Antioxidant - Knowledge

726: 33: 1258: 2096: 1696: 9115: 387: 1910: 2057:, or people with disease, these results may not apply to the general population. This meta-analysis was later repeated and extended by the same authors, confirming the previous results. These two publications are consistent with some previous meta-analyses that also suggested that vitamin E supplementation increased mortality, and that antioxidant supplements increased the risk of 1354:

reaction from continuing. This reaction produces oxidised α-tocopheroxyl radicals that can be recycled back to the active reduced form through reduction by other antioxidants, such as ascorbate, retinol or ubiquinol. This is in line with findings showing that α-tocopherol, but not water-soluble antioxidants, efficiently protects glutathione peroxidase 4 (

1646:, which contains copper and zinc in its active sites. The mitochondrial isozyme seems to be the most biologically important of these three, since mice lacking this enzyme die soon after birth. In contrast, the mice lacking copper/zinc SOD (Sod1) are viable but have numerous pathologies and a reduced lifespan (see article on 1630:(SODs) are a class of closely related enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of the superoxide anion into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. SOD enzymes are present in almost all aerobic cells and in extracellular fluids. Superoxide dismutase enzymes contain metal ion cofactors that, depending on the isozyme, can be copper, zinc, 1601: 1829:

in animals. Glutathione peroxidase 1 is the most abundant and is a very efficient scavenger of hydrogen peroxide, while glutathione peroxidase 4 is most active with lipid hydroperoxides. Surprisingly, glutathione peroxidase 1 is dispensable, as mice lacking this enzyme have normal lifespans, but they

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and interdependent. The action of one antioxidant may therefore depend on the proper function of other members of the antioxidant system. The amount of protection provided by any one antioxidant will also depend on its concentration, its reactivity towards the particular reactive oxygen species being

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is first converted to hydrogen peroxide and then further reduced to give water. This detoxification pathway is the result of multiple enzymes, with superoxide dismutases catalysing the first step and then catalases and various peroxidases removing hydrogen peroxide. As with antioxidant metabolites,

334:. Even less fatty foods such as fruits are sprayed with sulfurous antioxidants prior to air drying. Metals catalyse oxidation. Some fatty foods such as olive oil are partially protected from oxidation by their natural content of antioxidants. Fatty foods are sensitive to photooxidation, which forms 5855:

Brigelius-Flohé R, Davies KJ (July 2007). "Is vitamin E an antioxidant, a regulator of signal transduction and gene expression, or a 'junk' food? Comments on the two accompanying papers: "Molecular mechanism of alpha-tocopherol action" by A. Azzi and "Vitamin E, antioxidant and nothing more" by M.

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bread. However, germination, soaking, or microbial fermentation are all household strategies that reduce the phytate and polyphenol content of unrefined cereal. Increases in Fe, Zn and Ca absorption have been reported in adults fed dephytinized cereals compared with cereals containing their native

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including data from approximately 230,000 patients showed that β-carotene, vitamin A or vitamin E supplementation is associated with increased mortality, but saw no significant effect from vitamin C. No health risk was seen when all the randomized controlled studies were examined together, but an

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It has been claimed that the α-tocopherol form is the most important lipid-soluble antioxidant, and that it protects membranes from oxidation by reacting with lipid radicals produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction. This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the propagation

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that minimize this oxidative damage without interfering with the beneficial effect of oxygen. In general, antioxidant systems either prevent these reactive species from being formed, or remove them, thus minimizing their damage. Reactive oxygen species can have useful cellular functions, such as

855:). This unstable intermediate can lead to electron "leakage", when electrons jump directly to oxygen and form the superoxide anion, instead of moving through the normal series of well-controlled reactions of the electron transport chain. Peroxide is also produced from the oxidation of reduced 1391:

Antioxidants that are reducing agents can also act as pro-oxidants. For example, vitamin C has antioxidant activity when it reduces oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide; however, it will also reduce metal ions such as iron and copper that generate free radicals through the

196:. Originally, the term antioxidant specifically referred to a chemical that prevented the consumption of oxygen. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, extensive study concentrated on the use of antioxidants in important industrial processes, such as the prevention of metal 673:

Synthetic phenolic antioxidants (SPAs) and aminic antioxidants have potential human and environmental health hazards. SPAs are common in indoor dust, small air particles, sediment, sewage, river water and wastewater. They are synthesized from phenolic compounds and include

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Reaume AG, Elliott JL, Hoffman EK, Kowall NW, Ferrante RJ, Siwek DF, Wilcox HM, Flood DG, Beal MF, Brown RH, Scott RW, Snider WD (May 1996). "Motor neurons in Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase-deficient mice develop normally but exhibit enhanced cell death after axonal injury".

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form. In its active state, thioredoxin acts as an efficient reducing agent, scavenging reactive oxygen species and maintaining other proteins in their reduced state. After being oxidized, the active thioredoxin is regenerated by the action of thioredoxin reductase, using

1684:. Here, its cofactor is oxidised by one molecule of hydrogen peroxide and then regenerated by transferring the bound oxygen to a second molecule of substrate. Despite its apparent importance in hydrogen peroxide removal, humans with genetic deficiency of catalase — " 1299:, as well as reacting directly with oxidants. Due to its high concentration and its central role in maintaining the cell's redox state, glutathione is one of the most important cellular antioxidants. In some organisms glutathione is replaced by other thiols, such as by 2048:(CARET) study of lung cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene and vitamin A had increased rates of lung cancer. Subsequent studies confirmed these adverse effects. These harmful effects may also be seen in non-smokers, as one 1730:. They are divided into three classes: typical 2-cysteine peroxiredoxins; atypical 2-cysteine peroxiredoxins; and 1-cysteine peroxiredoxins. These enzymes share the same basic catalytic mechanism, in which a redox-active cysteine (the peroxidatic cysteine) in the 1421:

The relative importance of the antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of antioxidants is an area of current research, but vitamin C, which exerts its effects as a vitamin by oxidizing polypeptides, appears to have a mostly antioxidant action in the human body.

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Antioxidant vitamins are found in vegetables, fruits, eggs, legumes and nuts. Vitamins A, C, and E can be destroyed by long-term storage or prolonged cooking. The effects of cooking and food processing are complex, as these processes can also increase the

1396:. While ascorbic acid is effective antioxidant, it can also oxidatively change the flavor and color of food. With the presence of transition metals, there are low concentrations of ascorbic acid that can act as a radical scavenger in the Fenton reaction. 5081:

Baillie JK, Bates MG, Thompson AA, Waring WS, Partridge RW, Schnopp MF, Simpson A, Gulliver-Sloan F, Maxwell SR, Webb DJ (May 2007). "Endogenous urate production augments plasma antioxidant capacity in healthy lowland subjects exposed to high altitude".

285:. Exposure to oxygen and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food, so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in containers or even coating it in wax, as with cucumbers. However, as oxygen is also important for plant 298:

spoilage, oxidation reactions still occur relatively rapidly in frozen or refrigerated food. These preservatives include natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (AA, E300) and tocopherols (E306), as well as synthetic antioxidants such as

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conditions produces unpleasant flavors and unappealing colors. Consequently, packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables contains an ≈8% oxygen atmosphere. Antioxidants are an especially important class of preservatives as, unlike bacterial or

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has the highest concentration of any blood antioxidant and provides over half of the total antioxidant capacity of human serum. Uric acid's antioxidant activities are also complex, given that it does not react with some oxidants, such as

2069:. Overall, the large number of clinical trials carried out on antioxidant supplements suggest that either these products have no effect on health, or that they cause a small increase in mortality in elderly or vulnerable populations. 1434: 4723:"Retinol, alpha-tocopherol, lutein/zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, alpha-carotene, trans-beta-carotene, and four retinyl esters in serum determined simultaneously by reversed-phase HPLC with multiwavelength detection" 4797:

Zita C, Overvad K, Mortensen SA, Sindberg CD, Moesgaard S, Hunter DA (2003). "Serum coenzyme Q10 concentrations in healthy men supplemented with 30 mg or 100 mg coenzyme Q10 for two months in a randomised controlled study".

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radicals. DBP is toxic to marine life if exposed long-term. Phenolic antioxidants have low biodegradability, but they do not have severe toxicity toward aquatic organisms at low concentrations. Another type of antioxidant,

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Measurement of polyphenol and carotenoid content in food is not a straightforward process, as antioxidants collectively are a diverse group of compounds with different reactivities to various reactive oxygen species. In

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Del Carlo M, Sacchetti G, Di Mattia C, Compagnone D, Mastrocola D, Liberatore L, Cichelli A (June 2004). "Contribution of the phenolic fraction to the antioxidant activity and oxidative stability of olive oil".

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Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C (February 2007). "Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis".

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Flagg EW, Coates RJ, Eley JW, Jones DP, Gunter EW, Byers TE, Block GS, Greenberg RS (1994). "Dietary glutathione intake in humans and the relationship between intake and plasma total glutathione level".

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Zelko IN, Mariani TJ, Folz RJ (August 2002). "Superoxide dismutase multigene family: a comparison of the CuZn-SOD (SOD1), Mn-SOD (SOD2), and EC-SOD (SOD3) gene structures, evolution, and expression".

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Claiborne A, Yeh JI, Mallett TC, Luba J, Crane EJ, Charrier V, Parsonage D (November 1999). "Protein-sulfenic acids: diverse roles for an unlikely player in enzyme catalysis and redox regulation".

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Melov S, Schneider JA, Day BJ, Hinerfeld D, Coskun P, Mirra SS, Crapo JD, Wallace DC (February 1998). "A novel neurological phenotype in mice lacking mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase".

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Kupper FC, Carpenter LJ, McFiggans GB, Palmer CJ, Waite TJ, Boneberg E-M, Woitsch S, Weiller M, Abela R, Grolimund D, Potin P, Butler A, Luther GW, Kroneck PMH, Meyer-Klaucke W, Feiters MC (2008).

