235:. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Human selection included tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. Domestic animals need not be tame in the behavioral sense, such as the Spanish fighting bull. Wild animals can be tame, such as a hand-raised cheetah. A domestic animal's breeding is controlled by humans and its tameness and tolerance of humans is genetically determined. However, an animal merely bred in captivity is not necessarily domesticated. Tigers, gorillas, and polar bears breed readily in captivity but are not domesticated. Asian elephants are wild animals that with taming manifest outward signs of domestication, yet their breeding is not human controlled and thus they are not true domesticates.
250:
97:. Taming is the conditioned behavioral modification of a wild-born animal when its natural avoidance of humans is reduced and it accepts the presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and (5) responses to humans and new environments, including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli.
369:
choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and (5) responses to humans and new environments, including flight responses and reactivity to external stimuli. Reduced wariness to humans and low reactivity to both humans and other external stimuli are a key pre-adaptation for domestication, and these behaviors are also the primary target of the selective pressures experienced by the animal undergoing domestication. This implies that not all animals can be domesticated, e.g. a wild member of the horse family, the zebra.
199:
between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the lead partner in the relationship. This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in which both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, and pets far beyond that of their wild progenitors. Domesticates have provided humans with resources that they could more predictably and securely control, move, and redistribute, which has been the advantage that had fueled a population explosion of the agro-pastoralists and their spread to all corners of the planet.
386:
425:
852:
30:
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a discrete population in time and space. Subsequent admixture between introduced domestic populations and local wild populations that were never domesticated should be referred to as "introgressive capture". Conflating these two processes muddles understanding of the original process and can lead to an artificial inflation of the number of times domestication took place. This introgression can, in some cases, be regarded as adaptive introgression, as observed in domestic sheep due to gene flow with the wild
European Mouflon.
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a response to localized pressure on the supply of the animal. Over time and with the more responsive species, these game-management strategies developed into herd-management strategies that included the sustained multi-generational control over the animals' movement, feeding, and reproduction. As human interference in the life-cycles of prey animals intensified, the evolutionary pressures for a lack of aggression would have led to an acquisition of the same domestication syndrome traits found in the commensal domesticates.
360:
but not an end. Various criteria have been established to provide a definition of domestic animals, but all decisions about exactly when an animal can be labelled "domesticated" in the zoological sense are arbitrary, although potentially useful. Domestication is a fluid and nonlinear process that may start, stop, reverse, or go down unexpected paths with no clear or universal threshold that separates the wild from the domestic. However, there are universal features held in common by all domesticated animals.
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see to many domestic mammals, such as lopped ears (seen in rabbit, dog, fox, pig, sheep, goat, cattle, and donkeys) as well as curly tails (pigs, foxes, and dogs). Although they do not affect the development of the adrenal cortex directly, the neural crest cells may be involved in relevant upstream embryological interactions. Furthermore, artificial selection targeting tameness may affect genes that control the concentration or movement of NCCs in the embryo, leading to a variety of phenotypes.
848:
traits could arise through the selection for a phenotypic trait. In addition, the experiment provided a mechanism for the start of the animal domestication process that did not depend on deliberate human forethought and action. In the 1980s, a researcher used a set of behavioral, cognitive, and visible phenotypic markers, such as coat color, to produce domesticated fallow deer within a few generations. Similar results for tameness and fear have been found for mink and
Japanese quail.
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wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates and were selected during the initial episode of domestication, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations. A second issue is whether traits associated with the domestication syndrome resulted from a relaxation of selection as animals exited the wild environment or from
638:, boar, sheep, and goats. A domestication process then began to develop. The grey wolf most likely followed the commensal pathway to domestication. When, where, and how many times wolves may have been domesticated remains debated because only a small number of ancient specimens have been found, and both archaeology and genetics continue to provide conflicting evidence. The most widely accepted, earliest dog remains date back 15,000 YBP to the
671:
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involved in coat coloration and neurotransmitters such as dopamine that help shape behavior and cognition. These linked traits may arise from mutations in a few key regulatory genes. A problem with this hypothesis is that it proposes that there are mutations in gene networks that cause dramatic effects that are not lethal, however no currently known genetic regulatory networks cause such dramatic change in so many different traits.
454:. Certain physiological changes characterize domestic animals of many species. These changes include extensive white markings (particularly on the head), floppy ears, and curly tails. These arise even when tameness is the only trait under selective pressure. The genes involved in tameness are largely unknown, so it is not known how or to what extent pleiotropy contributes to domestication syndrome. Tameness may be caused by the
438:
most affected portion of the brain in domestic mammals is the limbic system, which in domestic dogs, pigs, and sheep show a 40% reduction in size compared with their wild species. This portion of the brain regulates endocrine function that influences behaviors such as aggression, wariness, and responses to environmentally induced stress, all attributes which are dramatically affected by domestication.
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severely overhunted before domestication, suggesting that the intensive exploitation led to management strategies adopted throughout the region that ultimately led to the domestication of these populations following the prey pathway. This pattern of overhunting before domestication suggests that the prey pathway was as accidental and unintentional as the commensal pathway.
208:
563:). The study showed clear differences between the dental phenotypes of wild, captive wild, domestic, and hybrid pig populations, which supported the proposed categories through physical evidence. The study did not cover feral pig populations but called for further research to be undertaken on them, and on the genetic differences with hybrid pigs.
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ears), more frequent and nonseasonal estrus cycles, alterations in adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, changed concentrations of several neurotransmitters, prolongations in juvenile behavior, and reductions in both total brain size and of particular brain regions. The set of traits used to define the animal domestication syndrome is inconsistent.
86:
appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a portion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or
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domestication. Other studies have shown how human-induced selection is responsible for the allelic variation in pigs. Together, these insights suggest that, although natural selection has kept variation to a minimum before domestication, humans have actively selected for novel coat colors as soon as they appeared in managed populations.
