 2975: 2969: 2962: 2956: 2949: 2943: 2936: 2930: 2923: 2917: 2910: 2904: 2885: 2879: 2870: 2864: 2857: 2851: 2842:The English and 2840: 2740:Parts of Animals 2559:quoted a passage 2503:blood circulates 2337:Medieval science 2315:(Ibn Bājja) and 2267:translation of 2256:Kitāb al-Hayawān 2241:Kitāb al-Hayawān 1986:); hard-shelled 1897: 1893: 1867: 1863: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1798: 1794: 1763:(mineral shell) 1762: 1758: 1728: 1724: 1693: 1689: 1658: 1654: 1620: 1616: 1584: 1580: 1549: 1545: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1476: 1472: 1442: 1438: 1408: 1404: 1377: 1373: 1368: 1364: 1331: 1321: 1300:Parts of Animals 1287:actinopterygians 1213: 1204: 1106: 1004:virtus dormitiva 958:gestation period 884:Scientific style 866:system of causes 839:vertebral column 565:Parts of Animals 489:fails in old age 396: 395: 346: 345: 150:Parts of Animals 60:'s books on the 6777: 6776: 6772: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6737: 6736: 6733: 6728: 6710: 6691:Natural history 6632: 6570: 6564: 6520:Model organisms 6457: 6451: 6441: 6411: 6406: 6396: 6394: 6376: 6319: 6259: 6255:Cesar Cremonini 6211:Albertus Magnus 6188: 6168: 6117: 6033: 5989:Physiognomonics 5984:On Things Heard 5979:On the Universe 5940: 5924: 5882:Parva Naturalia 5876: 5855: 5841:Eudemian Ethics 5821: 5805: 5767: 5729: 5710:Prior Analytics 5677: 5601:Rational animal 5462: 5436: 5434:Aristotelianism 5431: 5341: 5322: 5300: 5281: 5243:. Vol. 1. 5235: 5230: 5223: 5219: 5212: 5208: 5201: 5197: 5190: 5186: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5164: 5157: 5153: 5106: 5102: 5094: 5090: 5083: 5066: 5059: 5047: 5046: 5037: 5036: 5024: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4976: 4974: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4923: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4902: 4901: 4894: 4886: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4863: 4847: 4843: 4828: 4814: 4810: 4795: 4781: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4744:Darwin, Charles 4741: 4737: 4729: 4725: 4717: 4713: 4673: 4667: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4612: 4608: 4600: 4593: 4585: 4581: 4568:Harvey, William 4565: 4561: 4554: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4503: 4499: 4472: 4468: 4433: 4429: 4419: 4391: 4387: 4379: 4368: 4361: 4345: 4341: 4333: 4324: 4319: 4315: 4308: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4279: 4267: 4266: 4257: 4256: 4252: 4236: 4232: 4224: 4220: 4200: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4176: 4172: 4164: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4107:Lloyd, G. E. R. 4104: 4100: 4093: 4076: 4072: 4064: 4060: 4031: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3971: 3959: 3957: 3948: 3947: 3941: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3888: 3884: 3877: 3861: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3837: 3830: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3800: 3792: 3788: 3780: 3776: 3768: 3764: 3756: 3752: 3745: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3716: 3712: 3704: 3697: 3687: 3685: 3678: 3671: 3663: 3659: 3651: 3647: 3637: 3635: 3625: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3571: 3563: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3524: 3517: 3509: 3505: 3497: 3480: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3434: 3427: 3413: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3389: 3380: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3349: 3341: 3326: 3318: 3311: 3300: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3257: 3250: 3236: 3232: 3224: 3211: 3204: 3182: 3178: 3168: 3166: 3155: 3151: 3143: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3091: 3085:Parva Naturalia 3082: 3078: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3047: 3043: 3014: 3010: 2998: 2993: 2989: 2976: 2972: 