4006:
32:
3067:(historical) perspective, the distinction between ablaut and umlaut is very important, particularly in the Germanic languages, as it indicates where and how a specific vowel alternation originates. It is also important when taking a
3079:, as umlaut was still a very regular and productive process at the time. When taking a synchronic perspective on modern languages, however, both processes appear very similar. For example, the alternations seen in
3027:
times, occurs in all Indo-European languages, and refers to (phonologically) unpredictable vowel alternations of a specific nature. From an Indo-European perspective, it typically appears as a variation between
4087:
Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather a "replacive" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between
4124:(which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models.
4071:"(plural)". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes
2274:
that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed). This tends to be the case with words in
English that came from Latin:
3087:
both appear to be morphologically conditioned (e.g. the alternation appears in the plural or past tense, but not the singular or present tense) and phonologically unpredictable.
4524:
1092:
Consonants, too, can alternate in ways that are used grammatically. An example is the pattern in
English of verb-noun pairs with related meanings but differing in
4023:
Other analyses of these languages consider the patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as
3591:
is sometimes described in terms of apophony. The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant
1685:'to handle an open container' has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e.
4644:
Kula, Nancy C. (2000). The phonology/morphology interface: Consonant mutations in Bemba. In H. de Hoop & T. van der Wouden (Eds.),
4558:
3036:, and no vowel, although various sound changes result in different vowel alternations appearing in different daughter languages.
2873:
As the examples above show, a change in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. Some of the verbs also have a
594:
4304:
Many Turkic languages have the vowel alternation pattern of "low vowel - high vowel" in their reduplicatives, e.g. Turkish
96:
4695:
4660:
4617:
4544:
4536:
4477:
115:
68:
2961:(which in most cases has since been lost) at the end of the word causing the stem vowel to be pulled forward. Some
4605:(Vol. 3, pp. 150–201). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Especially section 1.3 "Stem modifications").
176:
1907:'to cut' has a different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e.
75:
4712:
53:
2404:
1667:) indicating a different tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel,
940:
That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent to grammatical
343:
4574:
Eesti ja Soome-Ugri
Keeleteaduse Ajakiri (Journal of Estonian and Finno-Ugric Linguistics). 2 (1): 185–193.
3024:
2635:
3996:
3966:
3936:
3906:
3879:
3852:
3822:
3796:
3769:
3738:
3709:
3680:
3650:
3608:
3057:
3053:
3000:
1646:
1637:
1632:
1624:
1615:
1610:
82:
4439:
3584:
2271:
2965:
show umlaut in the present tense, with the past tense representing the original vowel: bought > buy (
1495:(or morphologized) when the environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English
1488:
587:
4419:
664:
358:
135:
64:
49:
4434:
4042:
1543:
526:
326:
298:
144:
3102:
to refer to morphological vowel alternation generally (which is unpredictable phonologically) and
4010:
3068:
2605:
2353:
Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic
496:
408:
258:
233:
223:
151:
42:
4584:
4561:
Poster presented at the
International Conference on Minority Languages XII. University of Tartu.
521:
4444:
3596:
3072:
3064:
501:
3227:
Here the singular/plural distinction is indicated through umlaut and additionally by a suffix
308:
4520:
3588:
2611:
580:
3146:
Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as
3110:(which is phonologically predictable). Ambiguity can be avoided by using alternative terms (
3090:
By analogy, descriptive linguists discussing synchronic grammars sometimes employ the terms
2993:). Hundreds of similar examples can be found in English, German, Dutch and other languages.
4052:
It would also be possible to analyze
English in this way as well, where the alternation of
3512:
2601:
2595:
2087:
1656:
1555:
491:
291:
2658:
8:
2996:
2388:
2091:
451:
263:
171:
4528:
4424:
3508:
3041:
2962:
2670:
2384:
2378:
2244:
1676:
1524:
930:
906:
556:
531:
516:
413:
333:
2878:
89:
4691:
4656:
4613:
4540:
4532:
4473:
4133:
4005:
3052:
that was originally phonologically predictable, and was caused by the presence of an
2999:
is a process analogous to umlaut, but involving the influence of a low vowel such as
2666:
2399:
verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here the alternation involves
2240:
1093:
902:
551:
541:
377:
278:
4603:
Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon
3389:
3358:
3325:
3285:
3252:
2982:
2968:
2950:
2936:
2922:
2845:
2786:
2727:
2650:
2578:
1461:
1432:
1381:
1352:
1281:
1252:
1198:
1166:
692:
404:
3511:
where the positive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with
4683:
4289:). This is a generalization and not a rule as exceptions to this order do exist (
3151:
2894:
1663:, verbs have series of stems where the vowel alternates (sometimes with an added
1660:
1571:
1528:
1492:
914:
196:
4547:
4142:
3570:
3239:
suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation:
2400:
2392:
1655:
The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In
1587:
922:
338:
238:
191:
186:
4587:
Akademik Araştırmalar
Dergisi (Journal of Academic Studies). 10 (39): 263-272.
1546:. The particular function of a given alternation will depend on the language.