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animals that were most capable of taking advantage of the resources associated with human camps would have been the tamer, less aggressive individuals with shorter fight or flight distances. Later, these animals developed closer social or economic bonds with humans that led to a domestic relationship. The leap from a
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The directed pathway was a more deliberate and directed process initiated by humans with the goal of domesticating a free-living animal. It probably only came into being once people were familiar with either commensal or prey-pathway domesticated animals. These animals were likely not to possess many
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The sustained admixture between dog and wolf populations across the Old and New Worlds over at least the last 10,000 years has blurred the genetic signatures and confounded efforts of researchers at pinpointing the origins of domestic dogs. None of the modern wolf populations are related to the
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is that modern domestic populations can often appear to have much greater genomic affinity to wild populations that were never involved in the original domestication process. Therefore, it is proposed that the term "domestication" should be reserved solely for the initial process of domestication of
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The prey pathway was the way in which most major livestock species entered into domestication as these were once hunted by humans for their meat. Domestication was likely initiated when humans began to experiment with hunting strategies designed to increase the availability of these prey, perhaps as
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The second group proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication: (1) commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g., dogs, cats, fowl, possibly pigs); (2) prey animals sought for food (e.g., sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer,
571:
Since 2012, a multi-stage model of animal domestication has been accepted by two groups. The first group proposed that animal domestication proceeded along a continuum of stages from anthropophily, commensalism, control in the wild, control of captive animals, extensive breeding, intensive breeding,
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Genetic hybrids of wild and domestic parents. They may be forms intermediate between both parents, forms more similar to one parent than the other, or unique forms distinct from both parents. Hybrids can be intentionally bred for specific characteristics or can arise unintentionally as the result of
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to produce many tissue types. Because the traits commonly affected by domestication syndrome are all derived from NCC in development, the neural crest hypothesis suggests that deficits in these cells cause the domain of phenotypes seen in domestication syndrome. These deficits could cause changes we
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Social structure β All species of domesticated large mammals had wild ancestors that lived in herds with a dominance hierarchy amongst the herd members, and the herds had overlapping home territories rather than mutually exclusive home territories. This arrangement allows humans to take control
901:
Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the
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The genetic difference between domestic and wild populations can be framed within two considerations. The first distinguishes between domestication traits that are presumed to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and improvement traits that have appeared since the split between
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Humans were already reliant on domestic plants and animals when they imagined the domestic versions of wild animals. Although horses, donkeys, and Old World camels were sometimes hunted as prey species, they were each deliberately brought into the human niche for sources of transport. Domestication
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The biomass of wild vertebrates is now increasingly small compared to the biomass of domestic animals, with the calculated biomass of domestic cattle alone being greater than that of all wild mammals. Because the evolution of domestic animals is ongoing, the process of domestication has a beginning
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specimens, archeologists have been able to document changes in the management strategies of hunted sheep, goats, pigs, and cows in the
Fertile Crescent starting 11,700 YBP. A recent demographic and metrical study of cow and pig remains at Shaβar Hagolan, Israel, demonstrated that both species were
321:
of both humans and numerous species of animals and plants. Areas with increasing agriculture, underwent urbanization, developing higher-density populations, expanded economies, and became centers of livestock and crop domestication. Such agricultural societies emerged across
Eurasia, North Africa,
906:
pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their
506:
Domestication can be considered as the final phase of intensification in the relationship between animal or plant sub-populations and human societies, but it is divided into several grades of intensification. For studies in animal domestication, researchers have proposed five distinct categories:
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had experienced a significant reduction in cranial height and width and by inference in brain size, which supports the hypothesis that brain-size reduction is an early response to the selective pressure for tameness and lowered reactivity that is the universal feature of animal domestication. The
397:
Efficient diet β Animals that can efficiently process what they eat and live off plants are less expensive to keep in captivity. Carnivores feed on flesh, which would require the domesticators to raise additional animals to feed the carnivores and therefore increase the consumption of plants
222:
traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The term is also applied to animals and includes increased docility and tameness, coat color changes, reductions in tooth size, changes in craniofacial morphology, alterations in ear and tail form (e.g., floppy
484:
The single genetic regulatory network hypothesis proposes that domestication syndrome results from mutations in genes that regulate the expression pattern of more downstream genes. For example piebald, or spotted coat coloration, may be caused by a linkage in the biochemical pathways of melanins
368:
Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their
198:
of both the domesticator and the target domesticate." This definition recognizes both the biological and the cultural components of the domestication process and the effects on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship
847:
experiment demonstrated that selection for tameness within a few generations can result in modified behavioral, morphological, and physiological traits. The experiment demonstrated that domestic phenotypic traits could arise through selection for a behavioral trait, and that domestic behavioral
602:
population to a domestic one could only have taken place after the animals had progressed from anthropophily to habituation, to commensalism and partnership, when the relationship between animal and human would have laid the foundation for domestication, including captivity and human-controlled
804:
The archaeological and genetic data suggests that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks β including canids, donkeys, horses, New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs β was common. Bidirectional gene flow between domestic and wild reindeer continues today.
597:
pathway was traveled by vertebrates that fed on refuse around human habitats or by animals that preyed on other animals drawn to human camps. Those animals established a commensal relationship with humans in which the animals benefited but the humans received no harm but little benefit. Those
85:
or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also a genetic difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have
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As agricultural societies migrated away from the domestication centers taking their domestic partners with them, they encountered populations of wild animals of the same or sister species. Because domestics often shared a recent common ancestor with the wild populations, they were capable of
581:
relationship between them, and the human role in their survival and reproduction, intensified. Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming, the other two pathways are not as goal-oriented and archaeological records suggest that they take place over much longer time frames.
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process with multiple stages along different pathways. Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal resulting from, either the commensal or prey pathways. In both of these cases, humans became entangled with these species as the
868:
Geneticists have identified more than 300 genetic loci and 150 genes associated with coat color variability. Knowing the mutations associated with different colors has allowed some correlation between the timing of the appearance of variable coat colors in horses with the timing of their
432:
The sustained selection for lowered reactivity among mammal domesticates has resulted in profound changes in brain form and function. The larger the size of the brain to begin with and the greater its degree of folding, the greater the degree of brain-size reduction under domestication.