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Maiani G, Castón MJ, Catasta G, Toti E, Cambrodón IG, Bysted A, Granado-Lorencio F, Olmedilla-Alonso B, Knuthsen P, Valoti M, Böhm V, Mayer-Miebach E, Behsnilian D, Schlemmer U (September 2009).

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Sharma R, Yang Y, Sharma A, Awasthi S, Awasthi YC (April 2004). "Antioxidant role of glutathione S-transferases: protection against oxidant toxicity and regulation of stress-mediated apoptosis".

1210:(535+ μmol/L). Many of these aforementioned studies determined UA's antioxidant actions within normal physiological levels, and some found antioxidant activity at levels as high as 285 μmol/L. 1233:

found in both animals and plants, can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. In addition to its direct antioxidant effects, ascorbic acid is also a

7429:"Mice with a homozygous null mutation for the most abundant glutathione peroxidase, Gpx1, show increased susceptibility to the oxidative stress-inducing agents paraquat and hydrogen peroxide" 2108:

of antioxidants, such as some carotenoids in vegetables. Processed food contains fewer antioxidant vitamins than fresh and uncooked foods, as preparation exposes food to heat and oxygen.

227:. Antioxidant activity could be measured simply by placing the fat in a closed container with oxygen and measuring the rate of oxygen consumption. However, it was the identification of 7728: 2077:

A 2017 review showed that taking antioxidant dietary supplements before or after exercise is unlikely to produce a noticeable reduction in muscle soreness after a person exercises.

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As with the chemical antioxidants, cells are protected against oxidative stress by an interacting network of antioxidant enzymes. Here, the superoxide released by processes such as

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Evelson P, Travacio M, Repetto M, Escobar J, Llesuy S, Lissi EA (April 2001). "Evaluation of total reactive antioxidant potential (TRAP) of tissue homogenates and their cytosols".

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Ou B, Hampsch-Woodill M, Prior RL (October 2001). "Development and validation of an improved oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay using fluorescein as the fluorescent probe".

1365:, with this molecule having no significant role in antioxidant metabolism. The functions of the other forms of vitamin E are even less well understood, although γ-tocopherol is a 1361:

However, the roles and importance of the various forms of vitamin E are presently unclear, and it has even been suggested that the most important function of α-tocopherol is as a

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Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, Keogh JP, Meyskens FL, Valanis B, Williams JH, Barnhart S, Cherniack MG, Brodkin CA, Hammar S (November 1996).

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before being absorbed, even large oral intake has little effect on the concentration of glutathione in the body. Although large amounts of sulfur-containing amino acids such as

622:: Act by decomposing peroxides into non-radical products, thus preventing further generation of free radicals, and contributing to the overall oxidate stability of the polymer. 863:. However, although these enzymes can produce oxidants, the relative importance of the electron transfer chain to other processes that generate peroxide is unclear. In plants, 796:). The hydroxyl radical is particularly unstable and will react rapidly and non-specifically with most biological molecules. This species is produced from hydrogen peroxide in 243:

of antioxidants were first explored when it was recognized that a substance with anti-oxidative activity is likely to be one that is itself readily oxidized. Research into how

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Propyl Gallate is a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) antioxidant to protect fats, oils, and fat-containing food from rancidity that results from the formation of peroxides.

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must be considered one of many risk factors. By itself, UA-related risk of gout at high levels (415–530 μmol/L) is only 0.5% per year with an increase to 4.5% per year at UA

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increase in mortality was detected when only high-quality and low-bias risk trials were examined separately. As the majority of these low-bias trials dealt with either

322:. Oxidized lipids are often discolored and can impart unpleasant tastes and flavors. Thus, these foods are rarely preserved by drying; instead, they are preserved by 2223:

were withdrawn in 2012 as biologically irrelevant to human health, referring to an absence of physiological evidence for polyphenols having antioxidant properties

1596:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {Oxygen}{O2}}->{\underset {Superoxide}{*O2^{-}}}->{\underset {Hydrogen \atop peroxide}{H2O2}}->{\underset {Water}{H2O}}}}} 6850:

Rhee SG, Chae HZ, Kim K (June 2005). "Peroxiredoxins: a historical overview and speculative preview of novel mechanisms and emerging concepts in cell signaling".

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Xu, Jing; Hao, Yanfen; Yang, Zhiruo; Li, Wenjuan; Xie, Wenjing; Huang, Yani; Wang, Deliang; He, Yuqing; Liang, Yong; Matsiko, Julius; Wang, Pu (7 November 2022).

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The use of oxygen as part of the process for generating metabolic energy produces reactive oxygen species. In this process, the superoxide anion is produced as a

1241:, a function that is used in stress resistance in plants. Ascorbic acid is present at high levels in all parts of plants and can reach concentrations of 20 5814:

Seiler A, Schneider M, Förster H, Roth S, Wirth EK, Culmsee C, Plesnila N, Kremmer E, Rådmark O, Wurst W, Bornkamm GW, Schweizer U, Conrad M (September 2008).

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Nakabeppu Y, Sakumi K, Sakamoto K, Tsuchimoto D, Tsuzuki T, Nakatsu Y (April 2006). "Mutagenesis and carcinogenesis caused by the oxidation of nucleic acids".

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Boozer CE, Hammond GS, Hamilton CE, Sen JN (1955). "Air Oxidation of Hydrocarbons.1II. The Stoichiometry and Fate of Inhibitors in Benzene and Chlorobenzene".

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Liu, Runzeng; Mabury, Scott A. (6 October 2020). "Synthetic Phenolic Antioxidants: A Review of Environmental Occurrence, Fate, Human Exposure, and Toxicity".

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Débora, Jackeline; Cleide, Viviane; Luciana, Oliveira; Rosemeire, Aparecida (7 August 2019). "Polyphenols as natural antioxidants in cosmetics applications".

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to prevent rancidity. Antioxidants in cosmetic products prevent oxidation of active ingredients and lipid content. For example, phenolic antioxidants such as

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de Haan JB, Bladier C, Griffiths P, Kelner M, O'Shea RD, Cheung NS, Bronson RT, Silvestro MJ, Wild S, Zheng SS, Beart PM, Hertzog PJ, Kola I (August 1998).

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are enzymes that catalyse the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, using either an iron or manganese cofactor. This protein is localized to

597:: Act by scavenging free radicals formed during the thermal oxidation process, thus preventing chain reactions that lead to polymer degradation. Examples: 4972:

Enomoto A, Endou H (September 2005). "Roles of organic anion transporters (OATs) and a urate transporter (URAT1) in the pathophysiology of human disease".

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Valko M, Leibfritz D, Moncol J, Cronin MT, Mazur M, Telser J (2007). "Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease".

711:, is commonly used in the production of commercial, industrial lubricants and rubber products and it also acts as a supplement for automotive engine oils. 1738:

by the peroxide substrate. Over-oxidation of this cysteine residue in peroxiredoxins inactivates these enzymes, but this can be reversed by the action of

934:. These compounds may be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet. The different antioxidants are present at a wide range of concentrations in 1895:

induce oxidative stress that damages essential components of cancer cells, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids that comprise cell membranes.

66:. Autoxidation leads to degradation of organic compounds, including living matter. Antioxidants are frequently added to industrial products, such as 7967:

Mosha TC, Gaga HE, Pace RD, Laswai HS, Mtebe K (June 1995). "Effect of blanching on the content of antinutritional factors in selected vegetables".

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Lee TH, Kim SU, Yu SL, Kim SH, Park DS, Moon HB, Dho SH, Kwon KS, Kwon HJ, Han YH, Jeong S, Kang SW, Shin HS, Lee KK, Rhee SG, Yu DY (June 2003).

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del Río LA, Sandalio LM, Palma JM, Bueno P, Corpas FJ (November 1992). "Metabolism of oxygen radicals in peroxisomes and cellular implications".

4158: 3050: 3024: 2215:(ORAC) was once an industry standard for estimating antioxidant strength of whole foods, juices and food additives, mainly from the presence of 8559: 6679:

Hiner AN, Raven EL, Thorneley RN, García-Cánovas F, Rodríguez-López JN (July 2002). "Mechanisms of compound I formation in heme peroxidases".

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Nazarewicz RR, Ziolkowski W, Vaccaro PS, Ghafourifar P (December 2007). "Effect of short-term ketogenic diet on redox status of human blood".

1891:. Pharmaceuticals and supplements that have antioxidant properties suppress the formation of free radicals by inhibiting oxidation processes. 8804:

Dodd S, Dean O, Copolov DL, Malhi GS, Berk M (December 2008). "N-acetylcysteine for antioxidant therapy: pharmacology and clinical utility".

1358:)-deficient cells from cell death. GPx4 is the only known enzyme that efficiently reduces lipid-hydroperoxides within biological membranes. 6053:

Duarte TL, Lunec J (July 2005). "Review: When is an antioxidant not an antioxidant? A review of novel actions and reactions of vitamin C".

1742:. Peroxiredoxins seem to be important in antioxidant metabolism, as mice lacking peroxiredoxin 1 or 2 have shortened lifespans and develop 7737:"Potential interactions of prescription and over-the-counter medications having antioxidant capabilities with radiation and chemotherapy" 7316:

Creissen G, Broadbent P, Stevens R, Wellburn AR, Mullineaux P (May 1996). "Manipulation of glutathione metabolism in transgenic plants".

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can increase glutathione, no evidence exists that eating high levels of these glutathione precursors is beneficial for healthy adults.

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that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. There are at least four different glutathione peroxidase

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is a reducing agent and can be reversibly oxidized and reduced. In cells, glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by the enzyme

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molecules. These molecules undergo free radical chain reactions, but antioxidants inhibit them by preventing the oxidation processes.

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Stahl W, Schwarz W, Sundquist AR, Sies H (April 1992). "cis-trans isomers of lycopene and beta-carotene in human serum and tissues".