4706:
4571:
4322:
3574:
3107:
2654:
546:
388:
367:
353:
313:
4666:
4146:
3578:
1672:
1668:
1532:
1485:
680:
423:
348:
303:
181:
131:
4601:
Anderson, Stephen R. (1985). Inflectional morphology. In T. Shopen (Ed.),
4019:
within linguistic theory. This differs from an analysis based on apophony.
3076:
3049:
608:
566:
561:
481:
418:
1586:), mentioned above, are well attested examples. Another example is from
3762:
3592:
3522:
3147:
3045:
2890:
1539:
486:
447:
371:
216:
3141:
2634:
ng. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the
4429:
4150:
2396:
1516:
536:
456:
430:
363:
273:
207:
20:
4572:"Vowel alternation in disyllabic reduplicatives: An areal dimension"
2919:
ngth. The difference in the vowels results from the influence of an
1484:
Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to
31:
4585:"Divanü Lügati't-Türk'teki Yansımalı Kelimelerde Ünlü Nöbetleşmesi"
4120:
4046:
4037:
4031:
4025:
2094:
has the following tone alternations which are used derivationally:
2081:
1520:
511:
506:
228:
164:
1045:
indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair
676:
437:
268:
251:
16:
Sound change within a word that indicates grammatical information
4261:
Generally, English ablaut-reduplications follow an I-A-O order (
3231:
in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a
1069:
has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel
901:
The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in
442:
397:
3376:
3306:
2939:
2618:
is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as s
2086:
Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and
1511:
Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including
1467:
1438:
1175:
4061:
4014:
3974:
3944:
3914:
3887:
3860:
3830:
3804:
3777:
3746:
3717:
3688:
3658:
3628:
3600:
3291:
3255:
2971:
2874:
2801:
2789:
2662:
2354:
1664:
1512:
1387:
1358:
1287:
1258:
941:
668:
3150:. An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in
1470:
1210:
3611:⟩ indicates gemination on the preceding consonant):
3334:
3258:
2985:
2925:
2903:
is the vowel fronting that produces such related words as f
2854:
2848:
2795:
1441:
1207:
1178:
672:
4690:(rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
4472:. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. p. 35.
3019:
refer to different phenomena and are not interchangeable.
4676:
Spencer, Andrew; & Zwicky, Arnold M. (Eds.). (1998).
4525:
Language
Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew
3595:(i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations below are of
3370:
3294:
2953:
2860:
2742:
2736:
2730:
1384:
1355:
4688:
The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary
4041:). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of
3553:
3545:
3526:
3516:
4355:
4332:
2649:
To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut,
2581:
are well known for their initial consonant mutations.
699:
vowel alternations that produce such related words as
4519:
See, for example, "Semitic apophony" on pp. 67-72 of
4403:
4389:
4305:
1390:
1361:
1290:
1261:
4325:
of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel.
3373:
3367:
3364:
3337:
3331:
3328:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3264:
3261:
3040:, meanwhile, is a process that is particular to the
2563:
2551:
2537:
2525:
2511:
2499:
2485:
2473:
2459:
2447:
2433:
2421:
2243:
uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and
2065:
2058:
2051:
2044:
2037:
2025:
2018:
2011:
2004:
1997:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1957:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1879:
1867:
1860:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1827:
1820:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1787:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1759:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1464:
1435:
1204:
1201:
1172:
1169:
3361:
3288:
3142:
Stem alternations and other morphological processes
1284:
1255:
56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3011:In Indo-European historical linguistics the terms
4056:could be explained as a basic discontinuous root
4704:
4671:Language: An introduction to the study of speech
4655:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
4627:. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
4559:"Vowel alternation in disyllabic reduplicatives"
4100:is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for
3075:) perspective on old Germanic languages such as
2229:
2223:
2214:
2206:
2196:
2190:
2181:
2173:
2163:
2157:
2148:
2140:
2130:
2124:
2115:
2107:
1053:just as the past tense is indicated on the verb
1049:. Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel
4127:
4648:(pp. 171–183). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
3060:in the syllable following the modified vowel.
2090:, may be found in alternations. For example,
4397:
4383:
4141:or ablaut-motivated compounding is a type of
3477:
3456:
3427:
3406:
588:
4610:The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics
3209:
3197:
3180:
3168:
2584:
3003:causing a high vowel in the stem to lower.
2383:Consonant alternation is commonly known as
595:
581:
4461:
4153:). Examples of these in English include:
116:Learn how and when to remove this message
4004:
4513:
3006:
2589:
4705:
4686:, & Morgan, William Sr. (1987).
4082:
3507:A more complicated example comes from
3138:) for the broader sense of the words.
2606:English grammar § Irregular verbs
1531:), and even smaller features, such as
4673:. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.
4653:Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn
4632:The Sound-Symbolic System of Japanese
4467:
2372:
2075:
54:adding citations to reliable sources
25:
4646:Linguistics in the Netherlands 2000
3106:to refer to any type of regressive
1538:The sound alternations may be used
13:
3044:and refers to a variation between
1549:
14:
4724:
4470:Introducing linguistic morphology
2357:, which are known, variously, as
3564:
3357:
3324:
3284:
3251:
3023:is a process that dates back to
2981:
2967:
2949:
2935:
2921:
2844:
2785:
2726:
2665:changes to indicate a different
1554:Apophony often involves vowels.