497:
have lived apart from humans for thousands of years but still have the same brain size as that of a domestic dog. Feral dogs that actively avoid human contact are still dependent on human waste for survival and have not reverted to the self-sustaining behaviors of their wolf ancestors.
584:
The pathways that animals may have followed are not mutually exclusive. Pigs, for example, may have been domesticated as their populations became accustomed to the human niche, which would suggest a commensal pathway, or they may have been hunted and followed a prey pathway, or both.
733:
avoided culling reproductive females to promote population balance, neither gazelles nor zebras possessed the necessary prerequisites and were never domesticated. There is no clear evidence for the domestication of any herded prey animal in Africa, with the notable exception of the
462:. Based on this, the pleiotropy hypotheses can be separated into two theories. The Neural Crest Hypothesis relates adrenal gland function to deficits in neural crest cells during development. The Single Genetic Regulatory Network Hypothesis claims that genetic changes in
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of the behavioral preadaptions some species show before domestication. Therefore, the domestication of these animals requires more deliberate effort by humans to work around behaviors that do not assist domestication, with increased technological assistance needed.
350:
8,000 years ago, pigs were domesticated from wild boar that were genetically different from those found in the
Fertile Crescent. The horse was domesticated on the Central Asian steppe 5,500 years ago. The chicken in Southeast Asia was domesticated 4,000 years ago.
653:
The chicken is one of the most widespread domesticated species and one of the human world's largest sources of protein. Although the chicken was domesticated in South-East Asia, archaeological evidence suggests that it was not kept as a livestock species until
132:
and before the domestication of other animals. Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional
662:. Prior to this, chickens had been associated with humans for thousands of years and kept for cock-fighting, rituals, and royal zoos, so they were not originally a prey species. The chicken was not a popular food in Europe until only one thousand years ago.
881:
was not supported. The study indicated that pigs were domesticated separately in
Western Asia and China, with Western Asian pigs introduced into Europe where they crossed with wild boar. A model that fitted the data included admixture with a now extinct
4320:
Almada RC, Coimbra NC. Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake
Bothrops alternatus Synapse
401:
Quick growth rate β Fast maturity rate compared to the human life span allows breeding intervention and makes the animal useful within an acceptable duration of caretaking. Some large animals require many years before they reach a useful
381:
enquired as to why, among the world's 148 large wild terrestrial herbivorous mammals, only 14 were domesticated, and proposed that their wild ancestors must have possessed six characteristics before they could be considered for domestication:
725:
was still a multi-generational adaptation to human selection pressures, including tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. For example, despite the fact that hunters of the Near
Eastern
2722:
2006. Archaeological approaches to documenting animal domestication. In
Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms, ed. Melinda A. Zeder, D.G Bradley, E Emshwiller, B.D Smith, pp. 209β27. Berkeley: Univ. Calif.
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about 11,700 YBP, and by 10,000 YBP people were preferentially killing young males of a variety of species and allowed the females to live in order to produce more offspring. By measuring the size, sex ratios, and mortality profiles of
526:
Directly affected by a relaxation of natural selection associated with feeding, breeding and protection/confinement by humans, and an intensification of artificial selection through passive selection for animals that are more suited to
108:, fowl, possibly pigs); (2) animals sought for food and other byproducts (e.g., sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer, llama, alpaca, and turkey); and (3) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g.,
770:
has demonstrated that gene flow is common, not only between geographically diverse domestic populations of the same species but also between domestic populations and wild species that never gave rise to a domestic population.
685:
Prey pathway animals include sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, yak, pig, reindeer, llama and alpaca. The right conditions for the domestication for some of them appear to have been in place in the central and eastern
872:
In 2015, a study looked at over 100 pig genome sequences to ascertain their process of domestication. The process of domestication was assumed to have been initiated by humans, involved few individuals and relied on
337:
were the first livestock to be domesticated. Archaeologists working in Cyprus found an older burial ground, approximately 9500 years old, of an adult human with a feline skeleton. Two thousand years later, humped
297:
from 11,700 years ago, favorable climatic conditions and increasing human populations led to small-scale animal and plant domestication, which allowed humans to augment the food that they were obtaining through
2880:
Kruska, D. 1988. "Mammalian domestication and its effect on brain structure and behavior," in
Intelligence and evolutionary biology. Edited by H. J. Jerison and I. Jerison, pp. 211β50. New York: Springer-Verlag
555:
Domesticates that have returned to a wild state. As such, they experience relaxed artificial selection induced by the captive environment paired with intensified natural selection induced by the wild habitat.
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resulting from intentional and unintentional human preference. Some recent genomic studies on the genetic basis of traits associated with the domestication syndrome have shed light on both of these issues.
2680:
Fuller, D. Q.; Willcox, G.; Allaby, R. G. (2011). "Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins: Arguments against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East".
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occurred between dogs and wolves 20,000β40,000 YBP, however this is the upper time-limit for domestication because it represents the time of divergence and not the time of domestication.
493:
Feral mammals such as dogs, cats, goats, donkeys, pigs, and ferrets that have lived apart from humans for generations show no sign of regaining the brain mass of their wild progenitors.
821:
wolves that were first domesticated, and the extinction of the wolves that were the direct ancestors of dogs has muddied efforts to pinpoint the time and place of dog domestication.
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1684:
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161:β was common. One study has concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs and created
517:
Subject to natural selection, although the action of past demographic events and artificial selection induced by game management or habitat destruction cannot be excluded.
832:
recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious
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Barbato, Mario; Hailer, Frank; Orozco-terWengel, Pablo; Kijas, James; Mereu, Paolo; Cabras, Pierangela; Mazza, Raffaele; Pirastru, Monica; Bruford, Michael W. (2017).
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llama and alpaca); and (3) targeted animals for draft and nonfood resources (e.g., horse, donkey, camel). The beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted
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that occurred 12,900 years ago was a period of intense cold and aridity that put pressure on humans to intensify their foraging strategies. By the beginning of the
4647:
1017:
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Hanotte, O.; Bradley, D. G.; Ochieng, J. W.; Verjee, Y.; Hill, E. W.; Rege, J. E. O. (2002). "African pastoralism: genetic imprints of origins and migrations".