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may be added to plastics to prevent this. An overview of some of the most applied antioxidants for polymer materials is shown below:

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Zhang, Zi-Feng; Zhang, Xue; Sverko, Ed; Marvin, Christopher H.; Jobst, Karl J.; Smyth, Shirley Anne; Li, Yi-Fan (11 February 2020).

1834:-transferases show high activity with lipid peroxides. These enzymes are at particularly high levels in the liver and also serve in 184:

plants between 50 and 200 million years ago resulted in the development of many antioxidant pigments – particularly during the

7666:"Dietary (poly)phenolics in human health: structures, bioavailability, and evidence of protective effects against chronic diseases" 6101:"Ascorbate oxidation by iron, copper and reactive oxygen species: review, model development, and derivation of key rate constants" 5046:

Campion EW, Glynn RJ, DeLabry LO (March 1987). "Asymptomatic hyperuricemia. Risks and consequences in the Normative Aging Study".

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Zallen EM, Hitchcock MJ, Goertz GE (December 1975). "Chilled food systems. Effects of chilled holding on quality of beef loaves".

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as antioxidants that revolutionized the field and led to the realization of the importance of antioxidants in the biochemistry of

8849:"Adequate range for sulfur-containing amino acids and biomarkers for their excess: lessons from enteral and parenteral nutrition" 3717:

Valko M, Izakovic M, Mazur M, Rhodes CJ, Telser J (November 2004). "Role of oxygen radicals in DNA damage and cancer incidence".

2220: 645:: HALS act by scavenging free radicals generated during photo-oxidation, thus preventing the polymer material from UV radiation. 438: 5816:"Glutathione peroxidase 4 senses and translates oxidative stress into 12/15-lipoxygenase dependent- and AIF-mediated cell death" 9409: 9147: 4604:

Akiba S, Matsugo S, Packer L, Konishi T (May 1998). "Assay of protein-bound lipoic acid in tissues by a new enzymatic method".

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Bannister JV, Bannister WH, Rotilio G (1987). "Aspects of the structure, function, and applications of superoxide dismutase".

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Shen, Jiaqi; Griffiths, Paul T.; Campbell, Steven J.; Utinger, Battist; Kalberer, Markus; Paulson, Suzanne E. (1 April 2021).

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Rodriguez-Amaya DB (2003). "Food carotenoids: analysis, composition and alterations during storage and processing of foods".

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Newton GL, Rawat M, La Clair JJ, Jothivasan VK, Budiarto T, Hamilton CJ, Claiborne A, Helmann JD, Fahey RC (September 2009).

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Teichert J, Preiss R (November 1992). "HPLC-methods for determination of lipoic acid and its reduced form in human plasma".

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Robards K, Kerr AF, Patsalides E (February 1988). "Rancidity and its Measurement in Edible Oils and Snack Foods. A review".

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Alternative in vitro measurements of antioxidant content in foods – also based on the presence of polyphenols – include the

8560:"Carotenoids: actual knowledge on food sources, intakes, stability and bioavailability and their protective role in humans" 7016:

Neumann CA, Krause DS, Carman CV, Das S, Dubey DP, Abraham JL, Bronson RT, Fujiwara Y, Orkin SH, Van Etten RA (July 2003).

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the contributions of these enzymes to antioxidant defenses can be hard to separate from one another, but the generation of

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Wood ZA, Schröder E, Robin Harris J, Poole LB (January 2003). "Structure, mechanism and regulation of peroxiredoxins".

2212: 761:. Thus, ideally, antioxidant systems do not remove oxidants entirely, but maintain them at some optimum concentration. 7595: 5990: 9414: 7156:

Nordberg J, Arnér ES (December 2001). "Reactive oxygen species, antioxidants, and the mammalian thioredoxin system".

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are more systemically distributed (see table below). Some antioxidants are only found in a few organisms, and can be

8989:"Standardized methods for the determination of antioxidant capacity and phenolics in foods and dietary supplements" 8988: 7388:"Mice deficient in cellular glutathione peroxidase develop normally and show no increased sensitivity to hyperoxia" 5177:

Padayatty SJ, Katz A, Wang Y, Eck P, Kwon O, Lee JH, Chen S, Corpe C, Dutta A, Dutta SK, Levine M (February 2003).

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and preventing them from catalyzing the production of free radicals in the cell. The ability to sequester iron for

665:: Blends of different types of antioxidants are commonly applied, as they can serve various and multiple purposes. 588: 477: 8097:"Risk factors for lung cancer and for intervention effects in CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial" 5389:

Gaballa A, Newton GL, Antelmann H, Parsonage D, Upton H, Rawat M, Claiborne A, Fahey RC, Helmann JD (April 2010).

1817:. This system is found in animals, plants and microorganisms. Glutathione peroxidase is an enzyme containing four 9374: 4271: 699: 602: 491: 164:

As part of their adaptation from marine life, terrestrial plants began producing non-marine antioxidants such as

8224:"Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases" 6605:"Understanding the structure and function of catalases: clues from molecular evolution and in vitro mutagenesis" 5158:. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 1 July 2018 1883:

Common pharmaceuticals (and supplements) with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain

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have no antioxidant action themselves, but rather are required for the activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as

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Vieira Dos Santos C, Rey P (July 2006). "Plant thioredoxins are key actors in the oxidative stress response".

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Iverson F (June 1995). "Phenolic antioxidants: Health Protection Branch studies on butylated hydroxyanisole".

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Atkinson J, Epand RF, Epand RM (March 2008). "Tocopherols and tocotrienols in membranes: a critical review".

2352:. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 1 November 2013 1616: 17: 4369:

Chaudière J, Ferrari-Iliou R (1999). "Intracellular antioxidants: from chemical to biochemical mechanisms".

3293:"Analysis, occurrence, toxicity and environmental health risks of synthetic phenolic antioxidants: A review" 7713: 3238:"Synthetic Phenolic Antioxidants: A Review of Environmental Occurrence, Fate, Human Exposure, and Toxicity" 2086: 1937: 1872: 1680:

cells. Catalase is an unusual enzyme since, although hydrogen peroxide is its only substrate, it follows a

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Vertuani S, Angusti A, Manfredini S (2004). "The Antioxidants and Pro-Antioxidants Network: an Overview".

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Early research on the role of antioxidants in biology focused on their use in preventing the oxidation of

9399: 6800:"Analysis of the link between enzymatic activity and oligomeric state in AhpC, a bacterial peroxiredoxin" 6546: 4223:"Light and oxygenic photosynthesis: energy dissipation as a protection mechanism against photo-oxidation" 3844:"The mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species: mechanisms and implications in human pathology" 2871: 1346:

vitamins with antioxidant properties. Of these, α-tocopherol has been most studied as it has the highest

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led to the identification of antioxidants as reducing agents that prevent oxidative reactions, often by

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Brigelius-Flohé R (November 1999). "Tissue-specific functions of individual glutathione peroxidases".

7018:"Essential role for the peroxiredoxin Prdx1 in erythrocyte antioxidant defence and tumour suppression" 3292: 3182: 3129:"Rubber Antioxidants and Their Transformation Products: Environmental Occurrence and Potential Impact" 3054: 3028: 1875:

which methylates free hydroxyl groups, and thereby prevents them from acting as antioxidants in vivo.

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antioxidants are classified into two broad divisions, depending on whether they are soluble in water (

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Witschi A, Reddy S, Stofer B, Lauterburg BH (1992). "The systemic availability of oral glutathione".

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Hirst J, King MS, Pryde KR (October 2008). "The production of reactive oxygen species by complex I".

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Wang, Wanyi; Xiong, Ping; Zhang, He; Zhu, Qingqing; Liao, Chunyang; Jiang, Guibin (1 October 2021).

9355: 9350: 8595: 8343:"Meta-analysis: antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention of colorectal adenoma" 4679:"Individual carotenoid concentrations in adipose tissue and plasma as biomarkers of dietary intake" 1856: 1234: 840: 683: 675: 598: 312: 308: 286: 2301:

Helberg, Julian; Pratt, Derek A. (2021). "Autoxidation vs. Antioxidants – the fight for forever".

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Other antioxidants are not obtained from the diet, but instead are made in the body. For example,

1654:). In plants, SOD isozymes are present in the cytosol and mitochondria, with an iron SOD found in 418:, to prevent oxidation and polymerization that leads to the formation of engine-fouling residues. 290: 9360: 8284: 8280: 6384:

Nozik-Grayck E, Suliman HB, Piantadosi CA (December 2005). "Extracellular superoxide dismutase".

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Fairlamb AH, Cerami A (1992). "Metabolism and functions of trypanothione in the Kinetoplastida".

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Glantzounis GK, Tsimoyiannis EC, Kappas AM, Galaris DA (2005). "Uric acid and oxidative stress".

4154:"Iodide accumulation provides kelp with an inorganic antioxidant impacting atmospheric chemistry" 2241: 2186:, which is made from amino acids. As any glutathione in the gut is broken down to free cysteine, 1822: 749: 679: 614: 529: 255: 189: 7626: 4056:

Demmig-Adams B, Adams WW (December 2002). "Antioxidants in photosynthesis and human nutrition".

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Kader AA, Zagory D, Kerbel EL (1989). "Modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables".

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where less meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans and unleavened

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have a particularly great diversity of isoforms. The active site of thioredoxin consists of two

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has also been applied to numerous other dietary compounds that only have antioxidant properties

5684: 4116: 3891:

Finkel T, Holbrook NJ (November 2000). "Oxidants, oxidative stress and the biology of ageing".

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are often used in combination with phenolic antioxidants for syngeristic effects. Example:

7075: 7032: 6112: 5402: 5391:"Biosynthesis and functions of bacillithiol, a major low-molecular-weight thiol in Bacilli" 4167: 4065: 4034: 3900: 3773: 3359: 3304: 3249: 3194: 3085: 2797: 1904: 1768: 1699: 1627: 1238: 1009: 371: 240: 201: 111: 8966:"Withdrawn: Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) of Selected Foods, Release 2 (2010)" 6507: 2570:

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and in turn reduces other metabolites and enzyme systems, such as ascorbate in the

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Turbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic fluids, waxes, greases, and gasolines

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are hypersensitive to induced oxidative stress. In addition, the glutathione

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are common antioxidants used to inhibit gum formation in gasoline (petrol).