1460:
1431:
1380:
1351:
1280:
1251:
1197:
1165:
30:
4594:
4321:Here the words are formed by a
3975:
3945:
3915:
3888:
3861:
3831:
3805:
3778:
3747:
3718:
3689:
3659:
3629:
3601:
177:Consonant voicing and devoicing
41:needs additional citations for
4577:
4564:
4551:
4504:
4495:
4486:
2899:In Indo-European linguistics,
1061:. Likewise, the plural suffix
1037:The vowel alternation between
686:
1:
4634:. CSLI Publications,Stanford.
4454:
1679:. For example, the verb stem
4637:Haspelmath, Martin. (2002).
4608:Asher, R. E. (Ed.). (1994).
4134:Reduplication § English
4128:Ablaut-motivated compounding
4015:
4011:autosegmental representation
3607:'write' (the symbol ⟨
3571:Amharic § Archaic forms
3554:
3546:
3527:
3517:
2636:Proto-Indo-European language
1096:of a postvocalic consonant:
7:
4440:Nonconcatenative morphology
4412:
4404:
4390:
4356:
4333:
4328:Some examples in Japanese:
4306:
4096:being the basic form where
4079:would be exceedingly rare.
4060:that is filled out with an
3585:nonconcatenative morphology
3235:suffix in the plural and a
2272:alternating stress patterns
2066:
2059:
2052:
2045:
2038:
2026:
2019:
2012:
2005:
1998:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1965:
1958:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1880:
1868:
1861:
1854:
1847:
1840:
1828:
1821:
1814:
1807:
1800:
1788:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1760:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1681:
1057:with the past tense suffix
691:Apophony is exemplified in
10:
4729:
4678:The handbook of morphology
4651:Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997).
4612:. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
4379:Some examples in Chinese:
4145:of "expressives" (such as
4131:
3568:
2888:
2599:
2593:
2564:
2552:
2538:
2526:
2512:
2500:
2486:
2474:
2460:
2448:
2434:
2422:
2376:
2079:
948:). Compare the following:
18:
4420:Alternation (linguistics)
4398:
4384:
3992:'he was caused to write'
3478:
3457:
3428:
3407:
3210:
3198:
3181:
3169:
2884:
2585:Indo-European linguistics
2099:
4639:Understanding morphology
4625:A glossary of morphology
4435:Morphology (linguistics)
2219:'(to) have an erection'
1506:
527:Compensatory lengthening
299:Compensatory lengthening
19:Not to be confused with
4630:Hamano, Shoko. (1998).
4623:Bauer, Laurie. (2004).
4118:This usage of the term
3932:'he corresponded with'
3392:features this as well:
2653:has a certain class of
677:grammatical information
152:Quantitative metathesis
4468:Bauer, Laurie (2003).
4029:(sometimes considered
4020:
3597:Modern Standard Arabic
2468:'to cause to be deaf'
2442:'to cause to be lost'
2230:
2224:
2215:
2207:
2197:
2191:
2182:
2174:
2164:
2158:
2149:
2141:
2131:
2125:
2116:
2108:
4713:Linguistic morphology
4092:may be thought of as
4008:
3962:'he caused to write'
3589:Afroasiatic languages
3124:internal modification
946:external modification
641:internal modification
4680:. Oxford: Blackwell.
4139:Ablaut reduplication
3623:Alternation pattern
3599:, based on the root
3007:Ablaut versus umlaut
2602:Germanic strong verb
2596:Indo-European ablaut
2590:Indo-European ablaut
1901:Another verb stem |
1657:Athabaskan languages
1556:Indo-European ablaut
653:replacive morphology
292:Transphonologization
50:improve this article
4583:Ido, Shinji. 2009.
4570:Ido, Shinji. 2011.
4557:Ido, Shinji. 2009.
4521:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
4492:(Nguyễn 1997:42-44)
4083:Replacive morphemes
4013:of the Arabic word
3848:'(act of) writing'
3025:Proto-Indo-European
2997:Germanic a-mutation
2572:'to cause to grow'
2546:'to cause to hunt'
2520:'to cause to walk'
2494:'to cause to fall'
2389:consonant gradation
671:(quality) within a
661:internal inflection
172:Consonant gradation
4529:Palgrave Macmillan
4425:Consonant mutation
4021:
3558:'I'm not dancing'
3355:(past participle)
3042:Germanic languages
2690:Vowel alternation
2646:or with no vowel.
2413:Intransitive verb
2385:consonant mutation
2379:Consonant mutation
2373:Consonant apophony
2261:"two (masculine)"
2245:grammatical gender
1605:Vowel alternation
1523:elements (such as
931:grammatical number
557:Consonant mutation
532:Monophthongization
414:Consonant mutation
4641:. London: Arnold.
