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outer curves. These hot spots are typically less than 1% of the road length, but a large share of all skid crashes occur there. One method for the road designer to reduce the crash risk is to move the cross slope transition from the outer curve and to a straight road section, where lateral forces are lower. If possible, the cross slope transition should be placed in a slight up- or downgrade, thereby avoiding that the drainage gradient drops to zero. The UK road design manual actually calls for placement of a cross slope transition in an artificially created slope, if needed. In some cases, permeable asphalt or concrete can be used to improve drainage in the cross slope transitions.
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a crosswind, if aquaplaning should occur, the crosswind will cause the aircraft to simultaneously weathervane into the wind (i.e. the nose will turn toward the wind) as well as slide downwind (the plane will tend to slide in the direction the air is moving). For small aircraft, holding the nose up as if performing a soft field landing and using the rudder to aerodynamically maintain directional control while holding the upwind aileron in the best position to prevent lifting the wing should help. However, avoid landing in heavy rain where the crosswind component of the wind is higher than the maximum demonstrated crosswind listed in the Pilot
Operations Handbook.
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151:: Cross slope is the extent to which the cross-section of a road resembles an upturned U. Higher cross slopes allow water to drain more easily. Grade is the steepness of the road at a particular point, which affects both drainage and force exerted by the vehicle on the road. Vehicles are less likely to aquaplane while traveling uphill, and far more likely to do so at the trough of two connected hills where water tends to pool. The resultant of cross slope and grade is called
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than it can dissipate. Water pressure in front of the wheel forces a wedge of water under the leading edge of the tire, causing it to lift from the road. The tire then skates on a sheet of water with little, if any, direct road contact, and loss of control results. If multiple tires aquaplane, the vehicle may lose directional control and slide until it either collides with an obstacle, or slows enough that one or more tires contact the road again and friction is regained.
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514:, slush, and/or wet snow. Aquaplaning can have serious adverse effects on ground controllability and braking efficiency. The three basic types of aquaplaning are dynamic aquaplaning, reverted rubber aquaplaning, and viscous aquaplaning. Any one of the three can render an aircraft partially or totally uncontrollable anytime during the landing roll.
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keeps the tire off the runway. A side effect of the heat is it causes the rubber in contact with the runway to revert to its original uncured state. Indications of an aircraft having experienced reverted rubber aquaplaning, are distinctive 'steam-cleaned' marks on the runway surface and a patch of reverted rubber on the tire.
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Proper braking technique is essential. The brakes should be applied firmly until reaching a point just short of a skid. At the first sign of a skid, the pilot should release brake pressure and allow the wheels to spin up. Directional control should be maintained as far as possible with the rudder. In
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Aquaplaning, also known as hydroplaning, is a condition in which standing water, slush or snow, causes the moving wheel of an aircraft to lose contact with the load bearing surface on which it is rolling with the result that braking action on the wheel is not effective in reducing the ground speed of
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or "resulting grade". Most road design manuals require that the drainage gradient in all road sections must exceed 0.5%, in order to avoid a thick water film during and after rainfall. Areas where the drainage gradient may fall below the minimum limit 0.5% are found at the entrance and exit of banked
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Viscous aquaplaning is due to the viscous properties of water. A thin film of fluid no more than 0.025 mm in depth is all that is needed. The tire cannot penetrate the fluid and the tire rolls on top of the film. This can occur at a much lower speed than dynamic aquaplane, but requires a smooth
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Control inputs tend to be counterproductive while aquaplaning. If the car is not in a turn, easing off the accelerator may slow it enough to regain traction. Steering inputs may put the car into a skid from which recovery would be difficult or impossible. If braking is unavoidable, the driver should
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aquaplane, there may be a sudden audible rise in engine RPM and indicated speed as they begin to spin. In a broad highway turn, if the front wheels lose traction, the car will suddenly drift towards the outside of the bend. If the rear wheels lose traction, the back of the car will slew out sideways
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When confronted with the possibility of aquaplaning, pilots are advised to land on a grooved runway (if available). Touchdown speed should be as slow as possible consistent with safety. After the nosewheel is lowered to the runway, moderate braking should be applied. If deceleration is not detected
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However, the above equation only gives a very rough approximation. Resistance to aquaplaning is governed by several different factors, chiefly vehicle weight, tire width and tread pattern, as all affect the surface pressure exerted on the road by the tire over a given area of the contact patch - a
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benefit from narrow tires with round, canoe-shaped contact patches. Narrow tires are less vulnerable to aquaplaning because vehicle weight is distributed over a smaller area, and rounded tires more easily push water aside. These advantages diminish on lighter motorcycles with naturally wide tires,
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Reverted rubber (steam) aquaplaning occurs during heavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel skid. Only a thin film of water on the runway is required to facilitate this type of aquaplaning. The tire skidding generates enough heat to change the water film into a cushion of steam which
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systems cannot replace defensive driving techniques and proper tire selection. These systems rely on selective wheel braking, which depends in turn on road contact. While stability control may help recovery from a skid when a vehicle slows enough to regain traction, it cannot prevent aquaplaning.