3128:
Birks, J. D. S., and A. C. Kitchener. 1999. The distribution and status of the polecat Mustela putorius in Britain in the 1990s. London: Vincent Wildlife Trust.
843:
Domestic animals vary in coat color, craniofacial morphology, reduced brain size, floppy ears, and changes in the endocrine system and reproductive cycle. The
100:
It is proposed that there were three major pathways that most animal domesticates followed into domestication: (1) commensals, adapted to a human niche (e.g.,
894:
that affect behavior and morphology. Human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars and created
3277:
1311:
2823:
1957:
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result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the
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Crockford, S. J. (2000). "A commentary on dog evolution: Regional variation, breed development and hybridization with wolves". In Crockford, S. (ed.).
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Subject to intensified artificial selection through husbandry practices with relaxation of natural selection associated with captivity and management.
81:(i.e. artificial selection) in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of
2144:
Frantz, L. (2015). "Evidence of long-term gene flow and selection during domestication from analyses of Eurasian wild and domestic pig genomes".
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Jones, R. Bryan; Satterlee, Daniel G.; Marks, Henry L. (1997). "Fear-related behaviour in Japanese quail divergently selected for body weight".
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in the genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals. Some of the most commonly domesticated animals are cats and dogs.
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In 2015, a study compared the diversity of dental size, shape and allometry across the proposed domestication categories of modern pigs (genus
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between the two eventually led to the domestic population becoming more genetically divergent from its original domestic source population.
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around 21,000 years ago and which continue to this present day. These changes made obtaining food difficult. The first domesticate was the
890:. The study also found that despite back-crossing with wild pigs, the genomes of domestic pigs have strong signatures of selection at
1693:
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Ability to breed in captivity β Animals that will not breed in captivity are limited to acquisition through capture in the wild.
2922:
269:
The domestication of animals and plants was triggered by the climatic and environmental changes that occurred after the peak of the
3423:
Irving-Pease, Evan K.; Ryan, Hannah; Jamieson, Alexandra; Dimopoulos, Evangelos A.; Larson, Greger; Frantz, Laurent A. F. (2018).
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Machugh, David E.; Larson, Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2016). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication".
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257:, showing very low temperatures for the most part of the Younger Dryas, rapidly rising afterwards to reach the level of the warm
3278:"Phenotype and animal domestication: A study of dental variation between domestic, wild, captive, hybrid and insular Sus scrofa"
2627:
Bocquet-Appel, J. P. (2011). "When the world's population took off: The springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition".
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that included another species with evolving behaviors. Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs.
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Meyer, Rachel S.; Purugganan, Michael D. (2013). "Evolution of crop species: Genetics of domestication and diversification".
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and care of another organism in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest, and through which the
17:
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Evin, Allowen; Dobney, Keith; Schafberg, Renate; Owen, Joseph; Vidarsdottir, Una; Larson, Greger; Cucchi, Thomas (2015).
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Valclav Smil, 2011, Harvesting the Biosphere:The Human Impact, Population and Development Review 37(4): 613β636, Table 2)
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Pierpaoli, M.; Biro, Z. S.; Herrmann, M.; Hupe, K.; Fernandes, M.; et al. (2003). "Genetic distinction of wildcat (
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producing fertile offspring. Domestic populations were small relative to the surrounding wild populations, and repeated
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in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of
4348:
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gains advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship, thereby benefitting and often increasing the
855:
Pig herding in fog, Armenia. Human selection for domestic traits is not affected by later gene flow from wild boar.
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3010:"The "Domestication Syndrome" in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics"
2381:"The 'Domestication Syndrome' in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics"
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species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious
3211:"The origins of animal domestication and husbandry: a major change in the history of humanity and the biosphere"
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Olsen, K. M.; Wendel, J. F. (2013). "A bountiful harvest: genomic insights into crop domestication phenotypes".
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2008:
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463:
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Tendency not to panic β Some species are nervous, fast, and prone to flight when they perceive a threat.
3522:
Sykes, Naomi (2012). "A social perspective on the introduction of exotic animals: The case of the chicken".
3465:"Earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia: Evidence from the Hellenistic Southern Levant"
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Perri, Angela (2016). "A wolf in dog's clothing: Initial dog domestication and Pleistocene wolf variation".
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between wild and domestic forms, but the study found that the assumption of reproductive isolation with
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Currat, M.; et al. (2008). "The hidden side of invasions: Massive introgression by local genes".
1836:"Unraveling the Mysteries of Animal Domestication: Whole-genome sequencing challenges old assumptions"
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Jordana, J.; Pares, P. M.; Sanchez, A. (1995). "Analysis of genetic-relationships in horse breeds".
1184:"Beyond the single gene: How epistasis and gene-by-environment effects influence crop domestication"
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Hemmer, H. (2005). "Neumuhle-Riswicker Hirsche: Erste planmaΒ¨Γige Zucht einer neuen Nutztierform".
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Pleasant disposition β Animals with nasty dispositions are dangerous to keep around humans.
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and finally to pets in a slow, gradually intensifying relationship between humans and animals.
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244:
215:
2090:"Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication"
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Hale, E. B. (1969). "Domestication and the evolution of behavior". In Hafez, E. S. E. (ed.).
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The yellow leg trait possessed by numerous modern commercial chicken breeds was acquired via
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3839:"Maternal and paternal lineages in crossbreeding bovine species. HasWisent a hybrid origin?"
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2515:"Unlocking the origins and biology of domestic animals using ancient DNA and paleogenomics"
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Driscoll, Carlos; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Kitchener, Andrew; O'Brien, Stephen (June 2009).
1330:
1153:
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Numerous other bovid species, including bison, yak, banteng, and gaur hybridize with ease.
8:
3692:
3250:
Wild Pigs in the United States: Their History, Comparative Morphology, and Current Status
2586:
1743:
1182:
Doust, A. N.; Lukens, L.; Olsen, K. M.; Mauro-Herrera, M.; Meyer, A.; Rogers, K. (2014).