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Fruits and vegetables are good sources of antioxidant vitamins C and E.

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2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol and 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol

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The interactions between these different antioxidants may be

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The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology

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are also used as co-stabilisers with primary antioxidants.

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Antioxidants may be added to industrial products, such as

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to lack catalase completely, experience few ill effects.

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lacking just one antioxidant enzyme can be informative.

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Compound that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules

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to prevent the production of reactive oxygen species.

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Jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines

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Foods containing high levels of antioxidant vitamins

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strongly absorb UV radiation due to the presence of

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Oxford University Press. 8960: 8958: 8864: 8727:European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 8701: 8634: 8507: 8415: 8358: 8314: 8257: 8247: 8156: 8115: 8071: 8027: 7962: 7960: 7940: 7899: 7858: 7817: 7752: 7689: 7568: 7527:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095857 7454: 7444: 7403: 7292: 7243: 7132: 7091: 6992: 6823: 6755:Ogata M (February 1991). "Acatalasemia". 6731: 6620: 6304: 6252: 6184: 6140: 6029: 5963:"Non-antioxidant activities of vitamin E" 5960: 5831: 5778: 5755: 5732:"Vitamin E, antioxidant and nothing more" 5698: 5688: 5661: 5644: 5595: 5473: 5424: 5414: 5325: 5241: 4948: 4861: 4738: 4716: 4714: 4694: 4553: 4470: 4421: 4345: 4246: 4197: 4179: 4120: 3994: 3859: 3642: 3467: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3235: 3154: 3144: 3075: 2633: 2572:Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science 2427: 2408:Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 1380: 338:by oxidizing unsaturated fatty acids and 9070:Oxygen: The Molecule That Made the World 8623:The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 8432: 8104:Journal of the National Cancer Institute 8044: 8012:"Bioavailability of minerals in legumes" 8009: 7929:The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 7923:Gibson RS, Perlas L, Hotz C (May 2006). 7541: 6209: 6166: 5342: 5301: 5014: 3759: 3492: 3014: 2996:Journal of the American Chemical Society 2264: 2094: 1908: 1694: 1638:, while manganese SOD is present in the 1256: 875:, particularly under conditions of high 724: 651:: Naturally occurring antioxidants like 385: 31: 8564:Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 8438: 8316:10.7326/0003-4819-142-1-200501040-00110 8138: 8053: 7840: 6162: 6160: 5560: 5307: 5145: 4846:"Metabolism and function of coenzyme Q" 4834: 4764:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 4503:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 4487: 4320:Miller RA, Britigan BE (January 1997). 4279:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 4269: 3445: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3053:. SpecialChem Adhesives. Archived from 2869: 2726: 2450: 2296: 2294: 2221:United States Department of Agriculture 1952:, which are high in plant-based diets. 643:Hindered Amine Light Stabilizers (HALS) 14: 9428: 8987:Prior RL, Wu X, Schaich K (May 2005). 8955: 8683: 7957: 7267:Mustacich D, Powis G (February 2000). 6004:Sen CK, Khanna S, Roy S (March 2006). 5576:Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry 5441: 4884: 4711: 4035:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090938 3577: 3405: 3394: 3078:Environmental Science & Technology 2569: 2485: 2405: 2246:Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity 2128:Fresh or frozen fruits and vegetables 1762:protein thioredoxin and its companion 676:2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (BHT) 628:tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite 9129: 9051:Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine 8797: 8617:Henry CJ, Heppell N (February 2002). 7734: 7226:Arnér ES, Holmgren A (October 2000). 6754: 5496: 4020: 3977:Seaver LC, Imlay JA (November 2004). 3841: 3176: 3174: 2865: 2863: 2526: 2344: 2342: 2340: 1272:has antioxidant properties since the 466:N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine 266: 261: 9067: 8806:Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy 7881: 7706: 6554:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 6316:CRC Critical Reviews in Biochemistry 6157: 5925: 5919: 5673:"Vitamin E: function and metabolism" 4974:Clinical and Experimental Nephrology 4403: 3800: 3622:Stohs SJ, Bagchi D (February 1995). 3540: 3449: 3434: 3027:. Innospec Chemicals. Archived from 2615: 2291: 2202:Measurement and invalidation of ORAC 1863:, which have antioxidant properties 659:are used for specific applications. 439:N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine 9049:Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM (2015). 8894:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 7433:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 7392:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 7353:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 7158:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 6864:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.02.026 6852:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 6646:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 6512:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 6278:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 5940:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.013 5928:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 5905:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.11.010 5893:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 5870:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.05.016 5858:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 5748:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.03.024 5736:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 5730:Traber MG, Atkinson J (July 2007). 5546:10.1146/annurev.mi.46.100192.003403 5368:10.1146/annurev.bi.52.070183.003431 5314:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 4923:Sautin YY, Johnson RJ (June 2008). 4887:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 4406:"Strategies of antioxidant defense" 3983:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 3719:Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 3631:Free Radical Biology & Medicine 2907:International Journal of Toxicology 2488:Impact of Processing on Food Safety 2465:10.1146/annurev.bi.16.070147.001141 2451:Mattill HA (1947). "Antioxidants". 1846: 1750:Thioredoxin and glutathione systems 24: 9041: 7670:Antioxidants & Redox Signaling 7480:Antioxidants & Redox Signaling 4445:Khaw KT, Woodhouse P (June 1995). 4423:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb18025.x 3731:10.1023/B:MCBI.0000049134.69131.89 3171: 2860: 2337: 2213:oxygen radical absorbance capacity 1898: 1841: 1555: 1538: 1496: 1033: 579:. Oxidation can be accelerated by 381: 25: 9467: 9107: 8665:from the original on 4 March 2007 7631:Free Radical Biology and Medicine 6681:Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 6225:Environmental Health Perspectives 2769:from the original on 4 March 2007 2530:Three eras of vitamin C discovery 2080: 1871:, are extensively metabolized by 1425: 729:The structure of the antioxidant 9155: 9113: 8980: 8920: 8881: 8840: 8761: 8718: 8677: 8651: 8610: 8551: 8524: 8467: 8383: 8360:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02970.x 8290: 8274: 8132: 8088: 8016:The British Journal of Nutrition 8003: 7916: 7875: 7834: 7777: 7657: 7618: 7585: 7506: 7471: 7420: 7379: 7344: 7318:Biochemical Society Transactions 7309: 7260: 7245:10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01701.x 7232:European Journal of Biochemistry 7219: 7184: 7149: 7108: 7067: 7009: 6956: 6913: 6878: 6843: 6791: 6748: 6707: 6672: 6637: 6596: 6538: 6499: 6455: 6412: 5048:The American Journal of Medicine 4410:European Journal of Biochemistry 3944:Biochemical Society Transactions 3469:10.1113/expphysiol.1997.sp004024 2876:Lipid Oxidation (Second Edition) 1913:Structure of the metal chelator 669:Environmental and health hazards 595:(Hindered) Phenolic Antioxidants 567:, are especially susceptible to 551:, such as rubbers, plastics and 507:2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol 478:2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol 283:guard against food deterioration 7969:Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 7741:International Journal of Cancer 6377: 6342: 6269: 6046: 5997: 5954: 5884: 5848: 5807: 5772: 5723: 5620: 5525: 5490: 5258: 5217: 5170: 4878: 4790: 4755: 4670: 4597: 4570: 4529: 4438: 4397: 4362: 4313: 4263: 4214: 4145: 4100: 4049: 3970: 3935: 3884: 3835: 3753: 3710: 3667: 3534: 3339: 3284: 3229: 3120: 3069: 3043: 2987: 2953:Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 2944: 2898: 2824: 2781: 2755: 2720: 2685: 2650: 2609: 2590: 1878: 1265:mechanism of lipid peroxidation 1039:Concentration in liver tissue ( 938:and tissues, with some such as 897:photosynthetic reaction centres 492:2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol 8492:10.1002/14651858.CD009789.pub2 8408:10.1002/14651858.CD002141.pub3 8240:10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2 7121:Journal of Experimental Botany 6887:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 5511:10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.333 5230:Journal of Experimental Botany 5195:10.1080/07315724.2003.10719272 5015:Eggebeen AT (September 2007). 