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Every vehicle function that changes direction or speed relies on friction between the tires and the road surface. The grooves of a rubber tire are designed to disperse water from beneath the tire, providing high friction even in wet conditions. Aquaplaning occurs when a tire encounters more water
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Reverted rubber aquaplaning frequently follows an encounter with dynamic aquaplaning, during which time the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attempt to slow the aircraft. Eventually the aircraft slows enough to where the tires make contact with the runway surface and the aircraft begins to
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skid. The remedy for this type of aquaplane is for the pilot to release the brakes and allow the wheels to spin up and apply moderate braking. Reverted rubber aquaplaning is insidious in that the pilot may not know when it begins, and it can persist to very slow groundspeeds (20 knots or less).
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class. Further, wet conditions reduce the lateral force that any tire can accommodate before sliding. While a slide in a four-wheeled vehicle may be corrected, the same slide on a motorcycle will generally cause the rider to fall. Thus, despite the relative lack of aquaplaning danger in wet
138:: Concrete can be preferable to hotmix asphalt because it offers better resistance to rut formation, though this depends on the age of the surface and the construction techniques employed while paving. Concrete also requires special attention to ensure that it has sufficient texture.
582:) in knots is about 9 times the square root of the tire pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). For an aircraft tire pressure of 64 PSI, the calculated aquaplaning speed would be approximately 72 knots. This speed is for a rolling, non-slipping wheel; a locked wheel reduces the V
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narrow tire with a lot of weight placed upon it and an aggressive tread pattern will resist aquaplaning at far higher speeds than a wide tire on a light vehicle with minimal tread. Furthermore, the likelihood of aquaplaning drastically increases with water depth.
218:: Combination vehicles like semi-trailers are more likely to experience uneven aquaplaning caused by uneven weight distribution. An unloaded trailer will aquaplane sooner than the cab pulling it. Pickup trucks or SUVs towing trailers also present similar problems.
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into a skid. If all four wheels aquaplane at once, the car will slide in a straight line, again towards the outside of the bend if in a turn. When any or all of the wheels regain traction, there may be a sudden jerk in whatever direction that wheel is pointed.
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inch) deep. As the speed of the aircraft and the depth of the water increase, the water layer builds up an increasing resistance to displacement, resulting in the formation of a wedge of water beneath the tire. At some speed, termed the aquaplaning speed
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is the speed in mph for when the vehicle will begin to totally hydroplane. Considering an example vehicle with a tire pressure of 35 psi, one can approximate that 61 mph is the speed when the tires would lose contact with the road's surface.
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The best strategy is to avoid contributors to aquaplaning. Proper tire pressure, narrow and unworn tires, and reduced speeds from those judged suitably moderate in the dry will mitigate the risk of aquaplaning, as will avoidance of standing water.
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braking have the advantage over road vehicles in such situations, as this type of braking is not affected by aquaplaning, but it requires a considerable distance to operate as it is not as effective as wheel braking on a dry runway.
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If the vehicle is traveling straight, it may begin to feel slightly loose. If there was a high level of road feel in normal conditions, it may suddenly diminish. Small correctional control inputs have no effect.
570:), the upward force generated by water pressure equals the weight of the aircraft and the tire is lifted off the runway surface. In this condition, the tires no longer contribute to directional control, and
533:. Grooving has since been adopted by most major airports around the world. Thin grooves are cut in the concrete which allows for water to be dissipated and further reduces the potential to aquaplane.
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is nil. Dynamic aquaplaning is generally related to tire inflation pressure. Tests have shown that for tires with significant loads and enough water depth for the amount of tread so that the
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When a surface is wet, a layer of water can act as a lubricant, greatly reducing the traction and stability of the vehicle. If enough water is under the tire, hydroplaning can occur.
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to 7.7 times the square root of the pressure. Therefore, once a locked tire starts aquaplaning it will continue until the speed reduces by other means (air drag or reverse thrust).
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or smooth-acting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown area coated with the accumulated rubber of past landings. Such a surface can have the same friction coefficient as wet ice.
190:: Worn tires will aquaplane more easily for lack of tread depth. Half-worn treads result in aquaplaning about 4.8–6.4 km/h (3–4 mph) lower than with full-tread tires.
212:: More weight on a properly inflated tire lengthens the contact patch, improving its aspect ratio. Weight can have the opposite effect if the tire is underinflated.
