932:). Increasing temperatures would also increase the carbon dioxide loss through weathering due to an assumed increase in precipitation, leading to decrease carbon dioxide concentrations. This would lead to a higher methane to carbon dioxide ratio and would stimulate the production of the organic haze. This increase in organic haze production would lead to increased opacity of the atmosphere to sunlight, decreased amounts of solar energy reaching the surface, and thus decreases in surface temperature, thus negating the initial increase in surface temperature. One estimation of the anti-greenhouse effect on Archean Earth calculated the impact to be up to about 20 K in surface cooling.
911:, where a reduced solar output in the past must be reconciled with the existence of liquid water on Earth at that time. In order to explain how water could remain in liquid form, it has been proposed that greenhouse gases helped keep Earth warm enough to prevent water from completely freezing. While one hypothesis suggests that only carbon dioxide was responsible for the additional warmth, another hypothesis includes the presence of both carbon dioxide and methane. One model found that methane in the postbiotic Archean could have existed at a
812:
148:
107:
885:(PAHs) and polyacetylene. The distribution of these polymers is not vertically uniform in Titan's atmosphere, however. The nitrile and polyacetylene polymers are formed in the upper atmosphere while the PAH polymers are created in the stratosphere. These polymers then aggregate to form haze particles. The
940:
In the modern state of Earth's atmosphere, there are a few sources of an anti-greenhouse effect. It has been suggested that stratospheric ozone and Earth's thermosphere create a partial anti-greenhouse effect due to their low thermal opacity and high temperatures. Additionally, ejected dust like that
773:
or 0.84. This means that the surface temperature is reduced from the effective mean radiating temperature by 16%, which is a potentially significant cooling effect. This is an ideal case and represents the maximum impact the anti-greenhouse effect can have and will not be the impact for a real planet
889:
to sunlight of this organic haze on Titan is determined primarily by the haze production rate. If haze production increases, opacity of the haze increases, resulting in more cooling of the surface temperature. Additionally, the presence of this organic haze is the cause of the temperature inversion
915:
of 1,000 ppm or higher, while the carbon dioxide could be as low as 5,000 ppm to still prevent Earth from freezing over, about 12 times the amount in 2022. However, at this 0.2 ratio of methane to carbon dioxide, products deriving from methane photolysis can polymerize to form long-chain molecules
802:
is a phenomenon that can produce localized, rather than planetary, cooling. Whereas the anti-greenhouse effect involves an overall temperature inversion in the stratosphere, the negative greenhouse effect involves a localized temperature inversion in the troposphere. Both effects increase outgoing
69:
and is nearly transparent to infrared energy from Titan's surface. This acts to reduce solar energy reaching the surface and lets infrared energy escape, cooling Titan's surface. Titan has both a greenhouse and an anti-greenhouse effect which compete with one another. The greenhouse effect warms
310:
is the outgoing longwave radiation from the haze in the upper atmosphere. Since the haze is not a good absorber of this longwave radiation, it can be assumed to all pass through out to space. The incoming solar energy must be scaled down to account for the amount of energy that is lost by being
835:, the anti-greenhouse effect due to the haze reduces the surface temperature by 9 K. Because the greenhouse effect due to other atmospheric components increases it by 21 K, the net effect is that the real surface temperature of Titan (94 K) is 12 K warmer than the
949:
emissions has been seen to have a cooling effect on Earth that lasts approximately 1 to 2 years. All of these sources act to create a temperature structure where a hot upper layer lies above a cold surface, which typifies the anti-greenhouse effect.