4109:Journal of Experimental Botany 3809:Trends in Biochemical Sciences 2563: 2520: 2479: 2444: 2399: 2364: 2258: 1459: 1252: 1032:Concentration in human serum ( 715:Oxidative challenge in biology 680:2,4-di-tert-butyl-phenol (DBP) 559:in their main chains, such as 258:before they can damage cells. 13: 1: 8661:. National Cancer Institute. 8010:Sandberg AS (December 2002). 7841:Hurrell RF (September 2003). 7790:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 7365:10.1016/S0891-5849(99)00173-2 7205:10.1016/j.tplants.2006.05.005 7170:10.1016/S0891-5849(01)00724-9 6899:10.1016/S0968-0004(02)00003-8 6693:10.1016/S0162-0134(02)00390-2 6622:10.1016/S0079-6107(98)00058-3 6524:10.1016/S0891-5849(97)00112-3 6351:Molecular Aspects of Medicine 6290:10.1016/S0891-5849(02)00905-X 5961:Zingg JM, Azzi A (May 2004). 5793:10.1016/S0163-7827(99)00008-9 5534:Annual Review of Microbiology 5499:Annual Review of Microbiology 5356:Annual Review of Biochemistry 5327:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)36891-6 4644:Current Pharmaceutical Design 4383:10.1016/S0278-6915(99)00090-3 4326:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 4023:Annual Review of Microbiology 3821:10.1016/S0968-0004(00)01674-1 3762:"Protein oxidation and aging" 3508:Current Pharmaceutical Design 3408:Biochemical Society Symposium 2706:10.1016/S0002-8223(21)14836-9 2453:Annual Review of Biochemistry 2420:10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00368-9 2385:10.1016/s0899-9007(02)00916-4 2251: 1801:system includes glutathione, 1137:5 (human, total carotenoids) 740:The vast majority of complex 688:-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (BHA) 583:in natural sunlight to cause 289:, storing plant materials in 36:Structure of the antioxidant 8906:10.1016/0891-5849(93)90027-R 7643:10.1016/0891-5849(95)02227-9 6658:10.1016/0891-5849(92)90150-F 6603:Zámocký M, Koller F (1999). 6398:10.1016/j.biocel.2005.06.012 6167:Carr A, Frei B (June 1999). 5060:10.1016/0002-9343(87)90441-4 4899:10.1016/0891-5849(93)90143-I 4863:10.1016/j.bbamem.2003.11.012 4776:10.1016/0003-9861(92)90153-N 4371:Food and Chemical Toxicology 3653:10.1016/0891-5849(94)00159-H 3598:10.1016/j.biocel.2006.07.001 3317:10.1016/j.envres.2021.111531 3207:10.1016/j.envres.2018.11.020 2741:10.1016/0304-3835(95)03787-W 2136:(tocopherols, tocotrienols) 2087:List of antioxidants in food 2073:Exercise and muscle soreness 1873:catechol-O-methyltransferase 1326: 1213: 1177: 996:are commonly referred to as 820:mechanisms, while damage to 800:redox reactions such as the 7: 9072:. Oxford University Press. 8303:Annals of Internal Medicine 8054:Beecher GR (October 2003). 6975:10.1007/978-1-4020-6051-9_6 5967:Current Medicinal Chemistry 4270:Kerfeld CA (October 2004). 3760:Stadtman ER (August 1992). 3372:10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00796 2539:10.1007/978-1-4613-0325-1_1 2496:10.1007/978-1-4615-4853-9_3 2168:Fruit, vegetables and eggs 1289:glutathione-ascorbate cycle 575:. They can be protected by 214:internal combustion engines 10: 9472: 8684:Ortega R (December 2006). 8453:10.1016/j.clnu.2005.11.006 7882:Hunt JR (September 2003). 7802:10.1038/s41573-021-00233-1 7735:Lemmo W (September 2014). 7605:World Cancer Research Fund 7492:10.1089/152308604322899350 7093:10.1182/blood-2002-08-2548 6125:10.1038/s41598-021-86477-8 5833:10.1016/j.cmet.2008.07.005 5781:Progress in Lipid Research 5243:10.1093/jexbot/53.372.1305 4656:10.2174/138161205774913255 4555:10.1161/01.CIR.100.22.2244 2084: 1902: 1384: 1225:, an oxidation-reduction ( 824:causes enzyme inhibition, 718: 611:para tertiary butyl phenol 305:tertiary butylhydroquinone 270: 159: 114:, can prevent damage from 110:, and enzyme systems like 9392: 9343: 9163: 8818:10.1517/14728220802517901 8783:10.1080/01635589409514302 8703:10.1017/S1368980007668530 7598:23 September 2015 at the 7285:10.1042/0264-6021:3460001 6733:10.1182/blood.V90.12.4973 6566:10.1007/s00018-003-3206-5 6363:10.1016/j.mam.2005.07.006 6328:10.3109/10409238709083738 6067:10.1080/10715760500104025 6022:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.001 5856:Traber and J. 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Sci. Technol 2616:Wolf G (March 2005). 2182:. Another example is 2114:Antioxidant vitamins 2098: 2085:Further information: 1912: 1859:to prevent diseases. 1803:glutathione reductase 1764:thioredoxin reductase 1702:structure of AhpC, a 1698: 1628:Superoxide dismutases 1598: 1385:Further information: 1285:glutathione reductase 1260: 1237:for the redox enzyme 1006:glutathione reductase 978:iron-binding proteins 816:, if not reversed by 728: 719:Further information: 700:1,1-dimethylhydrazine 469:Low-temperature oils 389: 35: 9122:at Wikimedia Commons 8771:Nutrition and Cancer 8598:on 27 September 2018 6231:(Suppl 5): 1219–28. 5466:10.1038/nchembio.189 4404:Sies H (July 1993). 3676:Biological Chemistry 2810:10.1039/an9881300213 2635:10.1093/jn/135.3.363 1958:developing countries 1905:Antioxidative stress 1769:Arabidopsis thaliana 1658:that is absent from 1644:extracellular fluids 1435: 1369:that may react with 1239:ascorbate peroxidase 1010:superoxide dismutase 998:antioxidant minerals 372:hydroxycinnamic acid 241:mechanisms of action 112:superoxide dismutase 82:, in particular the 9025:on 29 December 2016 8066:(10): 3248S–3254S. 8029:10.1079/BJN/2002718 8022:(Suppl 3): S281–5. 7045:10.1038/nature01819 7037:2003Natur.424..561N 6117:2021NatSR..11.7417S 5407:2010PNAS..107.6482G 4172:2008PNAS..105.6954K 4070:2002Sci...298.2149D 3905:2000Natur.408..239F 3778:1992Sci...257.1220S 3688:10.1515/BC.2006.050 3364:2020EnSTL...7..102Z 3309:2021ER....201k1531W 3254:2020EnST...5411706L 3248:(19): 11706–11719. 3199:2019ER....169..308L 3090:2020EnST...5411706L 3084:(19): 11706–11719. 3057:on 11 February 2007 3025:"Fuel antioxidants" 3008:10.1021/ja01617a026 2802:1988Ana...113..213R 1682:ping-pong mechanism 1582: 1564: 1536: 1523: 1505: 1482: 1453: 1014:selenium in biology 830:protein degradation 709:diphenylamine (DPA) 545:polymer stabilizers 394:and derivatives of 204:of rubber, and the 180:. The evolution of 154:Dietary supplements 9370:1,2-Diaminopropane 9171:6-Hydroxymelatonin 8739:10.1007/BF02284971 8636:10.1079/PNS2001142 8533:Forum of Nutrition 8441:Clinical Nutrition 8283:News release from 7981:10.1007/BF01088275 7942:10.1079/PNS2006489 7570:10.1079/PHN2003543 7330:10.1042/bst0240465 7134:10.1093/jxb/erj160 6769:10.1007/BF00201829 6433:10.1038/ng0298-159 6105:Scientific Reports 5993:on 6 October 2011. 5588:10.1007/BF03179812 4727:Clinical Chemistry 4338:10.1128/CMR.10.1.1 4131:10.1093/jxb/erh237 3956:10.1042/BST0360976 3420:10.1042/bss0610001 3031:on 15 October 2006 2965:10.1111/jocd.13093 2315:10.1039/D1CS00265A 2180:mevalonate pathway 2101: 2065:may also increase 1918: 1867:due to their free 1717: 1593: 1590: 1570: 1546: 1524: 1511: 1487: 1468: 1457: 1441: 1363:signaling molecule 1267: 932:lipid peroxidation 806:lipid peroxidation 738: 694:and damage to the 400: 267:Food preservatives 262:Uses in technology 249:lipid peroxidation 41: 9451:Process chemicals 9423: 9422: 9344:Fuel antioxidants 9235: 9186:Alpha-lipoic acid 9179: 9164:Food antioxidants 9118:Media related to 9098:978-0-8493-1222-9 9079:978-0-19-860783-0 9060:978-0-19-856869-8 9008:10.1021/jf0502698 8941:10.1021/jf010586o 7754:10.1002/ijc.29208 7676:(14): 1818–1892. 7613:978-0-9722522-2-5 6984:978-1-4020-6050-2 6934:10.1021/bi992025k 6816:10.1021/bi050448i 6477:10.1038/ng0596-43 5017:"Gout: an update" 4457:(6994): 1559–63. 4166:(19): 6954–6958. 4064:(5601): 2149–53. 2885:978-0-9531949-8-8 2846:10.1021/jf049806z 2765:. UK food guide. 2548:978-1-4613-7998-0 2505:978-0-306-46051-7 2309:(13): 7343–7358. 2172: 2171: 2035: 2034: 1893:Radiation therapy 1889:radiation therapy 1744:hemolytic anaemia 1734:is oxidized to a 1688:" — or mice 1589: 1585: 1573: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1558: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1527: 1514: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1499: 1486: 1471: 1463: 1456: 1444: 1440: 1200:hypochlorous acid 1175: 1174: 1133:(vitamin A): 1–3 1002:chemical elements 974:transition metals 956:virulence factors 778:hypochlorous acid 766:hydrogen peroxide 541: 540: 125:antioxidants are 62:that can produce 60:chemical reaction 16:(Redirected from 9463: 9268:-Acetylserotonin 9233: 9177: 9150: 9143: 9136: 9127: 9126: 9117: 9102: 9083: 9064: 9035: 9034: 9032: 9030: 9024: 9018:. Archived from 9002:(10): 4290–302. 8993: 8984: 8978: 8977: 8975: 8973: 8962: 8953: 8952: 8924: 8918: 8917: 8885: 8879: 8878: 8868: 8844: 8838: 8837: 8801: 8795: 8794: 8765: 8759: 8758: 8722: 8716: 8715: 8705: 8681: 8675: 8674: 8672: 8670: 8655: 8649: 8648: 8638: 8614: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8603: 8594:. Archived from 8555: 8549: 8548: 8528: 8522: 8521: 8511: 8486:(12): CD009789. 8471: 8465: 8464: 8436: 8430: 8429: 8419: 8387: 8381: 8380: 8362: 8338: 8329: 8328: 8318: 8294: 8288: 8278: 8272: 8271: 8261: 8251: 8219: 8210: 8209: 8180: 8171: 8170: 8160: 8151:(6): 1345S–50S. 8136: 8130: 8129: 8119: 8101: 8092: 8086: 8085: 8075: 8051: 8042: 8041: 8031: 8007: 8001: 8000: 7964: 7955: 7954: 7944: 7920: 7914: 7913: 7903: 7879: 7873: 7872: 7862: 7838: 7832: 7831: 7821: 7781: 7775: 7774: 7756: 7732: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7721: 7710: 7704: 7703: 7693: 7661: 7655: 7654: 7622: 7616: 7589: 7583: 7582: 7572: 7548: 7539: 7538: 7510: 7504: 7503: 7475: 7469: 7468: 7458: 7448: 7439:(35): 22528–36. 7424: 7418: 7417: 7407: 7398:(26): 16644–51. 7383: 7377: 7376: 7359:(9–10): 951–65. 7348: 7342: 7341: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7296: 7264: 7258: 7257: 7247: 7223: 7217: 7216: 7188: 7182: 7181: 7164:(11): 1287–312. 7153: 7147: 7146: 7136: 7112: 7106: 7105: 7095: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7022: 7013: 7007: 7006: 6996: 6960: 6954: 6953: 6928:(47): 15407–16. 6917: 6911: 6910: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6847: 6841: 6837: 6827: 6810:(31): 10583–92. 