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454:, the driver should steer in the direction of the skid until the rear tires regain traction, and then rapidly steer in the other direction to straighten the car.
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Because pooled water and changes in road conditions can require a smooth and timely reduction in speed, cruise control should not be used on wet or icy roads.
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494:, when it can cause the aircraft to run off the end of the runway. Aquaplaning has been a factor in multiple aircraft accidents, including the destruction of
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that prevents the vehicle from responding to control inputs. If it occurs to all wheels simultaneously, the vehicle becomes, in effect, an uncontrolled
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and aquaplaning is suspected, the nose should be raised and aerodynamic drag utilized to decelerate to a point where the brakes do become effective.
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Dynamic aquaplaning is a relatively high-speed phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water on the runway that is at least 2.5 mm (
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The risk of aquaplaning increases with the depth of standing water, higher speeds, and the sensitivity of a vehicle to that water depth.
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B. N. J. Persson; U. Tartaglino; O. Albohr & E. Tosatti (2004). "Sealing is at the origin of rubber slipping on wet roads".
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Airplane Flying
Handbook, FAA Publication FAA-H-8083-3A, available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at
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What the driver experiences when a vehicle aquaplanes depends on which wheels have lost traction and the direction of travel.
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196:: Underinflation can cause a tire to deflect inward, raising the tire center and preventing the tread from clearing water.
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There is no precise equation to determine the speed at which a vehicle will aquaplane. Existing efforts have derived
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conditions, motorcycle riders must be even more cautious because overall traction is reduced by wet roadways.
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from empirical testing. In general, cars start to aquaplane at speeds above 72–93 km/h (45–58 mph).
206:, the less likely a tire will aquaplane. tires that present the greatest risk are small in diameter and wide.
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pressure from the speed is applied to the whole contact patch, the minimum speed for dynamic aquaplaning (V
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Aquaplaning is a condition that can exist when an aircraft is landed on a runway surface contaminated with
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It is possible to approximate the speed at which total hydroplaning occurs, with the following equation:
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92:. Aquaplaning is a different phenomenon from when water on the surface of the roadway merely acts as a
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However this can be prevented by grooves on runways. In 1965, a US delegation visited the
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the aircraft. Aquaplaning may reduce the effectiveness of wheel braking in aircraft on
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builds between the wheels of the vehicle and the road surface, leading to a loss of
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162:: Wider roads require a higher cross slope to achieve the same degree of drainage.
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Any aquaplaning tire reduces both braking effectiveness and directional control.
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http://www.roadex.org/Publications/docs-RIII-EN/Health%20Issues%20-%20RIII.pdf
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927:"REPORT ON GROOVED RUNWAY EXPERIENCE AT WASHINGTON NATIONAL AIRPORT"
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687:"Roadway Hydroplaning - The Trouble with Highway Cross Slope"
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Depth of compacted wheel tracks and longitudinal depressions
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Horne, Walter B.; Dreher, Robert C. (November 1, 1963).
708:. Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company. p. 180.
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The driver's speed, acceleration, braking, and steering
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for reduced aquaplaning and initiated a study by the
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in 2007 during heavy rain. Aircraft which can employ
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19:"Aquaplane" redirects here. Not to be confused with
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in the pavement over time that allow water to pool.
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16:Loss of traction due to water buildup under tires
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977:0.25 mm for worn tires and 0.76 mm for new tires
882:"Best and Worst Tires in All Weather Conditions"
447:do so smoothly and be prepared for instability.
80:or other wheeled vehicle occurs when a layer of
914:: 5 – via NASA Technical Reports Server.
386:is the tire pressure in psi and the resulting
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1625:European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation
1094:'Phenomena of pneumatic tire hydroplaning'.
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285:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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908:"Phenomena of Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning"
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305:Learn how and when to remove this message
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966:"1/2009 G-XLAC G-BWDA G-EMBO Section 1"
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819:"Don't lose your grip in wet weather".
704:Glennon, John C.; Paul F. Hill (2004).
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498:which ran off the end of the runway in
450:If the rear wheels aquaplane and cause
54:Two vehicles aquaplaning through large
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865:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
760:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
357:{\displaystyle V_{p}=10.35{\sqrt {p}}}
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283:adding citations to reliable sources
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1668:Uniform Tire Quality Grading (UTQG)
1090:NASA paper describing aquaplaning,
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973:Air Accidents Investigation Branch
880:Petersen, Gene (28 October 2015).
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933:. Federal Aviation Administration
706:Roadway Safety and Tort Liability
685:Glennon, John C. (January 2006).
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136:Pavement micro- and macrotexture
46:A diagram of an aquaplaning tire
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925:McGuire, R.C. (January 1969).