160:, since the haze is not a good absorber of infrared radiation, the haze will also not be a good emitter of infrared radiation and will emit a small amount in this part of the spectrum both out to space and towards the planet's surface. By the
81:
eon, causing an anti-greenhouse effect. It is theorized that this haze helped to regulate and stabilize early Earth's climate. Other atmospheric phenomena besides organic hazes act similarly to the anti-greenhouse effect, such as Earth's
416:
155:
In the most extreme case, suppose that a planet's upper atmosphere contained a haze that absorbed all sunlight which was not reflected back to space, but at the same time was nearly transparent to infrared longwave radiation. By
126:
and remain at a constant temperature. If one energy contributor is larger than the other, there is an energy imbalance and the temperature of an object will change to reestablish a balance. Energy sources across the whole
965:
Studies using computer simulations have investigated the impact of photochemical hazes on exoplanets' thermal structure. Applying this model to hot
Jupiters, scientists found that the inclusion of haze for
1055:
675:
782:
Earlier discussions in the scientific community pre-dating the current definition established by Dr. Christopher McKay in 1991 referred to the anti-greenhouse effect as a precursor to the Late
1817:
Arney, Giada; Domagal-Goldman, Shawn D.; Meadows, Victoria S.; Wolf, Eric T.; Schwieterman, Edward; Charnay, Benjamin; Claire, Mark; HĂ©brard, Eric; Trainer, Melissa G. (November 2016).
220:
771:
728:
1562:
Atreya, Sushil K.; Adams, Elena Y.; Niemann, Hasso B.; Demick-Montelara, Jaime E.; Owen, Tobias C.; Fulchignoni, Marcello; Ferri, Francesca; Wilson, Eric H. (2006-10-01).
605:
519:
282:
861:
565:
458:
242:
151:
Ideal anti-greenhouse effect energy balance assuming one upper atmosphere layer and a planetary albedo of 0. See text for an explanation of symbols and abbreviations.
489:
545:
308:
438:
316:
958:
There has been discussion about a weak anti-greenhouse effect on Mars, where storms carry dust into the upper atmosphere. Evidence for this effect came from
907:
atmosphere was first suggested in 1983 and could have been responsible for an anti-greenhouse effect. This hypothesis stems from attempts at resolving the
1892:
Stenchikov, Georgiy L.; Kirchner, Ingo; Robock, Alan; Graf, Hans-F.; Antuña, Juan Carlos; Grainger, R. G.; Lambert, Alyn; Thomason, Larry (1998-06-27).
122:
can be calculated, similar to how it is done for Earth. For each component in the system, incoming energy needs to equal outgoing energy to uphold the
962:
measurements made in 1976-77 when in the aftermath of a global storm, the average daytime temperature above the ground dropped by 5 degrees
Celsius.
970:
led to an expansion of the atmosphere, helping to explain an observed steep transit signature in the electromagnetic spectrum. Also, the model for
790:
process. This is no longer the current usage of the term, which emphasizes surface cooling due to high-altitude absorption of solar radiation.
164:, the planet emits energy directly proportional to the fourth power of surface temperature. At the surface, the energy balance is as follows,
1060:
Astrobiology
Magazine – earth science – evolution distribution Origin of life universe – life beyond :: Astrobiology is study of earth
831:
occurring from roughly 16.5 to 25 micrometers. Although a large greenhouse effect does keep Titan at a much higher temperature than the
941:
from volcanoes and nuclear fallout after a nuclear war has been suggested to typify an anti-greenhouse effect. Also, the formation of
131:
need to be accounted for when calculating the energy balance. In the case of Earth, for example, a balance is struck between incoming
1110:
311:
reflected to space since it is not within the planet-atmosphere system. In the upper atmosphere, the energy balance is as follows,
118:
To understand how the anti-greenhouse effect impacts a planet or large moon with its host star as an external source of energy, an
93:
Outside of the Solar system, calculations of the impact of these hazes on the thermal structure of exoplanets have been conducted.
157:
924:
to stabilize the climate on
Archean Earth. If temperatures increased in Archean Earth, methane production would increase due to
803:
thermal emissions—locally in the case of a negative greenhouse effect and globally in the case of the anti-greenhouse effect.
1243:
1199:
1026:
916:
that can aggregate into particles, forming the anti-greenhouse organic haze. The haze is formed when the ratio of methane to
43:(heat) energy from the surface, the surface temperature would be reduced by 16%, which is a significant amount of cooling.