763:
646:, however their status as dogs or wolves remains debated. Recent studies indicate that a
473:
262:
207:
179:
4230:
3969:
3954:"Genomic signatures of adaptive introgression from European mouflon into domestic sheep"
3799:
3737:"Identification of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the Domestic Chicken"
3643:
Kimura, Birgitta; Marshall, Fiona; Beja-Pereira, Albano; Mulligan, Connie (2013-03-01).
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process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel
78:
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922:
Hybrid (biology)#Examples of hybrid animals and animal populations derived from hybrid
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195:
82:
4197:
3911:
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3721:
2701:
2666:
2365:
1958:"Rethinking dog domestication by integrating genetics, archeology, and biogeography"
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Kazakh shepherd with horse and dogs. Their job is to guard the sheep from predators.
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The increased use of agriculture and continued domestication of species during the
125:
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3837:
Verkaar, E. L. C.; Nijman, I. J.; Beeke, M.; Hanekamp, E.; Lenstra, J. A. (2004).
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4504:
4332:
4288:
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3535:
2693:
2251:
1774:"Evaluating the roles of directed breeding and gene flow in animal domestication"
1592:
791:
780:
738:, which was domesticated in Northeast Africa sometime in the 4th millennium BCE.
643:
389:
299:
3025:
2398:
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importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.
4409:
4272:"Contrasting mode of evolution at a coat color locus in wild and domestic pigs"
3978:
3226:
2321:
2304:
1965:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1778:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1013:
957:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
829:
800:
Cats and horses have been shown to hybridize with many closely related species.
787:
767:
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700:
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330:
70:
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3373:
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1985:
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3882:) populations in Europe, and hybridization with domestic cats in Hungary".
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3369:Coppinger, Raymond; Coppinger, Laura (2001).
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3337:
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1951:
1949:
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1257:
1071:
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1039:
1037:
309:marked the beginning of a rapid shift in the
137:between wild and domestic stocks β including
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238:
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4368:
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2046:10.1016/j.jas.2016.02.003
1683:Price, Edward O. (2002).
1415:Price, Edward O. (2008).
783:indigenous to South Asia.
329:10,000-11,000 years ago,
239:History, cause and timing
4584:Domestication of the dog
4572:Domestication of the cat
4391:Domestication of animals
3735:Eriksson, Jonas (2008).
3285:BMC Evolutionary Biology
3215:Comptes Rendus Biologies
2905:(MarchβApril): 160β169.
2094:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1874:. Springer. p. 397.
886:of wild pigs during the
808:The consequence of this
4520:Domesticated silver fox
4239:10.1126/science.1172750
3808:10.1126/science.1069878
3567:10.1126/science.aah7308
3490:10.1073/pnas.1504236112
2735:"The Taming of the Cat"
2651:10.1126/science.1208880
2614:Oxford University Press
2207:10.1126/science.aad1692
1986:10.1073/pnas.1203005109
1799:10.1073/pnas.1312984110
1483:10.1073/pnas.0901586106
1371:Nature Reviews Genetics
1209:10.1073/pnas.1308940110
1103:10.1073/pnas.1323964111
1046:Diamond, Jared (1997).
1022:. London: John Murray.
978:10.1073/pnas.1501711112
904:catecholamine synthesis
845:domesticated silver fox
665:
420:Brain size and function
4680:History of agriculture
4106:10.1006/anbe.2002.3058
3645:"Donkey Domestication"
2970:10.1002/bies.200800070
1834:Blaustein, R. (2015).
1468:(Suppl 1): 9971β9978.
1049:Guns, Germs, and Steel
879:population bottlenecks
875:reproductive isolation
856:
717:
678:
429:
393:
378:Guns, Germs, and Steel
364:Behavioral preadaption
279:Canis lupus familiaris
266:
245:History of agriculture
227:Difference from taming
216:Domestication syndrome
212:
203:Domestication syndrome
124:before the end of the
41:
4577:cats in ancient Egypt
4455:Domestic Muscovy duck
4011:Freedman, A. (2014).
3856:10.1093/molbev/msh064
3437:10.1007/13836_2018_55
3209:Vigne, J. D. (2011).
3144:Zoologischer Anzeiger
1853:10.1093/biosci/biu201
1772:Marshall, F. (2013).
896:domestication islands
854:
715:
673:
472:(NCC) are vertebrate
427:
388:
252:
243:Further information:
210:
163:domestication islands
32:
4675:Domesticated animals
3398:Russell, N. (2012).
3142:, Troughton 1957)".
2928:on February 15, 2010
2430:Lair, R. C. (1997).
616:years before present
474:embryonic stem cells
307:Neolithic transition
271:Last Glacial Maximum
255:Last Glacial Maximum
145:, New and Old World
88:regional populations
18:Animal domestication
4690:Biology and culture
4231:2009Sci...324..485L
3970:2017NatSR...7.7623B
3800:2002Sci...296..336H
3614:10.1038/nature01019
3606:2002Natur.418..700D
3481:2015PNAS..112.9849P
3114:Hemmer, H. (1990).
2911:1999AmSci..87.....T
2822:Larson, G. (2013).
2751:2009SciAm.300f..68D
2643:2011Sci...333..560B
2608:Barker, G. (2006).
2463:2017NatSR...740338P
1977:2012PNAS..109.8878L
1956:Larson, G. (2012).
1790:2014PNAS..111.6153M
1474:2009PNAS..106.9971D
1310:Larson, G. (2014).
1200:2014PNAS..111.6178D
1094:2014PNAS..111.6139L
969:2015PNAS..112.3191Z
764:population genetics
640:BonnβOberkassel dog
263:Greenland ice cores
4642:Self-domestication
4637:Selective breeding
3958:Scientific Reports
3080:10.4137/bbi.s28902
3074:(Suppl 4): 11β20.
2919:10.1511/1999.2.160
2899:American Scientist
2831:Trends in Genetics
2451:Scientific Reports
2358:10.1007/bf02098682
862:positive selection
857:
834:selective breeding
825:Positive selection
718:
690:at the end of the
679:
648:genetic divergence
470:Neural crest cells
430:
394:
355:Universal features
267:
213:
79:selective breeding
42:
4662:
4661:
3884:Molecular Ecology
3600:(6898): 700β707.