2963: 2959: 2950: 2946: 2937: 2933: 2924: 2920: 2911: 2907: 2889:symbolic system 2886: 2882: 2871: 2867: 2858: 2854: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2771:Parva Naturalia 2688: 2679:deep homologies 2673:commented that 2597: 2542:D'Arcy Thompson 2526: 2485:Aristotelianism 2457: 2399: 2370:Albertus Magnus 2339: 2333: 2287:Albertus Magnus 2261:Book of Animals 2259:(كتاب الحيوان, 2247: 2237: 2197: 2191: 2149: 2143: 2141:On Theophrastus 2138: 2115:(hot and wet); 2111:(hot and dry); 2066: 2060: 1998:); soft-bodied 1895: 1891: 1865: 1861: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1796: 1792: 1760: 1756: 1726: 1722: 1691: 1687: 1656: 1652: 1643:with blood 1627: 1618: 1614: 1605:with blood 1582: 1578: 1569:with blood 1547: 1543: 1534:with blood 1512: 1508: 1504: 1495:with blood 1474: 1470: 1461:with blood 1440: 1436: 1427:with blood 1406: 1402: 1393:with blood 1375: 1371: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1360: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1338: 1267: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1216: 1215: 1214: 1206: 1205: 1100: 1086: 1034: 1026:Main articles: 1024: 970: 956:increases with 886: 854: 848: 771: 728: 707: 653: 610: 582:, whether soft 545: 540: 512:the process of 455: 447:Main articles: 433: 428: 339:theory of Forms 331: 313: 275:natural history 255:Plato's Academy 248: 235:Plato's academy 227: 86:theory of Forms 74:Gulf of Kalloni 17: 12: 11: 5: 6775: 6765: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6726: 6715: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6657: 6656: 6646: 6640: 6638: 6634: 6633: 6631: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6563: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6461: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6440: 6439: 6432: 6425: 6417: 6408: 6407: 6405: 6404: 6392: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6374: 6369: 6367:Views on women 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6328:Related topics 6325: 6324: 6321: 6320: 6318: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6271: 6269: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6240:Peter of Spain 6237: 6236: 6235: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6216:Thomas Aquinas 6213: 6208: 6202: 6200: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6180: 6178: 6170: 6169: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6164: 6154: 6153: 6152: 6142: 6137: 6131: 6129: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6093:Aristo of Ceos 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6054: 6052: 6043: 6039: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5950: 5948: 5946:Pseudepigrapha 5942: 5941: 5939: 5938: 5932: 5930: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5886: 5884: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5869: 5863: 5861: 5857: 5856: 5854: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5832: 5830: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5819: 5813: 5811: 5807: 5806: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5777: 5775: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5748:On the Heavens 5745: 5739: 5737: 5731: 5730: 5728: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5696: 5694: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5638: 5633: 5615: 5610: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5569: 5562: 5557: 5550: 5545: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5516: 5507: 5502: 5495: 5490: 5483: 5480:Antiperistasis 5476: 5470: 5468: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5444: 5442: 5438: 5437: 5430: 5429: 5422: 5415: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5386: 5372: 5354: 5345: 5339: 5326: 5320: 5304: 5298: 5285: 5279: 5273:. Bloomsbury. 