612:
881:, meaning the products combine into longer chains and bigger molecules. These methane-derived polymers can be made of
495:. The incoming solar flux is divided by four to account for time and spatial averaging over the entire planet and the
139:
from the surface and the atmosphere. After establishing a component's energy balance, a temperature can be derived.
827:
reaching Titan, but is inefficient at trapping infrared radiation generated by the surface. This is due to Titan's
843:). In the ideal anti-greenhouse case described above, the maximum impact of the organic haze on Titan is (1-0.84)
1620:. Development and interactions of the Precambrian atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere: results and challenges.
882:
799:
1949:
1570:. Surfaces and Atmospheres of the Outer Planets, their Satellites and Ring Systems from Cassini-Huygens Data.
70:
Titan by 21 K while the anti-greenhouse effect cools Titan by 9 K, so the net warming is 12 K (= 21 K - 9 K).
1954:
1080:
942:
245:
169:
36:
733:
31:, preventing that energy from reaching the surface, which results in surface cooling – the opposite of the
1737:
Haqq-Misra, Jacob D.; Domagal-Goldman, Shawn D.; Kasting, Patrick J.; Kasting, James F. (December 2008).
136:
1563:
682:
1437:
Schmithüsen, Holger; Notholt, Justus; König-Langlo, Gert; Lemke, Peter; Jung, Thomas (2015-12-16).
161:
128:
119:
1535:
569:
908:
839:
82 K (which would be the surface temperature in the absence of any atmosphere, assuming constant
1276:
Courtin, R.; McKay, C. P.; Pollack, J. (May 1992). "L'effet de serre dans le systeme solaire".
995:
921:
498:
123:
251:
846:
836:
550:
492:
443:
227:
1579:
1307:
1018:
1905:
1840:
1750:
1685:
1625:
1575:
1491:
1395:
1357:
1285:
1125:
1006:
787:
467:
8:
832:
524:
287:
132:
1909:
1844:
1754:
1689:
1629:
1495:
1399:
1289:
1129:
1010:
411:{\displaystyle {\frac {S}{4}}(1-\alpha )\equiv \sigma T_{e}^{4}=OLR+\sigma T_{surf}^{4}}
1869:
1830:
1818:
1714:
1673:
1512:
1479:
1419:
1319:
1157:
1074:
828:
423:
1738:
1613:
811:
1928:
1874:
1856:
1774:
1766:
1719:
1701:
1651:
1637:
1591:
1517:
1460:
1411:
1339:
1249:
1239:
1205:
1195:
1149:
1141:
1032:
1022:
111:
32:
1439:"How increasing CO 2 leads to an increased negative greenhouse effect in Antarctica"
1423:
1308:"Impact of photochemical hazes and gases on exoplanet atmospheric thermal structure"
1161:
1923:
1913:
1864:
1848:
1758:
1709:
1693:
1641:
1633:
1583:
1507:
1499:
1450:
1403:
1329:
1133:
1014:
920:
exceeds roughly 0.1. It is posited that the organic haze allowed the creation of a
886:
521:
factor is the fraction of the solar energy that is absorbed by the haze. Replacing
59:
28:
24:
1238:. James F. Kasting, Robert G. Crane (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Prentice Hall.
824:
87:
66:
35:. In an ideal case where the upper atmosphere absorbs all sunlight and is nearly
1536:"Titan's Greenhouse Effect and Climate: Lessons from the Earth's Cooler Cousin"
946:
917:
867:
147:
1587:
1503:
1943:
1860:
1770:
1705:
1655:
1595:
1464:
1415:
1343:
1253:
1209:
1145:
1137:
1334:
1878:
1778:
1723:
1697:
1521:
1383:
1153:
912:
820:
51:
1852:
1819:"The Pale Orange Dot: The Spectrum and Habitability of Hazy Archean Earth"
1762:
1233:
1189:
106:
1646:
1455:
1438:
971:
967:
929:
783:
83:
1736:
1109:
McKay, Christopher P.; Pollack, James B.; Courtin, RĂ©gis (1991-09-06).