6795: 6789: 6788: 6752: 6746: 6745: 6735: 6711: 6705: 6704: 6676: 6670: 6669: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6624: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6551: 6542: 6536: 6535: 6503: 6497: 6496: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6416: 6410: 6409: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6346: 6340: 6339: 6311: 6302: 6301: 6273: 6267: 6266: 6256: 6216: 6207: 6206: 6188: 6164: 6155: 6154: 6144: 6096: 6087: 6086: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6033: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5989:. Archived from 5958: 5952: 5951: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5888: 5882: 5881: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5835: 5811: 5805: 5804: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5759: 5727: 5721: 5720: 5702: 5692: 5668: 5659: 5658: 5648: 5624: 5618: 5617: 5599: 5567: 5558: 5557: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5477: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5428: 5418: 5386: 5380: 5379: 5351: 5340: 5339: 5329: 5320:(13): 9397–400. 5305: 5299: 5298: 5262: 5256: 5255: 5245: 5236:(372): 1305–19. 5221: 5215: 5214: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5163: 5152: 5143: 5142: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5012: 5006: 5005: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4952: 4920: 4911: 4910: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4865: 4841: 4832: 4831: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4742: 4718: 4709: 4708: 4698: 4674: 4668: 4667: 4639: 4630: 4629: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4557: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4498: 4485: 4484: 4474: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4425: 4401: 4395: 4394: 4377:(9–10): 949–62. 4366: 4360: 4359: 4349: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4276: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4250: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4201: 4183: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4124: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4018: 4009: 4008: 3998: 3989:(47): 48742–50. 3974: 3968: 3967: 3950:(Pt 5): 976–80. 3939: 3933: 3932: 3913:10.1038/35041687 3899:(6809): 239–47. 3888: 3882: 3881: 3863: 3842:Lenaz G (2001). 3839: 3833: 3832: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3772:(5074): 1220–4. 3757: 3751: 3750: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3671: 3665: 3664: 3646: 3628: 3619: 3610: 3609: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3549:(5782): 1882–3. 3538: 3532: 3531: 3503: 3490: 3489: 3471: 3447: 3432: 3431: 3403: 3392: 3391: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3178: 3169: 3168: 3158: 3148: 3124: 3118: 3117: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3047: 3041: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3021: 3012: 3011: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2867: 2858: 2857: 2828: 2822: 2821: 2785: 2779: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2763:"E number index" 2759: 2753: 2752: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2689: 2683: 2682: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2637: 2613: 2607: 2606: 2594: 2588: 2587: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2431: 2403: 2397: 2396: 2368: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2346: 2335: 2334: 2298: 2289: 2288: 2262: 2125:(ascorbic acid) 2111: 2110: 1968: 1967: 1926:dietary minerals 1847:Relation to diet 1602: 1600: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1571: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1556: 1549: 1547: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1512: 1507: 1504: 1500: 1497: 1490: 1488: 1484: 1483: 1481: 1476: 1469: 1458: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1442: 1042: 1035: 1023: 1022: 914:) or in lipids ( 790:superoxide anion 786:hydroxyl radical 721:Oxidative stress 696:endocrine system 690:. BHT can cause 449:hydraulic fluids 445:transformer oils 421: 420: 396:phenylenediamine 344:ultraviolet (UV) 311:(BHA, E320) and 237:living organisms 221:unsaturated fats 208:of fuels in the 116:oxidative stress 21: 9471: 9470: 9466: 9465: 9464: 9462: 9461: 9460: 9426: 9425: 9424: 9419: 9388: 9384:Ethylenediamine 9375:2,4-Dimethyl-6- 9339: 9259:-Acetylcysteine 9159: 9154: 9110: 9105: 9099: 9080: 9068:Lane N (2003). 9061: 9044: 9042:Further reading 9039: 9038: 9028: 9026: 9022: 8991: 8985: 8981: 8971: 8969: 8964: 8963: 8956: 8935:(10): 4619–26. 8925: 8921: 8886: 8882: 8845: 8841: 8812:(12): 1955–62. 8802: 8798: 8766: 8762: 8723: 8719: 8696:(8A): 1136–40. 8682: 8678: 8668: 8666: 8657: 8656: 8652: 8615: 8611: 8601: 8599: 8556: 8552: 8529: 8525: 8472: 8468: 8437: 8433: 8402:(3): CD002141. 8388: 8384: 8339: 8332: 8295: 8291: 8279: 8275: 8234:(3): CD007176. 8220: 8213: 8181: 8174: 8137: 8133: 8099: 8093: 8089: 8052: 8045: 8008: 8004: 7965: 7958: 7921: 7917: 7880: 7876: 7853:(9): 2973S–7S. 7839: 7835: 7782: 7778: 7747:(11): 2525–33. 7733: 7729: 7719: 7717: 7712: 7711: 7707: 7662: 7658: 7623: 7619: 7600:Wayback Machine 7590: 7586: 7549: 7542: 7511: 7507: 7476: 7472: 7425: 7421: 7384: 7380: 7349: 7345: 7314: 7310: 7265: 7261: 7224: 7220: 7189: 7185: 7154: 7150: 7127:(8): 1697–709. 7113: 7109: 7072: 7068: 7031:(6948): 561–5. 7020: 7014: 7010: 6985: 6961: 6957: 6918: 6914: 6883: 6879: 6858:(12): 1543–52. 6848: 6844: 6796: 6792: 6753: 6749: 6712: 6708: 6677: 6673: 6642: 6638: 6601: 6597: 6549: 6543: 6539: 6504: 6500: 6465:Nature Genetics 6460: 6456: 6421:Nature Genetics 6417: 6413: 6392:(12): 2466–71. 6382: 6378: 6357:(4–5): 340–52. 6347: 6343: 6312: 6305: 6274: 6270: 6237:10.2307/3433989 6217: 6210: 6165: 6158: 6097: 6090: 6051: 6047: 6016:(18): 2088–98. 6002: 5998: 5959: 5955: 5924: 5920: 5889: 5885: 5853: 5849: 5820:Cell Metabolism 5812: 5808: 5777: 5773: 5728: 5724: 5690:10.1.1.337.5276 5683:(10): 1145–55. 5669: 5662: 5639:(2): 369S–73S. 5625: 5621: 5568: 5561: 5530: 5526: 5495: 5491: 5446: 5442: 5387: 5383: 5352: 5343: 5306: 5302: 5263: 5259: 5222: 5218: 5175: 5171: 5161: 5159: 5154: 5153: 5146: 5115: 5111: 5079: 5075: 5044: 5040: 5013: 5009: 4970: 4966: 4921: 4914: 4883: 4879: 4856:(1–2): 171–99. 4842: 4835: 4806:(1–4): 185–93. 4795: 4791: 4760: 4756: 4719: 4712: 4675: 4671: 4650:(32): 4145–51. 4640: 4633: 4602: 4598: 4575: 4571: 4534: 4530: 4499: 4488: 4443: 4439: 4402: 4398: 4367: 4363: 4318: 4314: 4274: 4268: 4264: 4219: 4215: 4150: 4146: 4122:10.1.1.327.9651 4115:(411): 337–46. 4105: 4101: 4054: 4050: 4019: 4012: 3975: 3971: 3940: 3936: 3889: 3885: 3854:(3–5): 159–64. 3840: 3836: 3805: 3801: 3758: 3754: 3715: 3711: 3672: 3668: 3644:10.1.1.461.6417 3626: 3620: 3613: 3582: 3578: 3539: 3535: 3514:(14): 1677–94. 3504: 3493: 3448: 3435: 3404: 3395: 3344: 3340: 3289: 3285: 3234: 3230: 3179: 3172: 3125: 3121: 3074: 3070: 3060: 3058: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3034: 3032: 3023: 3022: 3015: 2992: 2988: 2949: 2945: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2868: 2861: 2829: 2825: 2786: 2782: 2772: 2770: 2761: 2760: 2756: 2725: 2721: 2690: 2686: 2655: 2651: 2614: 2610: 2595: 2591: 2568: 2564: 2549: 2525: 2521: 2506: 2484: 2480: 2449: 2445: 2404: 2400: 2379:(10): 872–879. 2369: 2365: 2355: 2353: 2348: 2347: 2338: 2299: 2292: 2285: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2204: 2106:bioavailability 2093: 2083: 2075: 1982:and chocolate, 1907: 1901: 1899:Adverse effects 1887:medication and 1881: 1849: 1844: 1842:Health research 1752: 1625: 1617:transgenic mice 1608: 1607: 1606: 1603: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1567: 1554: 1548: 1533: 1528: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1495: 1489: 1477: 1472: 1464: 1462: 1450: 1445: 1439: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1412: 1408: 1394:Fenton reaction 1389: 1383: 1348:bioavailability 1329: 1255: 1216: 1180: 1018:zinc in biology 905: 885:photoinhibition 877:light intensity 802:Fenton reaction 798:metal-catalyzed 795: 788:(·OH), and the 775: 771: 759:redox signaling 723: 717: 671: 603:2,4-dimethyl-6- 585:photo-oxidation 384: 382:Industrial uses 356: 320:rancidification 275: 269: 264: 239:. The possible 162: 140:, but the term 84:rancidification 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9469: 9459: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9421: 9420: 9418: 9417: 9412: 9407: 9402: 9396: 9394: 9390: 9389: 9387: 9386: 9381: 9372: 9367: 9358: 9353: 9347: 9345: 9341: 9340: 9338: 9337: 9332: 9326: 9321: 9311: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9276: 9271: 9262: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9230: 9228:Hydroxytyrosol 9225: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9195: 9189: 9183: 9173: 9167: 9165: 9161: 9160: 9153: 9152: 9145: 9138: 9130: 9124: 9123: 9109: 9108:External links 9106: 9104: 9103: 9097: 9084: 9078: 9065: 9059: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9037: 9036: 8979: 8954: 8919: 8880: 8839: 8796: 8760: 8717: 8676: 8650: 8609: 8550: 8523: 8466: 8431: 8382: 8330: 8289: 8273: 8211: 8172: 8131: 8110:(21): 1550–9. 8087: 8043: 8002: 7956: 7915: 7874: 7833: 7796:(9): 689–709. 7776: 7727: 7705: 7656: 7637:(7): 933–956. 7617: 7584: 7540: 7505: 7486:(2): 289–300. 7470: 7419: 7378: 7343: 7308: 7259: 7238:(20): 6102–9. 7218: 7183: 7148: 7107: 7086:(12): 5033–8. 7066: 7008: 6983: 6955: 6912: 6877: 6842: 6790: 6757:Human Genetics 6747: 6726:(12): 4973–8. 6706: 6671: 6636: 6595: 6560:(2): 192–208. 6537: 6498: 6454: 6411: 6376: 6341: 6303: 6268: 6208: 6179:(9): 1007–24. 6156: 6088: 6045: 5996: 5973:(9): 1113–33. 5953: 5918: 5883: 5847: 5806: 5771: 5722: 5660: 5619: 5559: 5524: 5489: 5460:(9): 625–627. 5440: 5401:(14): 6482–6. 5381: 5341: 5300: 5273:(4): 291–314. 5257: 5216: 5169: 5144: 5109: 5073: 5038: 5007: 4980:(3): 195–205. 4964: 4912: 4877: 4833: 4789: 4754: 4710: 4669: 4631: 4612:(2): 299–304. 4596: 4569: 4548:(22): 2244–7. 4528: 4486: 4437: 4396: 4361: 4312: 4262: 4213: 4144: 4099: 4048: 4010: 3969: 3934: 3883: 3834: 3799: 3752: 3725:(1–2): 37–56. 3709: 3666: 3611: 3576: 3533: 3491: 3433: 3393: 3358:(2): 102–110. 3338: 3283: 3228: 3170: 3119: 3068: 3042: 3013: 3002:(12): 3233–7. 2986: 2943: 2897: 2884: 2859: 2840:(13): 4072–9. 2823: 2780: 2754: 2729:Cancer Letters 2719: 2684: 2649: 2608: 2589: 2562: 2547: 2519: 2504: 2478: 2443: 2398: 2363: 2336: 2290: 2283: 2256: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2237:, as of 2010. 