5261: 5249: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5228: 5217: 5206: 5195: 5184: 5173: 5162: 5151: 5100: 5088: 5082:978-1316601211 5081: 5069:Held, Lewis I. 5057: 5048:|journal= 5022: 4996: 4984: 4958: 4917: 4892: 4890:, p. 352. 4880: 4868: 4861: 4841: 4826: 4808: 4793: 4775: 4763: 4735: 4723: 4711: 4684:(3): 391–407. 4661: 4659:, p. 361. 4649: 4634: 4628:978-0192830432 4627: 4615:Medawar, P. B. 4606: 4604:, p. 353. 4591: 4579: 4573:De Motu Cordis 4559: 4552: 4532: 4525: 4497: 4466: 4447:(2): 227–262. 4427: 4394:Pollard, A. F. 4385: 4366: 4359: 4339: 4322: 4313: 4306: 4286: 4277: 4250: 4230: 4218: 4194: 4182: 4170: 4158: 4146: 4134: 4127: 4098: 4091: 4079:Lovejoy, A. O. 4070: 4058: 4020: 4018:, p. 116. 4008: 4006:, p. 279. 3996: 3984: 3969: 3960:|journal= 3929:(3): 468–478. 3909: 3902: 3882: 3875: 3855: 3843: 3828: 3813: 3798: 3786: 3774: 3762: 3750: 3734: 3722: 3710: 3695: 3669: 3667:, p. 408. 3657: 3645: 3630:(3 May 2011). 3619: 3607: 3598: 3596:, p. 397. 3586: 3569: 3542: 3530: 3515: 3503: 3478: 3451: 3449:, p. 402. 3432: 3425: 3407: 3395: 3378: 3366: 3347: 3324: 3309: 3294: 3292:, p. 348. 3282: 3270: 3255: 3248: 3230: 3209: 3202: 3176: 3149: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3124: 3115: 3111:Charles Darwin 3098: 3089: 3076: 3063: 3054: 3041: 3027:is definitely 3008: 2987: 2977:Excluding the 2970: 2957: 2944: 2931: 2918: 2905: 2880: 2865: 2852: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2805: 2798: 2791: 2784: 2759:together with 2757: 2756: 2744: 2736: 2728: 2720: 2687: 2684: 2656:marine biology 2596: 2593: 2556:Charles Darwin 2530:Georges Cuvier 2525: 2522: 2499:William Harvey 2456: 2453: 2435:Konrad Gessner 2413:Konrad Gessner 2398: 2395: 2378:Thomas Aquinas 2332: 2329: 2307:(کتاب الشفاء, 2236: 2233: 2217:nervous system 2190: 2187: 2145:Main article: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2059: 2058:Scale of being 2056: 1907:(roughly, the 1899: 1898: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1806: 1800: 1799: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1781: 1772: 1768:Larva-bearing 1765: 1764: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1711: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1676: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1632: 1623: 1622: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1594: 1587: 1586: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1558: 1552: 1551: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1493: 1484: 1478: 1477: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1450: 1444: 1443: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1416: 1410: 1409: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1386: 1380: 1379: 1357: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1335: 1266: 1265:Classification 1263: 1218: 1217: 1208: 1207: 1199: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1195: 1174:hectocotyl arm 1170:paper nautilus 1160:including the 1113:marine zoology 1098:Giacomo Franco 1085: 1082: 1056:: to a modern 1023: 1020: 969: 966: 885: 882: 847: 844: 770: 767: 706: 703: 687:cardiocentrism 652: 649: 637:control system 609: 606: 544: 541: 539: 536: 528: 527: 517: 510: 491: 477: 432: 431:Soul as system 429: 427: 424: 409:) in another. 327:Main article: 312: 309: 247: 244: 226: 223: 219:marine biology 211:William Harvey 182:ancient Greece 70:marine biology 56:, embodied in 31:marine biology 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6774: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6744: 6742: 6735: 6725: 6717: 6716: 6713: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6635: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6567: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6480:Biotechnology 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6454: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6433: 6431: 6426: 6424: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6403: 6393: 6391: 6383: 6382: 6379: 6373: 6372:Wheel