4501:(Asher 1994:1719)
4003:
4002:
3761:'writing (active
3676:'it was written'
3603:k–t–b
3562:
3561:
3505:
3504:
3387:
3386:
3225:
3224:
2871:
2870:
2667:grammatical tense
2576:
2575:
2351:
2350:
2268:
2267:
2264:"two (feminine)"
2238:
2237:
2102:tone alternation
2076:Prosodic apophony
2073:
2072:
1899:
1898:
1653:
1652:
1482:
1481:
1429:e (phonetically:
1378:e (phonetically:
1349:e (phonetically:
1278:e (phonetically:
1249:e (phonetically:
1163:e (phonetically:
1035:
1034:
645:stem modification
605:
604:
552:Shm-reduplication
542:Rhinoglottophilia
378:Consonant harmony
279:Cluster reduction
126:
125:
118:
100:
4720:
4684:Young, Robert W.
4588:
4581:
4575:
4568:
4562:
4555:
4549:
4517:
4511:
4508:
4502:
4499:
4493:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4465:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4393:
4387:
4386:
4374:
4351:
4317:
4277:) or I-A order (
4067:"(singular)" or
4018:
4009:A diagram of an
3998:
3989:
3988:
3968:
3959:
3958:
3938:
3929:
3928:
3908:
3899:
3898:
3881:
3872:
3871:
3854:
3845:
3844:
3824:
3815:
3814:
3798:
3789:
3788:
3771:
3758:
3757:
3740:
3734:'it is written'
3731:
3730:
3711:
3702:
3701:
3682:
3673:
3672:
3652:
3643:
3642:
3614:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3605:
3557:
3549:
3534:
3533:
3530:
3520:
3500:
3499:
3473:
3472:
3450:
3449:
3423:
3422:
3395:
3394:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3322:ve (imperative)
3313:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3242:
3241:
3220:
3219:
3205:
3204:
3191:
3190:
3176:
3175:
3157:
3156:
3059:
3055:
3002:
2992:
2991:
2988:
2987:
2978:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2867:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2850:
2835:
2826:
2817:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2791:
2776:
2767:
2758:
2749:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2732:
2717:
2708:
2699:
2676:
2675:
2579:Celtic languages
2571:
2570:
2559:
2558:
2545:
2544:
2533:
2532:
2519:
2518:
2507:
2506:
2493:
2492:
2481:
2480:
2467:
2466:
2455:
2454:
2441:
2440:
2429:
2428:
2410:
2409:
2277:
2276:
2250:
2249:
2233:
2227:
2218:
2210:
2200:
2194:
2185:
2177:
2167:
2161:
2152:
2144:
2134:
2128:
2119:
2111:
2097:
2096:
2069:
2062:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2029:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2001:
1989:
1982:
1975:
1968:
1961:
1928:
1927:
1924:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1883:
1871:
1864:
1857:
1850:
1843:
1831:
1824:
1817:
1810:
1803:
1791:
1784:
1777:
1770:
1763:
1730:
1729:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1648:
1639:
1634:
1626:
1617:
1612:
1593:
1592:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1456:
1448:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1427:
1416:
1407:
1397:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1376:
1368:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1347:
1336:
1327:
1316:
1307:
1297:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1276:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1247:
1236:
1227:
1217:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1193:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1161:
1151:
1142:
1131:
1122:
1099:
1098:
1081:alternates with
1029:
1020:
1010:
988:
979:
969:
951:
950:
895:
889:
880:
874:
865:
859:
850:
844:
835:
829:
823:
815:
809:
800:
794:
785:
779:
770:
764:
755:
749:
740:
734:
725:
719:
713:
707:
649:stem alternation
597:
590:
583:
128:
127:
121:
114:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
34:
26:
4728:
4727:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4719:
4718:
4717:
4703:
4702:
4701:
4597:
4592:
4591:
4582:
4578:
4569:
4565:
4556:
4552:
4518:
4514:
4510:(Kula 2000:174)
4509:
4505:
4500:
4496:
4491:
4487:
4480:
4466:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4445:References for
4415:
4136:
4130:
4085:
3581:
3567:
3360:
3356:
3327:
3323:
3287:
3283:
3254:
3250:
3144:
3009:
2984:
2980:
2970:
2966:
2952:
2948:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2920:
2897:
2895:Germanic umlaut
2889:Main articles:
2887:
2879:past participle
2859:
2853:
2847:
2843:
2841:
2833:
2824:
2815:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2784:
2782:
2774:
2765:
2756:
2741:
2735:
2729:
2725:
2723:
2715:
2706:
2697:
2686:
2661:, in which the
2642:with the vowel
2638:) of the vowel
2608:
2598:
2592:
2587:
2416:Causative verb
2381:
2375:
2084:
2078:
1945:
1940:
1747:
1742:
1642:'frame/frames'
1620:'field/fields'
1572:Germanic umlaut
1552:
1550:Vowel gradation
1529:syllable length
1509:
1493:grammaticalized
1491:that are later
1463:
1459:
1458:(phonetically:
1454:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1414:
1405:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1334:
1325:
1314:
1305:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1234:
1225:
1200:
1196:
1195:(phonetically:
1191:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1149:
1140:
1129:
1120:
1110:
1103:
1027:
1018:
1008:
986:
977:
967:
893:
887:
878:
872:
863:
857:
848:
842:
833:
827:
821:
813:
807:
798:
792:
783:
777:
768:
762:
753:
747:
738:
732:
723:
717:
711:
705:
689:
675:that indicates
615:(also known as
601:
572:
571:
472:
464:
463:
462:
461:
433:
400:
383:
382:
359:Final devoicing
329:
319:
318:
294:
284:
283:
254:
244:
243:
219:
202:
201:
197:Debuccalization
167:
157:
156:
147:
122:
111:
105:
102:
59:
57:
47:
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4726:
4716:
4715:
4700:
4699:
4681:
4674:
4664:
4649:
4642:
4635:
4628:
4621:
4606:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4576:
4563:
4550:
4512:
4503:
4494:
4485:
4478:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4409:
4408:, 'splashing')
4395:
4377:
4376:
4353:
4259:
4258:
4247:
4236:
4225:
4214:
4199:
4188:
4177:
4166:
4143:word formation
4129:
4126:
4116:
4115:
4084:
4081:
4001:
4000:
3993:
3990:
3971:
3970:
3963:
3960:
3941:
3940:
3933:
3930:
3911:
3910:
3903:
3900:
3884:
3883:
3876:
3873:
3857:
3856:
3849:
3846:
3827:
3826:
3819:
3816:
3801:
3800:
3793:
3790:
3774:
3773:
3766:
3759:
3743:
3742:
3735:
3732:
3714:
3713:
3706:
3703:
3685:
3684:
3677:
3674:
3655:
3654:
3647:
3644:
3625:
3624:
3621:
3618:
3566:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3551:
3550:'I'm dancing'
3542:
3541:
3538:
3503:
3502:
3475:
3453:
3452:
3425:
3403:
3402:
3399:
3385:
3384:
3345:
3315:
3314:
3272:
3249:ld (singular)
3223:
3222:
3207:
3194:
3193:
3178:
3165:
3164:
3161:
3143:
3140:
3081:sing/sang/sung
3008:
3005:
2886:
2883:
2869:
2868:
2842:phonetically:
2838:
2829:
2820:
2810:
2809:
2783:phonetically:
2779:
2770:
2761:
2751:
2750:
2724:phonetically:
2720:
2711:
2702:
2692:
2691:
2688:
2683:
2680:
2594:Main article:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2561:
2548:
2547:
2535:
2522:
2521:
2509:
2496:
2495:
2483:
2470:
2469:
2457:
2444:
2443:
2431:
2418:
2417:
2414:
2405:palatalization
2401:spirantization
2377:Main article:
2374:
2371:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2325:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2313:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2281:
2266:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2236:
2235:
2220:
2212:
2203:
2202:
2187:
2179:
2170:
2169:
2154:
2146:
2137:
2136:
2121:
2113:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2080:Main article:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2023:
2016:
2009:
2002:
1995:
1991:
1990:
1983:
1976:
1969:
1962:
1955:
1951:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1851:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1797:
1793:
1792:
1785:
1778:
1771:
1764:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1551:
1548:
1544:derivationally
1540:inflectionally
1508:
1505:
1501:breath/breathe
1480:
1479:
1450:
1420:
1419:
1410:
1400:
1399:
1370:
1340:
1339:
1330:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1300:
1299:
1270:
1240:
1239:
1230:
1220:
1219:
1187:
1154:
1153:
1145:
1135:
1134:
1125:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1033:
1032:
1023:
1013:
1012:
1004:
1000:
999:
996:
992:
991:
982:
972:
971:
963:
959:
958:
955:
954:Present tense
923:part of speech
911:sing/sang/sung
899:
898:
883:
868:
853:
838:
817:
803:
788:
773:
758:
743:
728:
688:
685:
603:
602:
600:
599:
592:
585:
577:
574:
573:
570:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
473:
470:
469:
466:
465:
460:
459:
454:
445:
440:
434:
429:
428:
427:
426:
421:
416:
411:
401:
396:
395:
392:
391:
385:
384:
381:
380:
375:
361:
356:
351:
346:
344:Palatalization
341:
339:Coarticulation
336:
330:
325:
324:
321:
320:
317:
316:
311:
306:
301:
295:
290:
289:
286:
285:
282:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
255:
250:
249:
246:
245:
242:
241:
239:Vowel breaking
236:
231:
226:
220:
215:
214:
211:
210:
204:
203:
200:
199:
194:
192:L-vocalization
189:
187:Spirantization
184:
179:
174:
168:
163:
162:
159:
158:
155:
154:
148:
143:
142:
139:
138:
124:
123:
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4725:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4697:
4696:0-8263-1014-1
4693:
4689:
4685:
4682:
4679:
4675:
4672:
4668:
4667:Sapir, Edward
4665:
4662:
4661:1-55619-733-0
4658:
4654:
4650:
4647:
4643:
4640:
4636:
4633:
4629:
4626:
4622:
4619:
4618:0-08-035943-4
4615:
4611:
4607:
4604:
4600:
4599:
4586:
4580:
4573:
4567:
4560:
4554:
4548:
4546:
4545:9781403938695
4542:
4538:
4537:9781403917232
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4516:
4507:
4498:
4489:
4481:
4479:9780878403431
4475:
4471:
4464:
4460:
4449:
4448:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4406:
4396:
4394:, 'babbling')
4392:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4373:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4354:
4350:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4323:reduplication
4319:
4316:
4314:
4310:
4302:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4276:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4135:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4110:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4050:
4049:"skeletons".