3524:World Archaeology
3475:(32): 9849β9854.
3446:978-3-030-04752-8
3409:978-0-521-14311-0
2682:World Archaeology
2637:(6042): 560β561.
2471:10.1038/srep40338
2261:978-1-4419-0426-3
2222:Brassica oleracea
2152:(10): 1141β1148.
1971:(23): 8878β8883.
1784:(17): 6153β6158.
1577:Zeder, Melinda A.
1194:(17): 6178β6183.
1088:(17): 6139β6146.
1059:978-0-09-930278-0
963:(11): 3191β3198.
949:Zeder, Melinda A.
838:natural selection
768:nuclear sequences
701:zooarchaeological
489:Limited reversion
452:phenotypic traits
128:era, well before
83:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
4697:
4384:
4377:
4370:
4361:
4360:
4355:
4354:
4328:
4322:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4301:
4291:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4250:
4208:
4202:
4201:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4128:
4122:
4116:. Archived from
4094:Animal Behaviour
4091:
4078:
4072:
4071:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4042:
4032:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3991:
3981:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3922:
3916:
3915:
3880:Felis silvestris
3875:
3869:
3868:
3858:
3849:(7): 1165β1170.
3834:
3828:
3827:
3794:(5566): 336β39.
3783:
3777:
3776:
3766:
3756:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3700:(8): 1908β1920.
3687:
3681:
3680:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3589:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3554:
3548:
3547:
3519:
3513:
3512:
3502:
3492:
3460:
3451:
3450:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3376:
3366:
3360:
3359:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3332:
3331:
3325:
3319:. Archived from
3310:
3300:
3282:
3273:
3254:
3253:
3245:
3239:
3238:
3206:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3187:
3181:. Archived from
3158:
3152:
3151:
3140:Canis hallstromi
3135:
3129:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3111:
3102:
3101:
3091:
3059:
3048:
3047:
3037:
3005:
2992:
2991:
2981:
2949:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2927:
2921:. Archived from
2896:
2887:
2881:
2878:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2859:
2853:. Archived from
2828:
2819:
2790:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2770:
2730:
2724:
2720:Melinda A. Zeder
2717:
2706:
2705:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2570:
2555:
2554:
2544:
2534:
2510:
2501:
2500:
2490:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2324:
2300:
2291:
2290:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2189:
2178:
2177:
2141:
2130:
2129:
2119:
2109:
2085:
2068:
2067:
2059:
2050:
2049:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2013:
2007:. Archived from
1998:
1988:
1962:
1953:
1940:
1939:
1931:
1922:
1921:
1913:
1904:
1903:
1885:
1876:
1875:
1867:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1831:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1801:
1769:
1756:
1755:
1727:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1698:
1691:
1680:
1669:
1668:
1632:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1605:
1604:
1573:
1524:
1523:
1515:
1506:
1505:
1495:
1485:
1453:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1412:
1403:
1402:
1366:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1347:
1341:. Archived from
1316:
1307:
1232:
1231:
1221:
1211:
1179:
1166:
1165:
1137:
1126:
1125:
1115:
1105:
1073:
1064:
1063:
1043:
1032:
1031:
1010:
1001:
1000:
990:
980:
945:
884:ghost population
688:Fertile Crescent
644:Paleolithic dogs
628:hunter-gatherers
346:in Pakistan. In
327:Fertile Crescent
300:hunter-gathering
192:partner organism
126:Late Pleistocene
21:
4705:
4704:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4696:
4695:
4694:
4665:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4620:
4560:
4539:
4505:Domestic rabbit
4393:
4388:
4358:
4351:
4329:
4325:
4319:
4315:
4282:(1): e1000341.
4268:
4264:
4209:
4205:
4166:
4162:
4139:
4135:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4089:
4079:
4075:
4060:
4056:
4023:(1): e1004016.
4009:
4005:
3950:
3946:
3923:
3919:
3890:(10): 2585β98.
3876:
3872:
3835:
3831:
3784:
3780:
3747:(2): e1000010.
3733:
3729:
3688:
3684:
3641:
3637:
3587:
3578:
3574:
3555:
3551:
3520:
3516:
3461:
3454:
3447:
3421:
3417:
3410:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3367:
3363:
3356:
3342:
3338:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3280:
3274:
3257:
3246:
3242:
3207:
3200:
3191:
3189:
3185:
3159:
3155:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3112:
3105:
3062:Wright (2015).
3060:
3051:
3006:
2995:
2950:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2894:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2872:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2826:
2820:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2731:
2727:
2718:
2709:
2678:
2674:
2625:
2621:
2606:
2602:
2571:
2558:
2511:
2504:
2443:
2439:
2428:
2424:
2377:
2373:
2342:
2338:
2301:
2294:
2287:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2237:
2233:
2218:
2214:
2190:
2181:
2158:10.1038/ng.3394
2146:Nature Genetics
2142:
2133:
2086:
2071:
2060:
2053:
2030:
2026:
2017:
2015:
2011:
1960:
1954:
1943:
1932:
1925:
1914:
1907:
1900:
1886:
1879:
1868:
1861:
1832:
1825:
1770:
1759:
1728:
1711:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1681:
1672:
1633:
1626:
1615:
1608:
1574:
1527:
1516:
1509:
1454:
1443:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1413:
1406:
1383:10.1038/nrg3605
1367:
1360:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1314:
1308:
1235:
1180:
1169:
1138:
1129:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1044:
1035:
1014:Darwin, Charles
1011:
1004:
946:
939:
935:
913:
898:in the genome.
827:
792:Indicine cattle
781:grey junglefowl
744:
710:
668:
591:
569:
504:
491:
456:down regulation
444:
422:
390:Hereford cattle
366:
357:
247:
241:
229:
205:
176:
171:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4703:
4693:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4660:
4659:
4657:
4656:
4651:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4628:
4626:
4625:Related topics
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4607:
4606:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4580:
4579:
4568:
4566:
4562:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4547:
4545:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4410:Bactrian camel
4407:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4394:
4387:
4386:
4379:
4372:
4364:
4357:
4356:
4349:
4323:
4313:
4262:
4203:
4176:(4): 885β899.