925:
874:
1918:
1893:
1036:
1480:"Unmasking the negative greenhouse effect over the Antarctic Plateau"
1407:
1793:
1835:
1436:
1324:
959:
40:
1894:"Radiative forcing from the 1991 Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption"
1561:
904:
878:
871:
78:
62:
1816:
840:
461:
86:
and thermosphere, particles formed and emitted from volcanoes,
47:
1794:"Global Monitoring Laboratory - Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases"
1612:
Kasting, J. F.; Zahnle, K. J.; Walker, J. C. G. (1983-06-01).
994:
Covey, C.; Haberle, R. M.; McKay, C. P.; Titov, D. V. (2013),
777:
74:
1891:
1194:. James F. Kasting. West Nyack: Cambridge University Press.
1614:"Photochemistry of methane in the Earth's early atmosphere"
974:
predicted both photochemical haze and objects like clouds.
793:
55:
1739:"A Revised, Hazy Methane Greenhouse for the Archean Earth"
1384:"Late Precambrian Glaciation: an Anti-Greenhouse Effect?"
863:
82 K = 13 K. This is higher than the 9 K found on Titan.
1191:
Atmospheric
Evolution on Inhabited and Lifeless Worlds
993:
1791:
849:
736:
685:
670:{\displaystyle \sigma T_{e}^{4}=2\sigma T_{surf}^{4}}
615:
572:
553:
527:
501:
470:
446:
426:
319:
290:
254:
230:
172:
1111:"The Greenhouse and Antigreenhouse Effects on Titan"
1611:
1275:
1108:
1672:Catling, David C.; Zahnle, Kevin J. (2020-02-28).
855:
765:
722:
669:
599:
559:
539:
513:
483:
452:
432:
410:
302:
276:
236:
214:
1312:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
928:possible preference for warmer temperatures (see
16:Atmosopheric phenomenon causing planetary cooling
1941:
142:
1477:
1003:Comparative Climatology of Terrestrial Planets
1671:
996:"The Greenhouse Effect and Climate Feedbacks"
27:sun is absorbed or scattered by the object's
1898:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
1478:Sejas, S.A.; Taylor, P. C.; Cai, M. (2018).
1305:
1062:. Archived from the original on 22 July 2020
46:This effect has been discovered to exist on
23:is a process that occurs when energy from a
903:The presence of an organic haze in Earth's
778:Outdated concept of anti-greenhouse effect
1927:
1917:
1868:
1834:
1713:
1645:
1511:
1454:
1333:
1323:
810:
794:Comparison to negative greenhouse effect
146:
105:
96:
1381:
1187:
1056:"Titan: Greenhouse and Anti-greenhouse"
1019:10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816530595-ch007
866:The organic haze is formed through the
215:{\displaystyle \sigma T_{surf}^{4}=OLR}
90:, and dust in Mars's upper atmosphere.
1942:
766:{\displaystyle \left(0.5\right)^{1/4}}
77:potentially had a similar haze in the
1667:
1665:
1607:
1605:
1557:
1555:
1471:
110:Energy flows on Titan lead to both a
1430:
1301:
1299:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1231:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
989:
987:
786:glaciation, describing it more as a
493:effective mean radiating temperature
1730:
1358:"Climate and Earth's Energy Budget"
1306:Lavvas, P; Arfaux, A (2021-03-04).
953:
440:is the incoming solar energy flux,
13:
1662:
1602:
1552:
14:
1966:
1792:US Department of Commerce, NOAA.
1296:
1260:
1216:
1168:
1087:
984:
607:in the second equation, we have,
101:
65:particles simultaneously absorbs
1382:Roberts, J. D. (November 1971).
883:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
823:stratosphere absorbs 90% of the
284:is the surface temperature, and
1885:
1810:
1785:
1528:
1005:, University of Arizona Press,
1375:
1350:
1048:
723:{\displaystyle T_{surf}/T_{e}}
342:
330:
114:and an anti-greenhouse effect.