paradox 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6326: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6280:Trendelenburg 6278: 6276: 6273: 6272: 6270: 6266: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6229: 6226: 6222: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6206:Peter Lombard 6204: 6203: 6201: 6199: 6198:Scholasticism 6195: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6175: 6163: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6155: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6124: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6088:Lyco of Troas 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6047: 6044: 6040: 6030: 6029:Magna Moralia 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5943: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5927: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5887: 5885: 5883: 5879: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5862: 5858: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5776: 5774: 5770: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5736: 5732: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5693: 5689: 5686: 5684: 5680: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5668:Virtue ethics 5666: 5664: 5663:Unmoved mover 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5591: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5570: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5543: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5488: 5484: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5465: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5423: 5421: 5416: 5414: 5409: 5408: 5405: 5397: 5396: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5299:0-02-093400-9 5295: 5291: 5286: 5282: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5236: 5226: 5221: 5215: 5210: 5204: 5199: 5193: 5188: 5182: 5177: 5171: 5166: 5160: 5155: 5146: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5104: 5098:, p. 60. 5097: 5092: 5084: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5062: 5053: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5023:9780470515655 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4954: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4921: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4889: 4884: 4877: 4872: 4864: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4786: 4779: 4772: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4739: 4732: 4731:Thompson 1913 4727: 4720: 4719:Thompson 1910 4715: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4665: 4658: 4653: 4645: 4638: 4630: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4610: 4603: 4598: 4596: 4588: 4583: 4575: 4574: 4569: 4563: 4555: 4549: 4545: 4544: 4536: 4528: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4509: 4501: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4431: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4406: 4400: 4395: 4389: 4382: 4377: 4375: 4373: 4371: 4362: 4356: 4352: 4351: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4317: 4309: 4307:9789004222656 4303: 4299: 4298: 4290: 4281: 4273: 4261: 4253: 4247: 4243: 4242: 4234: 4228:, p. 56. 4227: 4222: 4216: 4215:0-19-872112-9 4212: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4191: 4186: 4179: 4174: 4168:, p. 46. 4167: 4162: 4155: 4150: 4143: 4138: 4130: 4128:0-521-09456-9 4124: 4120: 4115: 4114: 4108: 4102: 4094: 4092:0-674-36153-9 4088: 4084: 4080: 4074: 4067: 4062: 4053: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4017: 4012: 4005: 4000: 3993: 3988: 3982:, p. 54. 3981: 3976: 3974: 3965: 3952: 3944: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3894: 3886: 3878: 3872: 3868: 3867: 3859: 3852: 3847: 3841:, p. 59. 