2203: 2200: 2196:acetylcysteine 2170: 2169: 2166: 2151: 2150: 2140:Vegetable oils 2137: 2130: 2129: 2126: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2082: 2081:Levels in food 2079: 2074: 2071: 2055:elderly people 2046:Efficacy Trial 2033: 2032: 2027: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1976: 1975: 1972: 1900: 1897: 1880: 1877: 1869:hydroxy groups 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1836:detoxification 1792:electron donor 1751: 1748: 1720:Peroxiredoxins 1624: 1621: 1604: 1577: 1552: 1531: 1518: 1493: 1480: 1475: 1467: 1461: 1448: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1427: 1426:Enzyme systems 1424: 1419: 1418: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1401: 1382: 1379: 1328: 1325: 1321:Kinetoplastids 1254: 1251: 1215: 1212: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1112:1,600 (human) 1110: 1107: 1104: 1098: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1082: 1081: 1080:6,400 (human) 1078: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1045: 1044: 1037: 1030: 1027: 928:cell membranes 904: 901: 873:photosynthesis 793: 773: 769: 716: 713: 692:hepatotoxicity 670: 667: 561:natural rubber 539: 538: 536:aviation fuels 532: 527: 523: 522: 519: 516: 512: 511: 508: 505: 501: 500: 494: 489: 485: 484: 481: 475: 471: 470: 467: 464: 460: 459: 443:Turbine oils, 441: 436: 432: 431: 428: 425: 424:Fuel additive 383: 380: 355: 352: 342:. Exposure to 336:hydroperoxides 301:propyl gallate 279:food additives 268: 265: 263: 260: 206:polymerization 194:photosynthesis 161: 158: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9468: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9433: 9431: 9416: 9413: 9411: 9408: 9406: 9403: 9401: 9398: 9397: 9395: 9391: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9378: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9364: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9348: 9346: 9342: 9336: 9333: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9319: 9315: 9312: 9309: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9275: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9203: 9199: 9196: 9193: 9192:Ascorbic acid 9190: 9187: 9184: 9181: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9158: 9151: 9146: 9144: 9139: 9137: 9132: 9131: 9128: 9121: 9116: 9112: 9111: 9100: 9094: 9091:. CRC Press. 9090: 9085: 9081: 9075: 9071: 9066: 9062: 9056: 9052: 9047: 9046: 9021: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8997: 8990: 8983: 8967: 8961: 8959: 8950: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8923: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8900:(3): 303–11. 8899: 8895: 8891: 8884: 8876: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8850: 8843: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8807: 8800: 8792: 8788: 8784: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8764: 8756: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8721: 8713: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8687: 8680: 8664: 8660: 8654: 8646: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8613: 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8554: 8546: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8527: 8519: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8470: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8435: 8427: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8386: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8353:(2): 281–91. 8352: 8348: 8344: 8337: 8335: 8326: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8308: 8304: 8300: 8293: 8286: 8282: 8277: 8269: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8218: 8216: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8192:(8): 842–57. 8191: 8187: 8179: 8177: 8168: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8135: 8127: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8109: 8105: 8098: 8091: 8083: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8065: 8061: 8057: 8050: 8048: 8039: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8006: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7963: 7961: 7952: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7919: 7911: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7844: 7837: 7829: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7780: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7731: 7715: 7709: 7701: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7660: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7621: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7601: 7597: 7594: 7588: 7580: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7563:(3): 407–22. 7562: 7558: 7554: 7547: 7545: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7509: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7466: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7430: 7423: 7415: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7382: 7374: 7370: 7366: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7347: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7312: 7304: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7263: 7255: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7222: 7214: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7199:(7): 329–34. 7198: 7194: 7187: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7152: 7144: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7111: 7103: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7070: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7030: 7026: 7019: 7012: 7004: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6986: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6967: 6959: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6916: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6881: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6846: 6840: 6835: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6763:(4): 331–40. 6762: 6758: 6751: 6743: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6710: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6675: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6652:(5): 557–80. 6651: 6647: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6599: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6548: 6541: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6518:(3): 515–20. 6517: 6513: 6509: 6502: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6458: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6427:(2): 159–63. 6426: 6422: 6415: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6391: 6387: 6380: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6345: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6322:(2): 111–80. 6321: 6317: 6310: 6308: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6284:(3): 337–49. 6283: 6279: 6272: 6264: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6213: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6173:FASEB Journal 6170: 6163: 6161: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6093: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6061:(7): 671–86. 6060: 6056: 6049: 6041: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6010:Life Sciences 6007: 6000: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5957: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5899:(5): 739–64. 5898: 5894: 5887: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5851: 5843: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5826:(3): 237–48. 5825: 5821: 5817: 5810: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5787:(4): 309–36. 5786: 5782: 5775: 5767: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5726: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5677:FASEB Journal 5674: 5667: 5665: 5656: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5623: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5564: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5444: 5436: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5385: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5350: 5348: 5346: 5337: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5304: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5261: 5253: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5157: 5151: 5149: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5125:(4): 435–40. 5124: 5120: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5090:(5): 1473–8. 5089: 5085: 5077: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5042: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4935:(6): 608–19. 4934: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4917: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4893:(6): 615–31. 4892: 4888: 4881: 4873: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4840: 4838: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4793: 4785: 4781: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4758: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4717: 4715: 4706: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4636: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4592: 4588: 4585:(11): 511–2. 4584: 4580: 4573: 4565: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4497: 4495: 4493: 4491: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4441: 4433: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4400: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4273: 4266: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4233:(7): 629–34. 4232: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4015: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3838: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3815:(10): 502–8. 3814: 3810: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3756: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3637:(2): 321–36. 3636: 3632: 3625: 3618: 3616: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3580: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3446: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3402: 3400: 3398: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3342: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3287: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3177: 3175: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3142: 3139:(21): 14595. 