4048:
4045:templates or
4044:
4043:morphological
4040:
4039:
4034:
4033:
4028:
4027:
4017:
4012:
4007:
3994:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3964:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3934:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3913:
3912:
3904:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3886:
3885:
3877:
3874:
3869:
3865:
3859:
3858:
3850:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3829:
3828:
3820:
3817:
3812:
3808:
3803:
3802:
3794:
3791:
3786:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3767:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3736:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3715:
3707:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3686:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3648:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3612:
3604:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3580:
3576:
3575:Broken plural
3572:
3565:Transfixation
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3529:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3432:
3426:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3381:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3321:
3317:
3316:
3311:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3218:
3214:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3139:
3137:
3133:
3132:vowel harmony
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3108:vowel harmony
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3004:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2976:
2964:
2958:
2944:
2930:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2896:
2892:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2865:
2839:
2836:
2830:
2827:
2821:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2780:
2777:
2771:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2721:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2614:linguistics,
2613:
2612:Indo-European
2607:
2603:
2597:
2582:
2580:
2568:
2562:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2523:
2516:
2510:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2490:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2464:
2458:
2456:'to be deaf'
2452:
2446:
2445:
2438:
2432:
2430:'to be lost'
2426:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2370:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2232:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2193:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2171:
2166:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2068:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2036:
2034:Semelfactive
2033:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2021:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1994:Continuative
1993:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1954:Momentaneous
1953:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1935:
1933:Imperfective
1932:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1905:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1836:Distributive
1835:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1798:
1796:Continuative
1795:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1756:Momentaneous
1755:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1737:
1735:Imperfective
1734:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1630:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1608:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1573:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1535:(on vowels).
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1475:
1457:
1451:
1446:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1395:
1377:
1371:
1366:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1295:
1277:
1271:
1266:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1215:
1194:
1188:
1183:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1108:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1014:
1011:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
994:
993:
989:
983:
980:
974:
973:
970:
964:
961:
960:
956:
953:
952:
949:
947:
943:
938:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
896:
890:
884:
881:
875:
869:
866:
860:
854:
851:
845:
839:
836:
830:
824:
818:
816:
810:
804:
801:
795:
789:
786:
780:
774:
771:
765:
759:
756:
750:
744:
741:
735:
729:
726:
720:
714:
708:
702:
701:
700:
698:
694:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
657:stem mutation
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
598:
593:
591:
586:
584:
579:
578:
576:
575:
568:
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
547:Sulcalization
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
474:
468:
467:
458:
455:
453:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
435:
432:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
406:
403:
402:
399:
394:
393:
390:
389:Dissimilation
387:
386:
379:
376:
373:
369:
368:vowel harmony
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
354:Labialization
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
331:
328:
323:
322:
315:
314:Floating tone
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
296:
293:
288:
287:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
256:
253:
248:
247:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
221:
218:
213:
212:
209:
206:
205:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
169:
166:
161:
160:
153:
150:
149:
146:
141:
140:
137:
133:
130:
129:
120:
117:
109:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67: –
66:
62:
61:Find sources:
55:
51:
45:
44:
39:This article
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
4687:
4677:
4670:
4652:
4645:
4638:
4631:
4624:
4609:
4602:
4595:Bibliography
4579:
4566:
4553:
4515:
4506:
4497:
4488:
4469:
4463:
4446:
4378:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4327:
4320:
4312:
4308:
4303:
4296:
4292:
4290:
4284:
4280:
4278:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4254:
4250:
4243:
4239:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4195:
4191:
4184:
4180:
4173:
4169:
4162:
4158:
4147:onomatopoeia
4138:
4137:
4119:
4117:
4112:
4108:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4086:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4053:
4051:
4036:
4030:
4024:
4022:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3894:
3890:
3867:
3863:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3810:
3806:
3784:
3780:
3753:
3749:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3705:'he writes'
3698:
3694:
3690:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3602:
3582:
3579:Semitic root
3506:
3501:'languages'
3496:
3493:
3490:
3487:
3484:
3480:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3459:
3451:'mountains'
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3409:
3388:
3352:
3348:
3319:
3279:
3275:
3246:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3216:
3212:
3200:
3187:
3183:
3171:
3145:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3089:
3084:
3080:
3062:
3050:front vowels
3037:
3033:
3029:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3010:
2995:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2872:
2832:
2823:
2814:
2773:
2764:
2755:
2714:
2705:
2696:
2659:strong verbs
2648:
2643:
2639:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2609:
2577:
2566:
2554:
2540:
2528:
2514:
2502:
2488:
2476:
2462:
2450:
2436:
2424:
2382:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2352:
2270:English has
2269:
2239:
2085:
1939:Progressive-
1904:-géésh/-gizh
1900:
1741:Progressive-
1669:vowel length
1654:
1581:
1577:
1575:
1565:
1561:
1559:
1553:
1537:
1510:
1500:
1496:
1489:assimilation
1486:phonological
1483:
1453:
1424:
1413:
1404:
1373:
1344:
1333:
1324:
1313:
1304:
1273:
1244:
1233:
1224:
1190:
1158:
1148:
1139:
1128:
1119:
1111:
1104:
1091:
1086:
1085:in the pair
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:in the word
1070:
1066:
1065:on the word
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1036:
1026:
1017:
1007:
985:
976:
966:
945:
939:
934:
926:
918:
915:transitivity
910:
900:
892:
886:
877:
871:
862:
856:
847:
841:
832:
826:
820:
812:
806:
797:
791:
782:
776:
767:
761:
752:
746:
737:
731:
722:
716:
710:
704:
696:
690:
681:inflectional
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
606:
476:
424:Vowel hiatus
349:Velarization
327:Assimilation
304:Nasalization
182:Assibilation
132:Sound change
112:
103:
93:
86:
79:
72:
60:
48:Please help
43:verification
40:
4090:goose/geese
4054:goose/geese
3765:); writer'
3646:'he wrote'
3513:prefixation
3120:alternation
3077:Old English
3073:descriptive
3046:back vowels
2915:ng > str
1936:Perfective
1738:Perfective
1497:goose/geese
1087:goose/geese
957:Past tense
935:goose/geese
687:Description
665:alternation
637:alternation
609:linguistics
567:Chain shift
562:Vowel shift
482:Affrication
471:Other types
419:Tone sandhi
309:Tonogenesis
136:alternation
4669:. (1921).