4160:
4149:(1β2): 87β98.
4133:
4100:(3): 487β501.
4073:
4054:
4003:
3944:
3933:(7): 320β328.
3917:
3870:
3829:
3778:
3727:
3682:
3635:
3581:Diamond, Jared
3572:
3549:
3514:
3452:
3445:
3415:
3408:
3390:
3384:978-0684855301
3383:
3361:
3355:978-1841710891
3354:
3336:
3255:
3240:
3221:(3): 171β181.
3198:
3153:
3130:
3121:
3103:
3049:
3020:(3): 795β808.
2993:
2964:(3): 349β360.
2939:
2882:
2870:
2837:(4): 197β205.
2791:
2782:
2725:
2707:
2688:(4): 628β652.
2672:
2619:
2600:
2556:
2502:
2437:
2422:
2393:(3): 795β808.
2371:
2336:
2315:(2): 125β136.
2292:
2285:
2267:
2260:
2231:
2212:
2179:
2131:
2069:
2051:
2024:
1941:
1923:
1905:
1898:
1877:
1859:
1823:
1757:
1709:
1670:
1649:10.1086/413673
1624:
1606:
1587:(2): 161β190.
1525:
1507:
1441:
1427:
1404:
1377:(12): 840β52.
1358:
1233:
1167:
1127:
1065:
1058:
1033:
1002:
936:
934:
931:
930:
929:
924:
919:
912:
909:
830:Charles Darwin
826:
823:
802:
801:
798:
795:
788:Taurine cattle
784:
756:DNA sequencing
749:hybridizations
743:
740:
731:Epipaleolithic
709:
706:
667:
664:
605:coevolutionary
590:
587:
578:coevolutionary
568:
565:
557:
556:
553:
547:
543:
537:
534:
528:
524:
518:
515:
503:
500:
490:
487:
460:adrenal glands
443:
440:
421:
418:
417:
416:
412:
409:
406:
403:
399:
365:
362:
356:
353:
335:taurine cattle
331:zooarchaeology
240:
237:
228:
225:
204:
201:
175:
172:
170:
167:
71:Charles Darwin
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4702:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4578:
4575:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4544:Invertebrates
4542:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4525:Water buffalo
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4450:Domestic duck
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4385:
4380:
4378:
4373:
4371:
4366:
4365:
4362:
4352:
4350:9780521425377
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4327:
4317:
4309:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4258:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4225:(5926): 485.
4224:
4220:
4219:
4214:
4207:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4164:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4137:
4123:on 2016-03-05
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4088:
4086:
4085:Mustela vison
4077:
4069:
4065:
4058:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4017:PLOS Genetics
4014:
4007:
3999:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3948:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3921:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3874:
3866:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3833:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3782:
3774:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3741:PLOS Genetics
3738:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3694:
3686:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3639:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3518:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3459:
3457:
3448:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3429:Paleogenomics
3426:
3419:
3411:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3386:
3380:
3375:
3374:
3365:
3357:
3351:
3347:
3340:
3326:on 2016-03-04
3322:
3318:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
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3188:on 2021-08-13
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2860:on 2019-06-08
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2286:9781472506245
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2014:on 2016-04-22
2010:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
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1966:
1959:
1952:
1950:
1948:
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1930:
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1910:
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1899:9781107133976
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1699:on 2017-05-17
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1428:9781780640556
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1400:
1396:
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1388:
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1363:
1348:on 2019-05-13
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478:embryogenesis
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3321:the original
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3190:. Retrieved
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3173:(1): 49β72.
3170:
3166:
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3067:
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2923:the original
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2898:
2885:
2862:. Retrieved
2855:the original
2834:
2830:
2785:
2745:(6): 68β75.
2742:
2738:
2728:
2685:
2681:
2675:
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2609:
2603:
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1935:
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1694:the original
1685:
1640:
1636:
1618:
1584:
1580:
1519:
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1461:
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1417:
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1343:the original
1322:
1318:
1191:
1187:
1145:
1141:
1085:
1081:
1048:
1018:
960:
956:
900:
892:genetic loci
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858:
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754:Advances in
753:
745:
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613:
600:synanthropic
592:
583:
574:
570:
560:
558:
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539:
530:
521:Captive wild
520:
511:
505:
492:
483:
468:
445:
431:
376:
375:in his book
371:
367:
358:
324:
304:
286:
278:
275:domestic dog
268:
230:
214:
188:reproduction
177:
99:
92:
75:domesticated
69:
45:
43:
26:
4495:Fancy mouse
4415:Bali cattle
4398:Vertebrates
3964:(1): 7623.
3530:: 158β169.
2932:January 12,
2581:: 329β351.
2519:BMC Biology
2193:Pennisi, E.
1846:(1): 7β13.
1643:(1): 1β32.
1434:January 21,
888:Pleistocene
819:Pleistocene
624:Canis lupus
540:Cross-breed
344:Baluchistan
287:Canis lupus
261:, based on
180:mutualistic
169:Definitions
130:cultivation
4669:Categories
4475:Guinea pig
4276:PLOS Genet
4127:2016-02-26
4070:: 255β261.
3330:2016-02-26
3192:2016-02-26
2864:2016-02-26
2018:2016-02-26
1840:BioScience
1703:2016-02-26
1352:2016-02-26
1325:: 115β36.
933:References
527:captivity.
502:Categories
448:pleiotropy
442:Pleiotropy
319:demography
285:ancestor (
220:phenotypic
63:, and the
55:including
50:vertebrate
4551:Honey bee
4445:Dromedary
4170:Biol. Rev
3693:Evolution
3677:189903961
3669:1572-9842
3630:205209520
3544:162265583
2958:BioEssays
2525:(1): 98.
2479:2045-2322
2457:: 40338.
2352:: 11β34.
2240:Zeder, M.
2174:205350534
1738:: 61β85.
1148:: 47β70.