3840: 3835: 3833: 3825: 3824: 3817: 3810: 3805: 3803: 3795: 3790: 3783: 3778: 3771: 3766: 3759: 3754: 3748: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3731: 3726: 3719: 3718:Thompson 1910 3714: 3707: 3702: 3700: 3683: 3676: 3674: 3666: 3661: 3655:, p. 49. 3654: 3649: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3616: 3611: 3602: 3595: 3590: 3583: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3566: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3539: 3534: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3513:, p. 50. 3512: 3507: 3500: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3428: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3404: 3399: 3392: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3375: 3370: 3363: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3352: 3344: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3322:, p. 46. 3321: 3316: 3314: 3306: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3286: 3280:, p. 45. 3279: 3274: 3267: 3262: 3260: 3251: 3245: 3241: 3234: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3205: 3203:0-415-11545-0 3199: 3195: 3190: 3189: 3180: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3147:, p. 14. 3146: 3141: 3139: 3134: 3119: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3093: 3086: 3080: 3073: 3067: 3058: 3051: 3045: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3017:Linnean names 3012: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2984: 2980: 2974: 2967: 2961: 2954: 2948: 2941: 2935: 2928: 2922: 2915: 2909: 2902: 2899:"letters" of 2898: 2894: 2890: 2884: 2877: 2876: 2869: 2862: 2856: 2849: 2845: 2839: 2835: 2825: 2824: 2820: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2811: 2810: 2806: 2804: 2803: 2799: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2790: 2789: 2785: 2782: 2781: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2772: 2766: 2764: 2763: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2726: 2725: 2721: 2718: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2708: 2707: 2705: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2693:The Anatomies 2682: 2680: 2674: 2672: 2671:Lewis I. Held 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2601: 2592: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2573: 2568: 2566: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2538:Louis Agassiz 2535: 2531: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2510:Peter Medawar 2506: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2470: 2465: 2461: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2445:Edward Wotton 2442: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2431:Agostino Nifo 2428: 2420: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2409: 2403: 2394: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2383:scholasticism 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2364:scholarship. 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2344: 2338: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2304:Kitāb al-Šifā 2300: 2296: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2278: 2275:: 11–14, and 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2257: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2232: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2196: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2175:can transform 2172: 2171:scala naturae 2168: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2154: 2148: 2133: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2099:four elements 2096: 2095: 2093: 2092:scala naturae 2087: 2083: 2075: 2074:electric rays 2070: 2065: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1837:, from earth 1825: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1766: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1743:trumpet snail 1740: 1737: 1735: 1732: 1731: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1697: 1694:except shell 1686: 1683: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1668: 