4455:References
4151:ideophones
4132:See also:
4038:suprafixes
4032:simulfixes
4026:transfixes
3818:'written'
3792:'writers'
3763:participle
3593:gemination
3569:See also:
3523:infixation
3474:'language'
3424:'mountain'
3148:affixation
3069:synchronic
3065:diachronic
2963:weak verbs
2891:I-mutation
2687:participle
2679:Imperative
2600:See also:
2560:'to grow'
2534:'to hunt'
2508:'to walk'
2482:'to fall'
2395:indicates
2367:simulfixes
2363:superfixes
2359:suprafixes
2247:on nouns:
2092:Vietnamese
2067:gish/géésh
1946:iterative
1944:Usitative-
1748:iterative
1746:Usitative-
1659:, such as
1517:consonants
919:rise/raise
487:Gemination
448:Synaeresis
217:Epenthesis
145:Metathesis
76:newspapers
65:"Apophony"
4430:Metaphony
3540:Negative
3537:Positive
3509:Chickasaw
3282:(plural)
3221:'houses'
3116:gradation
3085:foot/feet
2682:Preterite
2657:, called
2630:ng, and s
2397:causative
2291:contrást
2288:cóntrast
2256:"stones"
2186:'yonder'
1949:Optative
1876:Conative
1751:Optative
1682:kaah/-ką́
1675:, and/or
1596:Singular
1558:(English
1047:sing/sang
995:Singular
927:sing/song
625:gradation
537:Rhotacism
457:Synizesis
452:diaeresis
431:Synalepha
409:linking R
364:Metaphony
274:Haplology
259:Apheresis
234:Unpacking
224:Prothesis
208:Fortition
106:June 2019
21:Apophenia
4707:Category
4523:(2003),
4413:See also
4405:pīlipālā
4391:jīligūlū
4375:'rustle'
4352:'rattle'
4121:morpheme
4047:morpheme
3902:'books'
3739:yu-∅-a-u
3710:ya-∅-u-u
3555:akhi'lho
3398:Singular
3192:'books'
3160:Singular
3112:apophony
3098:, using
2911:t or str
2907:t > f
2347:subjéct
2344:súbject
2331:pervért
2328:pérvert
2299:convíct
2296:cónvict
2253:"stone"
2241:Albanian
2178:'there'
2120:'there'
2082:Suprafix
1673:nasality
1533:nasality
1521:prosodic
1112:unvoiced
942:suffixes
697:internal
663:) is an
633:mutation
613:apophony
512:Iotacism
507:Betacism
497:Fronting
492:Clipping
477:Apophony
229:Paragoge
165:Lenition
4113:g-ee-se
3875:'book'
3853:i-aa-ah
3823:ma-∅-uu
3587:of the
3547:hilhali
3401:Plural
3390:Chechen
3206:'house'
3163:Plural
3063:From a
2877:in the
2840:(i-o-i)
2781:(a-e-a)
2722:(i-a-u)
2651:English
2355:affixes
2339:recórd
2336:récord
2323:permít
2320:pérmit
2315:objéct
2312:óbject
2307:insúlt
2304:ínsult
2211:'hard'
2153:'then'
2150:bấy giờ
2142:bây giờ
2112:'here'
1941:future
1743:future
1599:Plural
1094:voicing
1077:(where
998:Plural
695:as the
693:English
679:(often
502:Raising
438:Elision
405:Liaison
269:Apocope
264:Syncope
252:Elision
90:scholar
4694:
4659:
4616:
4543:
4535:
4476:
4447:ablaut
4194:sh-spl
4172:lly-sh
4016:Muslim
3997:u-ːi-a
3967:a-ːa-a
3937:aa-a-a
3620:Gloss
3577:, and
3521:) and
3177:'book'
3152:German
3136:umlaut
3128:ablaut
3104:umlaut
3100:ablaut
3096:umlaut
3092:ablaut
3038:Umlaut
3021:Ablaut
3017:umlaut
3013:ablaut
2901:umlaut
2885:Umlaut
2881:form.