1028:156100686
779:from the
654:400
632:Near East
620:grey wolf
595:commensal
589:Commensal
348:East Asia
311:evolution
281:) from a
135:gene flow
4604:theories
4556:Silkworm
4510:Reindeer
4308:19148282
4257:19390039
4198:24056549
4190:21443614
4049:24453982
3998:28790322
3912:25491695
3904:12969463
3865:14739241
3824:30291909
3816:11951043
3773:18454198
3722:20999005
3714:18452573
3622:12167878
3583:(2002).
3509:26195775
3317:25648385
3291:(1): 6.
3235:21377611
3150:: 42β72.
3098:26512200
3044:25024034
3014:Genetics
2988:19260016
2851:23415592
2777:19485091
2702:56437102
2667:29655920
2659:21798934
2595:27813680
2551:31791340
2497:28059138
2417:25024034
2386:Genetics
2366:42389667
2331:31810775
2166:26323058
2126:26754411
2005:22615366
1818:24753599
1752:26526544
1665:83908518
1601:85348232
1502:19528637
1391:24240513
1339:56381833
1228:24753598
1162:23451788
1122:24757054
1016:(1868).
997:25713127
951:(2015).
927:Landrace
911:See also
708:Directed
696:Holocene
567:Pathways
531:Domestic
464:upstream
398:further.
295:Holocene
259:Holocene
184:organism
147:camelids
4565:History
4500:Poultry
4430:Chicken
4299:2613536
4248:5102060
4227:Bibcode
4218:Science
4040:3894170
3989:5548776
3966:Bibcode
3796:Bibcode
3788:Science
3764:2265484
3602:Bibcode
3559:Science
3500:4538678
3477:Bibcode
3308:4328033
3089:4603525
3035:4096361
2979:2763232
2907:Bibcode
2768:5790555
2747:Bibcode
2639:Bibcode
2630:Science
2542:6889691
2488:5216412
2459:Bibcode
2408:4096361
2198:Science
2117:4710014
2040:: 1β4.
1996:3384140
1973:Bibcode
1809:4035985
1786:Bibcode
1657:2827868
1493:2702791
1470:Bibcode
1219:4035984
1196:Bibcode
1113:4035915
1090:Bibcode
988:4371924
965:Bibcode
729:in the
727:gazelle
658:in the
636:aurochs
552:animals
542:animals
533:animals
523:animals
514:animals
325:In the
315:ecology
196:fitness
139:donkeys
122:Eurasia
61:mammals
53:animals
4460:Ferret
4440:Donkey
4425:Cattle
4405:Alpaca
4347:
4306:
4296:
4255:
4245:
4196:
4188:
4114:491466
4112:
4047:
4037:
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3863:
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3761:
3720:
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3667:
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3620:
3593:Nature
3542:
3507:
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3406:
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3352:
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3233:
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2739:Sci Am
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2114:
2100:: 10.
2003:
1993:
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1750:
1663:
1655:
1599:
1500:
1490:
1425:
1399:529535
1397:
1389:
1337:
1226:
1216:
1160:
1120:
1110:
1056:
1026:
995:
985:
760:genome
736:donkey
660:Levant
495:Dingos
317:, and
233:taming
157:, and
143:horses
114:donkey
95:taming
65:humans
4515:Sheep
4485:Llama
4480:Horse
4465:Gayal
4194:S2CID
4121:(PDF)
4110:S2CID
4090:(PDF)
3908:S2CID
3820:S2CID
3718:S2CID
3673:S2CID
3626:S2CID
3588:(PDF)
3540:S2CID
3324:(PDF)
3281:(PDF)
3186:(PDF)
2926:(PDF)
2895:(PDF)
2858:(PDF)
2827:(PDF)
2723:Press
2698:S2CID
2663:S2CID
2362:S2CID
2228:: 38.
2224:L.".
2170:S2CID
2012:(PDF)
1961:(PDF)
1697:(PDF)
1690:(PDF)
1661:S2CID
1653:JSTOR
1597:S2CID
1395:S2CID
1346:(PDF)
1335:S2CID
1315:(PDF)
609:niche
550:Feral
402:size.
155:sheep
151:goats
118:camel
110:horse
57:birds
38:sheep
4535:Zebu
4470:Goat
4345:ISBN
4304:PMID
4253:PMID
4186:PMID
4045:PMID
3994:PMID
3900:PMID
3861:PMID
3812:PMID
3769:PMID
3710:PMID
3665:ISSN
3618:PMID
3505:PMID
3441:ISBN
3404:ISBN
3379:ISBN
3350:ISBN
3313:PMID
3231:PMID
3094:PMID
3040:PMID
2984:PMID
2934:2016
2847:PMID
2773:PMID
2655:PMID
2591:PMID
2547:PMID
2493:PMID
2475:ISSN
2413:PMID
2327:PMID
2281:ISBN
2256:ISBN
2162:PMID
2122:PMID
2001:PMID
1894:ISBN
1814:PMID
1748:PMID
1498:PMID
1436:2016
1423:ISBN
1387:PMID
1224:PMID
1158:PMID
1118:PMID
1054:ISBN
1024:OCLC
993:PMID
666:Prey
593:The
512:Wild
340:zebu
283:wolf
159:pigs
106:cats
102:dogs
59:and
44:The
36:and
34:Dogs
4530:Yak
4435:Dog
4420:Cat
4294:PMC
4284:doi
4243:PMC
4235:doi
4223:324
4178:doi
4151:doi
4102:doi
4035:PMC
4025:doi
3984:PMC
3974:doi
3935:doi
3892:doi
3851:doi
3804:doi
3792:296
3759:PMC
3749:doi
3702:doi
3657:doi
3610:doi
3598:418
3563:doi
3532:doi
3495:PMC
3485:doi
3473:112
3433:doi
3303:PMC
3293:doi
3223:doi
3219:334
3175:doi
3148:183
3084:PMC
3076:doi
3072:9S4
3030:PMC
3022:doi
3018:197
2974:PMC
2966:doi
2915:doi
2839:doi
2763:PMC
2755:doi
2743:300
2690:doi
2647:doi
2635:333
2583:doi
2537:PMC
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