3138: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3030: 3026: 3020: 3018: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2947: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2901: 2887: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2864: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2796:(2): 213–24. 2795: 2791: 2784: 2768: 2764: 2758: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2723: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2604: 2601:(in French). 2600: 2593: 2585: 2581: 2578:(6): 331–46. 2577: 2573: 2566: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2531: 2523: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2482: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2447: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2414:(1): 113–26. 2413: 2409: 2402: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2367: 2351: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2297: 2295: 2286: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2261: 2257: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2227: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2199: 2197: 2193: 2192:glutamic acid 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2167: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2152: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2078: 2070: 2068: 2064: 2063:Beta-carotene 2060: 2056: 2051: 2050:meta-analysis 2047: 2045: 2041: 2040:Beta-Carotene 2031: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2014: 2011: 2009: 2005: 2002: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1978: 1977: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1815:-transferases 1814: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1736:sulfenic acid 1733: 1729: 1728:peroxynitrite 1726:, as well as 1725: 1721: 1715: 1714: 1709: 1708:peroxiredoxin 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1640:mitochondrion 1637: 1633: 1629: 1620: 1618: 1613: 1575: 1550: 1529: 1516: 1491: 1478: 1473: 1465: 1446: 1423: 1416: 1413:→ 2 Fe + 2 OH 1404: 1403: 1399: 1398: 1397: 1395: 1388: 1378: 1377:from damage. 1376: 1372: 1371:electrophilic 1368: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1317:trypanothione 1314: 1310: 1306: 1305:Actinomycetes 1302: 1298: 1297:glutaredoxins 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1276:group in its 1275: 1271: 1264: 1259: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1219:Ascorbic acid 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1192:peroxynitrite 1189: 1184: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1162:(coenzyme Q) 1161: 1158: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1134: 1132: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1103: 1100: 1099: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1054: 1050: 1049:Ascorbic acid 1047: 1046: 1038: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 972: 967: 964: 959: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 908:Physiological 900: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 869:cyanobacteria 866: 862: 858: 857:flavoproteins 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 833: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 812:and possibly 811: 807: 803: 799: 791: 787: 783: 782:free radicals 779: 767: 762: 760: 755: 751: 747: 743: 742:life on Earth 735: 734:ascorbic acid 732: 727: 722: 712: 710: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 687: 681: 677: 666: 664: 660: 658: 654: 650: 646: 644: 640: 638: 634: 630: 629: 625: 621: 617: 616: 612: 608: 606: 600: 596: 592: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 565:polybutadiene 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 537: 533: 531: 528: 525: 524: 520: 517: 514: 513: 509: 506: 503: 502: 498: 495: 493: 490: 487: 486: 482: 479: 476: 473: 472: 468: 465: 462: 461: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 440: 437: 434: 433: 430:Applications 429: 426: 423: 422: 419: 417: 413: 409: 405: 397: 393: 388: 379: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 351: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 316: 315:(BHT, E321). 314: 310: 306: 302: 297: 292: 288: 284: 280: 274: 259: 257: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 217: 215: 211: 207: 203: 202:vulcanization 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 166:ascorbic acid 157: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 128: 124: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 64:free radicals 61: 57: 53: 50:that inhibit 49: 45: 39: 34: 30: 19: 18:Antioxidative 9441:Antioxidants 9400:Folin method 9393:Measurements 9379:-butylphenol 9376: 9365:-butylphenol 9362: 9331:(coenzyme Q) 9314:Tocotrienols 9265: 9256: 9157:Antioxidants 9156: 9120:Antioxidants 9088: 9069: 9050: 9027:. Retrieved 9020:the original 8999: 8995: 8982: 8970:. Retrieved 8932: 8928: 8922: 8897: 8893: 8883: 8856: 8852: 8842: 8809: 8805: 8799: 8777:(1): 33–46. 8774: 8770: 8763: 8733:(6): 667–9. 8730: 8726: 8720: 8693: 8689: 8679: 8667:. Retrieved 8653: 8629:(1): 145–8. 8626: 8622: 8612: 8600:. Retrieved 8596:the original 8567: 8563: 8553: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8483: 8479: 8469: 8444: 8440: 8434: 8399: 8395: 8385: 8350: 8346: 8309:(1): 37–46. 8306: 8302: 8292: 8276: 8249:10138/136201 8231: 8227: 8189: 8185: 8148: 8144: 8134: 8107: 8103: 8090: 8063: 8059: 8019: 8015: 8005: 7975:(4): 361–7. 7972: 7968: 7935:(2): 160–8. 7932: 7928: 7918: 7891: 7887: 7877: 7850: 7846: 7836: 7793: 7789: 7779: 7744: 7740: 7730: 7718:. Retrieved 7714:"Flavonoids" 7708: 7673: 7669: 7659: 7634: 7630: 7620: 7591: 7587: 7560: 7556: 7518: 7514: 7508: 7483: 7479: 7473: 7436: 7432: 7422: 7395: 7391: 7381: 7356: 7352: 7346: 7324:(2): 465–9. 7321: 7317: 7311: 7276: 7272: 7262: 7235: 7231: 7221: 7196: 7192: 7186: 7161: 7157: 7151: 7124: 7120: 7110: 7083: 7079: 7069: 7028: 7024: 7011: 6965: 6958: 6925: 6922:Biochemistry 6921: 6915: 6893:(1): 32–40. 6890: 6886: 6880: 6855: 6851: 6845: 6807: 6804:Biochemistry 6803: 6793: 6760: 6756: 6750: 6723: 6719: 6709: 6687:(1): 27–34. 6684: 6680: 6674: 6649: 6645: 6639: 6615:(1): 19–66. 6612: 6608: 6598: 6574:10261/111097 6557: 6553: 6540: 6515: 6511: 6501: 6468: 6464: 6457: 6424: 6420: 6414: 6389: 6385: 6379: 6354: 6350: 6344: 6319: 6315: 6281: 6277: 6271: 6228: 6224: 6176: 6172: 6108: 6104: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6013: 6009: 5999: 5991:the original 5970: 5966: 5956: 5934:(1): 16–21. 5931: 5927: 5921: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5861: 5857: 5850: 5823: 5819: 5809: 5784: 5780: 5774: 5739: 5735: 5725: 5680: 5676: 5636: 5632: 5622: 5582:(2): 43–56. 5579: 5575: 5537: 5533: 5527: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5457: 5453: 5443: 5398: 5394: 5384: 5359: 5355: 5317: 5313: 5303: 5270: 5266: 5260: 5233: 5229: 5219: 5189:(1): 18–35. 5186: 5182: 5172: 5160:. Retrieved 5122: 5118: 5112: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5054:(3): 421–6. 5051: 5047: 5041: 5027:(6): 801–8. 5024: 5020: 5010: 4977: 4973: 4967: 4932: 4928: 4890: 4886: 4880: 4853: 4849: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4770:(1): 173–7. 4767: 4763: 4757: 4733:(3): 411–6. 4730: 4726: 4689:(1): 172–9. 4686: 4682: 4672: 4647: 4643: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4582: 4578: 4572: 4545: 4541: 4531: 4509:(2): 261–6. 4506: 4502: 4454: 4450: 4440: 4416:(2): 213–9. 4413: 4409: 4399: 4374: 4370: 4364: 4329: 4325: 4315: 4282: 4278: 4265: 4230: 4227:EMBO Reports 4226: 4216: 4163: 4157: 4147: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4061: 4057: 4051: 4026: 4022: 3986: 3982: 3972: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3851: 3847: 3837: 3812: 3808: 3802: 3769: 3765: 3755: 3722: 3718: 3712: 3682:(4): 373–9. 3679: 3675: 3669: 3634: 3630: 3592:(1): 44–84. 3589: 3585: 3579: 3546: 3542: 3536: 3511: 3507: 3462:(2): 291–5. 3459: 3455: 3411: 3407: 3355: 3351: 3341: 3300: 3296: 3286: 3245: 3241: 3231: 3190: 3186: 3136: 3132: 3122: 3081: 3077: 3071: 3059:. Retrieved 3055:the original 3045: 3033:. Retrieved 3029:the original 2999: 2995: 2989: 2959:(1): 33–37. 2956: 2952: 2946: 2938: 2910: 2906: 2900: 2889:, retrieved 2875: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2771:. Retrieved 2757: 2735:(1): 49–54. 2732: 2728: 2722: 2700:(6): 552–7. 2697: 2693: 2687: 2662: 2658: 2652: 2628:(3): 363–6. 2625: 2621: 2611: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2529: 2522: 2487: 2481: 2456: 2452: 2446: 2411: 2407: 2401: 2376: 2372: 2366: 2354:. Retrieved 2306: 2302: 2266: 2260: 2239: 2230: 2224: 2209:food science 2205: 2173: 2163:provitamin A 2102: 2076: 2059:colon cancer 2038: 2036: 2004:Whole grains 1922:antinutrient 1919: 1882: 1879:Interactions 1850: 1838:metabolism. 1831: 1812: 1811:glutathione 1796: 1767: 1753: 1740:sulfiredoxin 1718: 1711: 1686:acatalasemia 1668: 1656:chloroplasts 1626: 1609: 1420: 1414: 1390: 1360: 1352: 1342:, which are 1340:tocotrienols 1330: 1309:bacillithiol 1268: 1263:free radical 1247:chloroplasts 1217: 1181: 1171:200 (human) 1145:(vitamin E) 1143:α-Tocopherol 1129: 1064:260 (human) 1026:Antioxidant 1012:. (See also 1000:, but these 997: 968: 960: 924:blood plasma 906: 852: 834: 826:denaturation 784:such as the 780:(HClO), and 763: 739: 685: 672: 662: 661: 648: 647: 642: 641: 632: 631: 619: 618: 607:-butylphenol 604: 594: 593: 581:UV radiation 577:antiozonants 557:double bonds 543:Antioxidant 542: 401: 390:Substituted 376:chromophores 360:moisturizers 357: 317: 303:(PG, E310), 276: 218: 163: 141: 120: 108:bacillithiol 56:autoxidation 44:Antioxidants 43: 42: 29: 9304:Tocopherols 9289:Resveratrol 9274:Oleocanthal 9223:Glutathione 9218:Polyphenols 9198:Carotenoids 9194:(vitamin C) 8669:27 February 8584:10261/77697 8447:(1): 1–13. 6471:(1): 43–7. 6111:(1): 7417. 5742:(1): 4–15. 5570:Herrera E, 5540:: 695–729. 5156:"Vitamin C" 4542:Circulation 4332:(1): 1–18. 4029:: 395–418. 3193:: 308–314. 3061:27 February 3035:27 February 2790:The Analyst 2665:(1): 1–30. 2429:10397/34754 2217:polyphenols 2184:glutathione 2155:Carotenoids 2067:lung cancer 2013:Phytic acid 1997:Oxalic acid 1962:whole grain 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