1666: 1663: 1662: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1633: 1631: 1625: 1624: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1589: 1588: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1565:Ottoman viper 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1435: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1358: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1336: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1327: 1326:Scala naturae 1320: 1318: 1317:invertebrates 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1247:ovoviviparous 1245:, and of the 1244: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1212: 1203: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1144:electric fish 1141: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1114: 1110: 1104: 1099: 1095: 1090: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1033: 1029: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 994:portrays the 993: 992: 988:'s 1673 play 987: 979: 974: 965: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 942: 937: 935: 931: 925: 923: 919: 915: 907: 903: 899: 895: 890: 881: 879: 878: 873: 872: 867: 863: 859: 858:Francis Bacon 853: 843: 840: 836: 835: 830: 826: 825: 819: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 792: 790: 789:embryogenesis 783: 779: 778:Embryogenesis 775: 769:Embryogenesis 766: 762: 760: 756: 753:, unlike the 752: 748: 742: 740: 739: 731: 727: 719: 715: 711: 702: 700: 694: 692: 688: 684: 680: 675: 673: 665: 661: 657: 648: 644: 640: 638: 635: 631: 622: 618: 614: 605: 602: 600: 596: 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 572: 570: 566: 557: 553: 549: 535: 533: 526: 522: 518: 515: 511: 508: 504: 501:, and use it 500: 496: 492: 490: 486: 482: 478: 475: 471: 470: 469: 467: 463: 460: 454: 450: 442: 437: 423: 420: 416: 410: 408: 404: 400: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 356: 354: 350: 340: 336: 330: 322: 317: 308: 306: 305: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 252: 240: 236: 231: 222: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 199:scholasticism 196: 191: 187: 183: 179: 178: 173: 168: 166: 162: 161:The Anatomies 158: 157: 152: 151: 146: 145: 140: 139: 134: 133: 128: 127: 122: 118: 113: 110: 106: 102: 101:embryogenesis 98: 94: 89: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 40: 36: 33:was that the 32: 28: 23: 19: 6734: 6535:Paleontology 6475:Biochemistry 6352:Neoplatonism 6078:Theophrastus 5936:Protrepticus 5829:and politics 5772: 5640: 5627: 5623:hypokeimenon 5621: 5605: 5588: 5571: 5564: 5552: 5548:Hylomorphism 5540: 5518: 5497: 5485: 5478: 5394: 5380: 5368:the original 5362: 5349: 5330: 5311: 5289: 5269: 5256: 5240: 5220: 5209: 5198: 5192:De Insomniis 5187: 5176: 5165: 5154: 5117: 5113: 5103: 5091: 5072: 5005: 4999: 4987: 4975:. 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Retrieved 3162: 3152: 3118: 3101: 3092: 3084: 3079: 3066: 3057: 3044: 3032: 3024: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2995:First Doctor 2994: 2990: 2973: 2960: 2947: 2934: 2921: 2908: 2893:Armand Leroi 2883: 2873: 2868: 2855: 2838: 2821: 2814: 2807: 2800: 2793: 2786: 2778: 2769: 2767: 2760: 2758: 2751: 2747: 2738: 2730: 2722: 2715: 2711: 2703: 2701: 2696: 2692: 2689: 2676: 2660:Armand Leroi 2621: 2610: 2570: 2564: 2563:Aristotle's 2554: 2545: 2527: 2507: 2488: 2483:represented 2477:Early Modern 2474: 2467: 2448: 2438: 2424: 2416: 2407: 2390: 2366:Michael Scot 2340: 2324: 2320: 2308: 2302: 2292: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2198: 2170: 2160: 2159:, wrote the 2157:Theophrastus 2150: 2102: 2091: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2079: 2040:sea anemones 2032:hermit crabs 2007: 1999: 1988:Ostrakoderma 1987: 1972:Malakostraka 1971: 1969: 1960: 1956: 1948: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1921:megista genē 1920: 1916: 1904: 1902: 