1:
977:
943:stratospheric sulfur aerosols
54:. In Titan's stratosphere, a
1638:10.1016/0301-9268(83)90069-4
1443:Geophysical Research Letters
600:{\displaystyle T_{surf}^{4}}
143:Ideal anti-greenhouse effect
7:
1568:Planetary and Space Science
893:
806:
137:outgoing longwave radiation
73:It has been suggested that
10:
1971:
1188:Catling, David C. (2017).
935:
800:negative greenhouse effect
464:(i.e., reflectivity), and
1929:21.11116/0000-0004-ECBD-E
1588:10.1016/j.pss.2006.05.028
1504:10.1038/s41612-018-0031-y
1362:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
1079:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
890:in Titan's stratosphere.
514:{\displaystyle 1-\alpha }
246:Stefan–Boltzmann constant
84:stratospheric ozone layer
1674:"The Archean atmosphere"
1138:10.1126/science.11538492
277:{\displaystyle T_{surf}}
129:electromagnetic spectrum
1580:2006P&SS...54.1177A
1564:"Titan's methane cycle"
909:faint young Sun paradox
898:
856:{\displaystyle \times }
560:{\displaystyle \sigma }
453:{\displaystyle \alpha }
237:{\displaystyle \sigma }
1698:10.1126/sciadv.aax1420
922:negative feedback loop
857:
816:
767:
724:
671:
601:
561:
541:
515:
485:
454:
434:
412:
304:
278:
238:
216:
152:
124:conservation of energy
115:
21:anti-greenhouse effect
1950:Planetary atmospheres
1853:10.1089/ast.2015.1422
1763:10.1089/ast.2007.0197
1335:10.1093/mnras/stab456
1232:Kump, Lee R. (2010).
858:
837:effective temperature
814:
768:
725:
672:
602:
562:
542:
516:
486:
484:{\displaystyle T_{e}}
455:
435:
413:
305:
279:
239:
217:
150:
109:
97:Energy balance theory
1955:Atmospheric dynamics
1904:(D12): 13837–13857.
1618:Precambrian Research
1456:10.1002/2015GL066749
847:
819:The organic haze in
788:carbon sequestration
734:
683:
613:
570:
551:
525:
499:
468:
444:
424:
317:
288:
252:
228:
170:
162:Stefan–Boltzmann law
1910:1998JGR...10313837S
1845:2016AsBio..16..873A
1755:2008AsBio...8.1127H
1690:2020SciA....6.1420C
1630:1983PreR...20..121K
1496:2018npCAS...1...17S
1400:1971Natur.234..216R
1290:1992Rech...23..542C
1130:1991Sci...253.1118M
1124:(5024): 1118–1121.
1011:2013cctp.book..163C
833:thermal equilibrium
815:The "haze" on Titan
666:
633:
596:
540:{\displaystyle OLR}
407:
365:
303:{\displaystyle OLR}
199:
133:shortwave radiation
1484:npj Clim Atmos Sci
853:
829:atmospheric window
817:
763:
720:
667:
643:
619:
597:
573:
557:
537:
511:
481:
450:
430:
408:
384:
351:
300:
274:
234:
212:
176:
153:
116:
25:celestial object's
1919:10.1029/98JD00693
1574:(12): 1177–1187.
1394:(5326): 216–217.
1245:978-0-321-59779-3
1201:978-1-139-02055-8
1028:978-0-8165-3059-5
433:{\displaystyle S}
328:
135:from the Sun and
112:greenhouse effect
33:greenhouse effect
1962:
1934:
1933:
1931:
1921:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1872:
1838:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1749:(6): 1127–1137.
1734:
1728:
1727:
1717:
1678:Science Advances
1669:
1660:
1659:
1649:
1609:
1600:
1599:
1559:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1540:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1515:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1458:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1408:10.1038/234216a0
1379:
1373:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1337:
1327:
1318:(4): 5643–5657.