2875:suffix
2671:aspect
2616:ablaut
2234:tone)
2201:tone)
2168:tone)
2145:'now'
2135:tone)
2088:stress
1910:-géésh
1665:suffix
1661:Navajo
1602:Gloss
1570:) and
1513:vowels
1105:voiced
929:), or
909:(e.g.
907:aspect
617:ablaut
522:Merger
517:Fusion
443:Crasis
398:Sandhi
372:umlaut
334:Fusion
92:
85:
78:
71:
63:
4242:shy-w
4231:cky-t
4161:ss-cr
4109:goose
4094:goose
4062:infix
3797:u-ːaa
3681:u-i-a
3651:a-a-a
3617:Word
2663:vowel
2655:verbs
2626:ng, s
2622:ng, s
2393:Bemba
2365:, or
2283:verb
2280:noun
2228:tone–
2198:huyền
2195:tone–
2192:ngang
2162:tone–
2159:ngang
2129:tone–
2126:ngang
1987:géésh
1959:géésh
1922:-gish
1916:-gizh
1706:-kááł
1700:-kaał
1694:-kááh
1688:-kaah
1588:Dinka
1507:Types
1147:belie
1138:belie
1075:geese
1067:books
1003:book
962:jump
903:tense
891:th, t
876:se, g
846:ve, w
831:se, r
825:se, r
766:d, br
751:d, bl
736:nd, b
721:ng, s
715:ng, s
709:ng, s
669:vowel
659:, or
629:vowel
621:vowel
97:JSTOR
83:books
4692:ISBN
4657:ISBN
4614:ISBN
4541:ISBN
4533:ISBN
4474:ISBN
4399:噼里啪啦
4385:叽里咕噜
4295:ck-t
4283:p-sn
4220:ck-t
4183:p-sn
4098:-ee-
4077:-ee-
4075:and
4073:-oo-
4069:-ee-
4065:-oo-
4058:g-se
3880:i-aa
3770:aa-i
3583:The
3494:ttan
3485:анаш
3233:-ren
3134:for
3126:for
3094:and
3083:and
3048:and
3015:and
2979:>
2893:and
2778:llen
2685:Past
2604:and
2513:ende
2403:and
2216:cửng
2208:cứng
2060:gish
2053:gish
2046:gish
2039:gish
2027:gizh
2020:gish
2013:gish
2006:gizh
1999:gizh
1980:gish
1973:gish
1966:gizh
1881:kááh
1862:kaah
1855:kaał
1829:kaał
1822:kaah
1815:kaał
1789:kááł
1782:kááh
1775:kááł
1761:kaah
1724:-ką́
1712:-ka’
1677:tone
1580:se-g
1564:ng-s
1525:tone
1499:and
1452:wrea
1423:wrea
1189:brea
1157:brea
1127:advi
1118:advi
1109:Noun
1102:Verb
1055:jump
1041:and
1006:book
965:jump
944:(an
861:t, f
796:d, f
781:m, d
673:word
450:and
134:and
69:news
4311:k-ç
4301:).
4271:c-t
4267:c-t
4253:g-z
4246:shy
4235:cky
4209:c-t
4205:c-t
4190:spl
4176:lly
4149:or
4035:or
3907:u-u
3785:taa
3531:):
3528:-'-
3518:ak-
3462:тт
3435:наш
3280:ren
3237:-en
3229:-er
3058:/j/
3056:or
3054:/i/
3001:/ɑ/
2947:or
2837:ven
2610:In
2539:lun
2527:lun
2387:or
2231:hỏi
2225:sắc
2183:kìa
2175:kia
2165:sắc
2132:sắc
2117:đấy
2109:đây
1925:):
1869:ka’
1848:ką́
1841:ka’
1808:ką́
1768:ką́
1727:).
1718:-ká
1647:a-ɛ
1638:kɛt
1633:kat
1625:o-u
1616:dum
1611:dom
1542:or
1403:wea
1272:hou
1243:hou
1089:).
1059:-ed
1031:se
1022:se
990:ng
981:ng
937:).
921:),
913:),
905:or
837:sen
811:, l
683:).
667:of
627:, (
619:, (
607:In
52:by
4709::
4539:/
4531:.
4527:.
4365:-k
4342:-g
4318:.
4299:ck
4279:sn
4224:ck
4198:sh
4179:sn
4168:sh
4165:ss
4157:cr
4111:→
4104:.
4102:oo
3999:)
3982:ti
3969:)
3952:ta
3939:)
3918:aa
3909:)
3882:)
3868:aa
3855:)
3842:ah
3838:aa
3825:)
3811:uu
3809:kt
3807:ma
3799:)
3772:)
3750:aa
3741:)
3722:kt
3720:yu
3712:)
3693:kt
3691:ya
3683:)
3653:)
3573:,
3497:aš
3483:тт
3470:tt
3447:aš
3444:mn
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