1681:Several legs 1324: 1323:Aristotle's 1312: 1304: 1298: 1294: 1284: 1274: 1240: 1186: 1147: 1137: 1118: 1107:(1597). The 1035: 1003: 989: 983: 938: 926: 921: 918:pepeiramenoi 917: 911: 875: 869: 855: 832: 822: 820: 815: 811: 807: 804:cheesemaking 793: 786: 777: 763: 743: 737: 736:the form or 732: 729: 713: 695: 676: 670:Aristotle's 669: 659: 645: 641: 629: 626: 620: 616: 603: 592: 576:element fire 573: 564: 561: 551: 529: 462:Armand Leroi 456: 418: 411: 406: 402: 398: 383: 357: 348: 332: 329:Hylomorphism 303: 295:Theophrastus 265:, he sought 249: 203:Early Modern 194: 175: 172:Theophrastus 169: 164: 160: 154: 148: 142: 136: 130: 124: 114: 90: 45: 44: 27:observations 18: 6661:Ethnobotany 6550:RNA biology 6458:disciplines 6228:Duns Scotus 6068:Dicaearchus 6058:Aristoxenus 5817:Metaphysics 5810:Metaphysics 5796:Progression 5763:On the Soul 5758:Meteorology 5560:Magnanimity 5526:Four causes 5308:Mayr, Ernst 5120:(1): 1–15. 4937:(18): 1–6. 4910:19 November 4268:|work= 4045:(1): 1–16. 3980:Taylor 1922 3747:Singer 1931 3688:20 November 3653:Taylor 1922 3638:17 November 3511:Taylor 1922 3320:Taylor 1922 3301:Aristotle, 3169:28 November 3050:haemoglobin 3037:grey mullet 2940:homeostasis 2872:From Latin 2762:On the Soul 2628:echinoderms 2624:crustaceans 2581:Empedoclean 2544:translated 2391:On the Soul 2052:sea anemone 2004:cephalopods 1700:Cephalopods 1665:Crustaceans 1590:Egg-laying 1561:Water snake 1356:Vegetative) 1309:vertebrates 1259:vivisecting 1158:cephalopods 1154:angler fish 1101: [ 1046:final cause 1038:four causes 1028:Four causes 914:experiments 862:explanation 782:Peter Panum 755:Hippocratic 747:particulate 714:Inheritance 705:Inheritance 679:sense organ 569:open system 556:open system 514:inheritance 479:a cycle of 453:On the Soul 415:woodcarving 321:woodcarving 283:marine life 195:On the Soul 186:Hellenistic 156:On the Soul 105:inheritance 6741:Categories 6603:Lamarckism 6510:Immunology 6310:Hursthouse 6184:Maimonides 6150:Avicennism 5801:Generation 5773:On Animals 5700:Categories 5520:Eudaimonia 5096:Leroi 2014 4992:Leroi 2014 4888:Leroi 2014 4876:Leroi 2014 4771:Leroi 2014 4657:Leroi 2014 4646:: 187–257. 4602:Leroi 2014 4587:Leroi 2014 4424:required.) 4335:Leroi 2014 4226:Mason 1962 4190:Leroi 2014 4178:Leroi 2014 4166:Mason 1962 4142:Leroi 2014 4016:Leroi 2014 4004:Leroi 2014 3992:Leroi 2014 3851:Leroi 2014 3839:Leroi 2014 3809:Leroi 2014 3794:Leroi 2014 3758:Leroi 2014 3730:Leroi 2014 3706:Leroi 2014 3665:Leroi 2014 3615:Leroi 2014 3594:Leroi 2014 3582:Leroi 2014 3565:Leroi 2014 3538:Leroi 2014 3526:Leroi 2014 3499:Leroi 2014 3447:Leroi 2014 3403:Leroi 2014 3391:Leroi 2014 3374:Leroi 2014 3362:Leroi 2010 3343:Leroi 2014 3278:Mason 1962 3266:Leroi 2014 3249:0520055020 3226:Leroi 2014 3145:Leroi 2014 3130:References 2983:Chiroptera 2966:sex-linked 2897:nucleotide 2704:On Animals 2652:viviparous 2408:Rhinoceros 2203:under the 2201:Alexandria 1992:gastropods 1965:cartilages 1941:amphibians 1630:selachians 1628:placental 1601:parrotfish 1354:Sensitive, 1352:(Rational, 1291:selachians 1191:selachians 1166:cuttlefish 1129:beekeepers 1074:physiology 1062:adaptation 1060:describes 894:brood size 829:Empedocles 724:See also: 599:Democritus 554:: Leroi's 552:Metabolism 543:Metabolism 384:atoma eidē 271:philosophy 267:universals 215:zoologists 109:mechanisms 93:metabolism 54:zoological 6671:Dysgenics 6654:Teleology 6618:RNA world 6613:Protocell 6588:Darwinism 6569:Theories, 6540:Phycology 6345:Platonism 6300:MacIntyre 6162:Averroism 6140:Al-Farabi 6098:Critolaus 6042:Followers 6019:Economics 5999:Mechanics 5964:On Plants 5959:On Colors 5954:On Breath 5905:On Dreams 5895:On Memory 5658:Haecceity 5636:Syllogism 5607:Phronesis 5499:Catharsis 5448:Aristotle 5136:1611-7530 5050:ignored ( 5040:cite book 4953:1936-6434 4836:680621287 4803:314379168 4453:0391-9714 4300:. Brill. 4270:ignored ( 4260:cite book 4154:Mayr 1985 4081:(2005) . 