1303:
1294:
1293:
1273:
1258:
1257:
1235:The earth system
1229:
1214:
1213:
1185:
1166:
1165:
1115:
1106:
1085:
1084:
1078:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1000:
991:
954:On other planets
862:
860:
859:
854:
772:
770:
769:
764:
762:
761:
757:
748:
729:
727:
726:
721:
719:
718:
709:
704:
703:
676:
674:
673:
668:
665:
660:
632:
627:
606:
604:
603:
598:
595:
590:
566:
564:
563:
558:
546:
544:
543:
538:
520:
518:
517:
512:
490:
488:
487:
482:
480:
479:
459:
457:
456:
451:
439:
437:
436:
431:
417:
415:
414:
409:
406:
401:
364:
359:
329:
321:
309:
307:
306:
301:
283:
281:
280:
275:
273:
272:
243:
241:
240:
235:
221:
219:
218:
213:
198:
193:
29:upper atmosphere
1970:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1890:
1886:
1829:(11): 873–899.
1815:
1811:
1802:
1800:
1790:
1786:
1735:
1731:
1684:(9): eaax1420.
1670:
1663:
1610:
1603:
1560:
1553:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1476:
1472:
1435:
1431:
1380:
1376:
1367:
1365:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1304:
1297:
1274:
1261:
1246:
1230:
1217:
1202:
1186:
1169:
1113:
1107:
1088:
1072:
1071:
1065:
1063:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1041:
1039:
1029:
998:
992:
985:
980:
956:
938:
901:
896:
848:
845:
844:
825:solar radiation
809:
796:
780:
774:or large moon.
753:
749:
738:
737:
735:
732:
731:
714:
710:
705:
690:
686:
684:
681:
680:
661:
647:
628:
623:
614:
611:
610:
591:
577:
571:
568:
567:
552:
549:
548:
526:
523:
522:
500:
497:
496:
475:
471:
469:
466:
465:
445:
442:
441:
425:
422:
421:
402:
388:
360:
355:
320:
318:
315:
314:
289:
286:
285:
259:
255:
253:
250:
249:
229:
226:
225:
194:
180:
171:
168:
167:
158:Kirchhoff's law
145:
104:
99:
88:nuclear fallout
67:solar radiation
17:
12:
11:
5:
1968:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1936:
1935:
1884:
1809:
1784:
1729:
1661:
1624:(2): 121–148.
1601:
1551:
1527:
1470:
1429:
1374:
1349:
1295:
1284:(243): 542–9.
1259:
1244:
1215:
1200:
1167:
1086:
1047:
1027:
982:
981:
979:
976:
955:
952:
947:sulfur dioxide
945:from volcanic
937:
934:
918:carbon dioxide
900:
897:
895:
892:
868:polymerization
852:
808:
805:
795:
792:
779:
776:
760:
756:
752:
747:
744:
741:
717:
713:
708:
702:
699:
696:
693:
689:
679:and the ratio
664:
659:
656:
653:
650:
646:
642:
639:
636:
631:
626:
622:
618:
594:
589:
586:
583:
580:
576:
556:
536:
533:
530:
510:
507:
504:
478:
474:
449:
429:
405:
400:
397:
394:
391:
387:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
363:
358:
354:
350:
347:
344:
341:
338:
335:
332:
327:
324:
299:
296:
293:
271:
268:
265:
262:
258:
233:
211:
208:
205:
202:
197:
192:
189:
186:
183:
179:
175:
144:
141:
103:
102:Energy balance
100:
98:
95:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1967:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1813:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1666:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1647:2027.42/25194
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1556:
1537:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1378:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1236:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1082:
1076:
1061:
1057:
1051:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
997:
990:
988:
983:
975:
973:
969:
963:
961:
951:
948:
944:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
914:
910:
906:
891:
888:
884:
880:
877:products and
876:
873:
869:
864:
850:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
813:
804:
801:
791:
789:
785:
775:
758:
754:
750:
745:
742:
739:
715:
711:
706:
700:
697:
694:
691:
687:
677:
662:
657:
654:
651:
648:
644:
640:
637:
634:
629:
624:
620:
616:
608:
592:
587:
584:
581:
578:
574:
554:
534:
531:
528:
508:
505:
502:
494:
476:
472:
463:
460:is planetary
447:
427:
418:
403:
398:
395:
392:
389:
385:
381:
378:
375:
372:
369:
366:
361:
356:
352:
348:
345:
339:
336:
333:
325:
322:
312:
297:
294:
291:
269:
266:
263:
260:
256:
247:
231:
222:
209:
206:
203:
200:
195:
190:
187:
184:
181:
177:
173:
165:
163:
159:
149:
140:
138:
134:
130:
125:
121:
120:energy budget
113:
108:
94:
91:
89:
85:
80:
76:
71:
68:
64:
61:
57:
53:
49:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1826:
1823:Astrobiology
1822:
1812:
1801:. Retrieved
1798:gml.noaa.gov
1797:
1787:
1746:
1743:Astrobiology
1742:
1732:
1681:
1677:
1621:
1617:
1571:
1567:
1542:. Retrieved
1530:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1366:. Retrieved
1364:. 2009-01-14
1361:
1352:
1315:
1311:
1281:
1278:La Recherche
1277:
1234:
1190:
1121:
1117:
1064:. Retrieved
1059:
1050:
1040:, retrieved
1002:
964:
957:
939:
930:thermophiles
926:methanogens'
913:mixing ratio
902:
865:
818:
797:
781:
678:
609:
419:
313:
223:
166:
154:
117:
92:
72:
58:composed of
45:
20:
18:
1544:24 February
972:HD 209458 b
968:HD 189733 b
784:Precambrian
37:transparent
1944:Categories
1836:1610.04515
1803:2022-06-03
1490:(17): 17.
1368:2022-06-03
1325:2102.05763
1066:2010-10-15
1042:2022-06-02
978:References
875:photolysis
1861:1531-1074
1771:1531-1074
1706:2375-2548
1656:0301-9268
1596:0032-0633
1465:0094-8276
1416:1476-4687
1344:0035-8711
1254:268789401
1210:982451455
1146:0036-8075
1075:cite news
851:×
641:σ
617:σ
555:σ
509:α
506:−
448:α
382:σ
349:σ
346:≡
340:α
337:−
232:σ
174:σ
1879:27792417
1779:19093801
1724:32133393
1522:33102742
1424:34163139
1162:10384331
1154:11538492
960:Viking 1
894:On Earth
879:nitriles
807:On Titan
50:'s moon
41:infrared
1906:Bibcode
1870:5148108
1841:Bibcode
1751:Bibcode
1715:7043912
1686:Bibcode
1626:Bibcode
1576:Bibcode
1513:7580794
1492:Bibcode
1396:Bibcode
1286:Bibcode
1126:Bibcode
1118:Science
1037:1240051
1007:Bibcode
936:Present
905:Archean
887:opacity
872:methane
821:Titan's
730:equals
491:is the
244:is the
79:Archean
63:aerosol
60:organic
1877:
1867:
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1777:
1769:
1722:
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1422:
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1388:Nature
1342:
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1208:
1198:
1160:
1152:
1144:
1035:
1025:
841:albedo
462:albedo
420:where
224:where
48:Saturn
1831:arXiv
1539:(PDF)
1420:S2CID
1320:arXiv
1158:S2CID
1114:(PDF)
999:(PDF)
547:with
75:Earth
52:Titan
1875:PMID
1857:ISSN
1775:PMID
1767:ISSN
1720:PMID
1702:ISSN
1652:ISSN
1592:ISSN
1546:2017
1518:PMID
1461:ISSN
1412:ISSN
1340:ISSN
1250:OCLC
1240:ISBN
1206:OCLC
1196:ISBN
1150:PMID
1142:ISSN
1081:link
1033:OSTI
1023:ISBN
899:Past
798:The
56:haze
19:The
1924:hdl
1914:doi
1902:103
1865:PMC
1849:doi
1759:doi
1710:PMC
1694:doi
1642:hdl
1634:doi
1584:doi
1508:PMC
1500:doi
1451:doi
1404:doi
1392:234
1330:doi
1316:502
1134:doi
1122:253
1015:doi
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1900:.
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