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1514:Central Tire Inflation System
662:"Preventing Loss of Traction"
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521:at Farnborough to view their
202:: The longer and thinner the
660:Ron Kurtus (28 March 2008).
519:Royal Aircraft Establishment
467:Electronic stability control
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1635:Tire Science and Technology
1155:Low rolling resistance tire
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177:Vehicle sensitivity factors
128:: Heavy vehicles can cause
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458:Prevention by the driver
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1476:Slip (vehicle dynamics)
1433:Lateral Force Variation
1383:Pacejka's Magic Formula
1363:Cold inflation pressure
1022:(7 November): 882–885.
829:(2): 49. February 2011.
200:Tire tread aspect ratio
194:Tire inflation pressure
1572:List of tire companies
1443:Traction (engineering)
1438:Radial Force Variation
1078:http://av-info.faa.gov
991:Cite journal requires
664:. School for Champions
630:Traction (engineering)
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689:. US. Archived from
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279:improve this section
1529:Tire-pressure gauge
1165:Michelin PAX System
1071:Driving in the Rain
1038:2004NatMa...3..882P
912:NASA Technical Note
112:Water depth factors
21:Aquaplaning (sport)
1567:Tire manufacturing
1398:Rolling resistance
406:{\textstyle V_{p}}
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1393:Relaxation length
1270:Formula One tyres
1069:Smart Motorist –
797:Missing or empty
625:Road slipperiness
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247:In motor vehicles
166:Roadway curvature
160:Width of pavement
153:drainage gradient
25:Hydroplane (boat)
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1686:Outline of tires
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1499:Tire maintenance
1448:Treadwear rating
1358:Circle of forces
1280:Continental tire
1220:Orange oil tires
1210:Mud-terrain tire
1190:All-terrain tire
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295:September 2019
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1730:Road hazards
1706:
1630:Tire Society
1544:Tire changer
1539:Bead breaker
1509:Bicycle pump
1465:
1418:Tire balance
1328:Presta valve
1323:Dunlop valve
1265:Racing slick
1260:Tractor tire
1245:Tubular tire
1240:Bicycle tire
1170:Airless tire
1070:
1019:
1015:
984:cite journal
976:
935:. Retrieved
930:
920:
911:
901:
889:. Retrieved
885:
875:
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845:the original
835:
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770:
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737:the original
724:
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691:the original
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672:
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576:dynamic head
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435:drive wheels
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277:Please help
265:
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216:Vehicle type
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135:
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107:
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67:hydroplaning
66:
62:
61:
1658:Plus sizing
1582:Waste tires
1534:Direct TPMS
1519:Tire mousse
1491:Maintenance
1466:Aquaplaning
1235:Tundra tire
1215:Paddle tire
1200:Knobby tire
1150:Radial tire
477:In aircraft
235:Motorcycles
230:Motorcycles
144:cross slope
63:Aquaplaning
37:Flying boat
1714:Categories
1663:Tire label
1559:Life cycle
1481:Tramlining
1408:Slip angle
1345:Attributes
1318:Valve stem
1290:Components
1275:Spare tire
1205:Large tire
937:5 February
851:October 6,
781:2010-01-31
668:2012-01-13
642:References
240:supersport
33:Floatplane
1653:Tire code
1602:Flat tire
1592:Tire fire
1549:Tire iron
1458:Behaviors
1250:Lego tire
1185:Snow tire
1180:Rain tyre
1092:TN D-2056
746:March 28,
500:São Paulo
452:oversteer
266:does not
142:Pavement
94:lubricant
1696:Category
1303:Beadlock
1195:Bar grip
1062:15635210
1054:15531886
861:cite web
790:cite web
756:cite web
619:See also
488:aborting
442:Recovery
422:Response
86:traction
78:aircraft
29:Seaplane
1597:Blowout
1577:Retread
1034:Bibcode
1008:General
891:30 July
560:⁄
551:Dynamic
542:Viscous
492:takeoff
484:landing
433:If the
287:removed
272:sources
74:vehicle
56:puddles
1060:
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712:
647:Inline
366:where
100:Causes
1725:Tires
1308:Tread
1175:Tweel
1137:Types
1129:Tires
1058:S2CID
1024:arXiv
969:(PDF)
740:(PDF)
733:(PDF)
537:Types
345:10.35
318:Speed
148:grade
82:water
35:, or
1298:Bead
1050:PMID
997:help
939:2017
893:2017
867:link
853:2009
803:help
762:link
748:2009
710:ISBN
531:NASA
529:and
270:any
268:cite
146:and
130:ruts
90:sled
71:road
1042:doi
527:FAA
486:or
281:by
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