4066:Mayr 1985 3893:Evolution 3866:Evolution 3461:Phronesis 3072:evolution 2844:taxonomic 2802:On Dreams 2788:On Memory 2648:oviparous 2640:cetaceans 2585:phylogeny 2279:: 15–19. 2205:Ptolemies 2136:Influence 2036:red coral 2028:fish lice 2020:scorpions 1913:cetaceans 1716:tentacles 1530:crocodile 1526:Chameleon 1511:, except 1487:Bee-eater 1448:Cetaceans 1359:Qualities 1279:John Dory 1255:dissected 1243:ruminants 1225:a dogfish 1133:fishermen 962:fecundity 898:gestation 538:Processes 474:metabolic 466:processes 251:Aristotle 184:, though 58:Aristotle 6724:Category 6666:Eugenics 6571:concepts 6515:Medicine 6500:Genetics 6448:timeline 6390:Category 6315:Nussbaum 6285:Brentano 6157:Averroes 6145:Avicenna 6135:Al-Kindi 6108:Erymneus 6004:Problems 5900:On Sleep 5867:Rhetoric 5846:Politics 5791:Movement 5653:Quiddity 5514:accident 5441:Overview 5392:(1913). 5310:(1985). 5267:(2014). 5032:10332750 4746:(1872). 4706:20605226 4698:11611403 4570:(1628). 4461:23334371 4109:(1968). 3304:De Anima 3033:kephalos 3021:Linnaeus 2795:On Sleep 2664:homology 2638:", that 2632:mollusks 2577:ontogeny 2495:strawman 2469:Dialogue 2437:'s 1551 2406:Dürer's 2362:medieval 2358:Averroes 2354:Avicenna 2317:Averroes 2313:Avempace 2299:Avicenna 2295:Al-Kindī 2271:: 1–10, 2225:arteries 2129:placenta 2048:starfish 1996:bivalves 1980:lobsters 1957:Ikhthyes 1937:reptiles 1925:Ornithes 1873:Minerals 1597:Sea bass 1491:nightjar 1337:Examples 1275:khalkeus 1233:yolk sac 1229:placenta 1054:function 1042:exegesis 1008:vitalist 978:oenochoe 954:Lifespan 946:elephant 930:genomics 906:elephant 759:blending 507:Alcmaeon 376:sparrows 372:bustards 190:medieval 6637:Related 6505:Geology 6490:Ecology 6470:Anatomy 6456:Fields, 6233:Scotism 6221:Thomism 5872:Poetics 5781:History 5743:Physics 5735:Physics 5692:Organon 5620: ( 5566:Mimesis 5510:Essence 5233:Sources 5145:7897620 4977:30 July 4758:1185571 4119:166–169 2985:(bats). 2979:Cetacea 2927:mammals 2875:informo 2861:species 2783:(Sense) 2644:mammals 2617:snorkel 2605:snorkel 2565:Physics 2518:hearsay 2514:farrago 2487:in his 2481:Galileo 2475:In the 2464:Galileo 2127:with a 2101:in his 2044:sponges 2016:spiders 2012:insects 2000:Malakia 1984:shrimps 1961:Selakhē 1909:mammals 1882:without 1852:without 1817:without 1809:Sponges 1783:without 1770:Insects 1747:without 1713:without 1709:octopus 1678:without 1453:Dolphin 1399:R, S, V 1313:Anhaima 1305:Enhaima 1251:dogfish 1187:Selachē 1162:octopus 1149:Torpedo 1140:catfish 1092:Map of 1016:bellows 986:Molière 824:Physics 523:and of 495:sensory 291:Lycaeum 287:zoology 269:in his 225:Context 207:Galileo 165:History 62:science 50:biology 35:octopus 6485:Botany 6275:Newman 6268:Modern 6177:Jewish 5827:Ethics 5720:Topics 5590:Philia 5584:Mythos 5458:Lyceum 5337: 5318: 5296: 5277: 5142: 5134: 5079: 5030: 5020: 4951: 4859: 4834: 4824: 4801: 4791: 4756: 4704: 4696: 4625: 4550: 4523: 4459: 4451: 4418: 4357: 4304: 4248: 4213: 4125: 4089: 3900: 3873: 3423: 3246: 3200: 3025:hippos 3000:Argan 2846:Latin 2634:, and 2579:, the 2536:, and 2421:, 1551 2346:retook 2265:Arabic 2183:darnel 2167:botany 2153:Lyceum 2008:Entoma 1982:, and 1953:fishes 1949:Opheis 1945:snakes 1917:Kētōdē 1843:Plants 1786:6 legs 1779:cicada 1739:Cockle 1670:Shrimp 1592:fishes 1556:Snakes 1537:4 legs 1498:2 legs 1430:4 legs 1396:2 legs 1221:embryo 1179:sharks 1152:) and 1125:Pyrrha 1121:Lesbos 1094:Lesbos 1052:, its 1002:, its 877:Nature 846:Method 816:pneuma 812:pneuma 808:pneuma 800:enzyme 796:rennet 451:, and 426:System 380:fishes 364:eagles 360:cranes 299:botany 279:Lesbos 259:Athens 239:Athens 153:, and 103:, and 66:Lesbos 6340:Plato 6305:Smith 6290:Adler 5786:Parts 5683:Works 5642:Telos 5629:ousia 5554:Lexis 5542:Hexis 5487:Arete 5453:Logic 4702:S2CID 4674:(PDF) 4457:JSTOR 3634:. 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Aristotle's biology

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