American kestrel - Knowledge

1386:. It is often considered a beginner's bird, though the careful weight control needed to maintain the kestrel's desire to aggressively hunt takes skill. Falconers experienced in extracting the best performance the species is capable of, report they are highly reliable on the normal game of sparrows and starlings. More aggressive individuals are sometimes capable of capturing prey up to approximately twice their own body weight, allowing the occasional capture of true game birds such as quail and dove. However, most falconers interested in the reliable taking of such game do prefer larger falcons or hawks. The advantage the American kestrel offers the experienced falconer is its suitability to simple and urban falconry not requiring large tracts of land or the use of hunting dogs. This form of falconry is sometimes referred to as "micro-falconry" or "micro-hawking". The other small raptor species commonly used in micro-falconry are the 1363:, a leading non-profit organization advancing research and conservation of birds of prey worldwide, launched the American Kestrel Partnership in 2012. The American Kestrel Partnership developed and maintains a web-based network for citizen and professional scientists to enter, manage, and consolidate data from kestrel nest box monitoring programs in the Western Hemisphere. The database is being used by researchers to model and understand relationships between kestrel nesting parameters (e.g., phenology, occupancy, survival, productivity, and nestling weight and exposure to environmental toxins) and environmental factors, such as land use, landscape composition and configuration, climate conditions (e.g., drought), and point sources of environmental toxins. Each breeding season, the American Kestrel Partnership features a live-streaming video feed from the nest box located at The Peregrine Fund's campus in Boise, Idaho. 781:, with barring on the lower half. The belly and flanks are white with black spotting. The tail is also rufous, with a white or rufous tip and a black subterminal band. The back and wings of the female American kestrel are rufous with dark brown barring. The undersides of the females are creamy to buff with heavy brown streaking. The tail is noticeably different from the male's, being rufous in color with numerous narrow dark black bars. Juveniles exhibit coloration patterns similar to the adults'. In both sexes, the head is white with a bluish-grey top. There are also two narrow, vertical black facial markings on each side of the head, while other falcons have one. Two black spots (ocelli) can be found on each side of the white or orangish nape. The function of these spots is debated, but the most commonly accepted theory is that they act as "false eyes", and help to protect the bird from potential attackers. 866: 900: 847: 766:

and taper to a point. Their less muscular body type is adapted to energy-conserving ambush hunting, rather than spending large amounts of energy-consuming time on the wing and getting into long tail-chases of bird prey. For their size, they have strong talons and beaks, and can swiftly dispatch prey. Their lean build and energy-conserving strategy allow a lower daily food intake than if they were more strongly muscled, yet with enough strength to commonly take bird prey as large as themselves, and occasionally larger. The success of this body style and hunting strategy is reflected in the high success of the species in densely populating a large range throughout the Americas. The flight of the American kestrel is not so dramatic and swift as more muscular falcons such as

1338:(BBS) indicate that the North American breeding population is experiencing long-term and gradual but sustained declines, with some regions, such as New England and coastal California, exhibiting more rapid declines. Count data from raptor migration corridors also indicate regional population declines and largely corroborate BBS data. The North American population has been estimated at 1.2 million pairs, with the Central and South American populations being as large. A smaller estimate is 236,000 birds wintering in North America. A population increase occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries, probably due to deforestation for agriculture. The resulting pastures provided an ideal habitat for kestrels. 998:

year-round residents. Migration also depends on local weather conditions. American Kestrels breeding at lower latitudes – below 48ºN to be precise – arrive earlier after warmer springs, whereas birds from higher latitudes return to their breeding grounds at the same time each year. These patterns suggest that short-distance migrants are better able to cope with climate change. Wintering kestrels' choice of habitat varies by sex. Females are found in open areas more often than males during the non-breeding season. A common explanation for this behavior is that the larger females who are bigger than the males arrive at the preferred habitat first and exclude males from their territory.

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51–61 cm (20–24 in). The female kestrel is larger than the male, though less so than larger falcons, being typically about 10% to 15% larger within a subspecies. The more northern subspecies tend to larger sizes (northern hemisphere), with a large northern female being about twice the size of a small southern male. The male typically weighs 80–143 g (2.8–5.0 oz), and the female 86–165 g (3.0–5.8 oz). In standard measurements, the wing bone is 16–21 cm (6.3–8.3 in) long, the tail is 11–15 cm (4.3–5.9 in) and the tarsus is 3.2–4 cm (1.3–1.6 in).

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recommend the kestrel. The consideration coming in at close second is your intended quarry. To snipe, dove, quail and open-country sparrows, merlins are best suited. For most blackbirds (Icteridea), either falcon can prove effective. Starlings in close are extremely vulnerable to kestrels, but in the open are best prey for merlins. The same holds true for house sparrows, with this exception: sparrows in thick cover are better quarry for kestrels. This is the slip for which I feel the American kestrel is perfect."

885: 1433:) in the art of "waiting on" to perform a diving stoop on flushed prey. However, some individual kestrels do master this skill. Falconers sometimes train them to climb to a stooping position with tidbits on kites or balloons that the kestrels learn to climb after. More common hunting techniques are to "slip" them after spotted game from the fist, or to release them from a vehicle window close to spotted quarry. These techniques are more of a natural fit to the kestrel's ambushing methods in the wild. 1326: 269: 221: 963: 97: 817: 1090:, American kestrels conserve energy in a hunt and pick their attacks with care as to position and odds of success. During the breeding season, the bird will carry large prey back to its mate or young. One study found that an American kestrel pair "foraged in ways that minimized the costs of energy acquisition in its particular situation". For example, if the success rate for catching prey decreases significantly in a particular area, the bird will move to a different area. 1113: 975: 45: 1121:

advantage over younger or invading individuals, as they would already be familiar with the hunting grounds, neighbors, predators, and other features of the site. Males perform elaborate dive displays to advertise their territory and attract a mate. These displays consist of several climbs and dives, with three or four "klee" calls at their peaks. Females are promiscuous for about one to two weeks after their arrival at the nesting site. This is thought to stimulate

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unexposed males. PCB-exposed females kept their color longer than they should have. Normally, loss in color is associated with carotenoids being directed to ovaries to help in egg development. PCB-exposed females retained their colors longer, suggesting the PCBs made them less prepared for reproduction. The same females also had significant delays in egg laying. Offspring also showed higher incidence of developmental problems and decreased reproductive success.

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metabolic energy away from growth and reproduction. Thus, high levels of traffic disturbance and human development surrounding American kestrel nests are found to increase stress hormones leading to reproductive failure. Among successful nests, however, nestlings do not typically experience a higher stress response to environmental human disturbance, suggesting that they can tolerate a considerable degree of human activity near the nest.

31: 1282:(PBDEs), a group of industrial flame retardants that may leach from factories into the environment. When PBDEs accumulate in body tissues of kestrels, the T-cell mediated immune response decreases in efficiency. As a result, kestrels that ingest PBDEs may not respond sufficiently to viruses or other invading microorganisms. In addition, certain PBDEs may suppress the growth and development of the spleen and bursa in American kestrels. 1153:× 29 mm (1.3 in × 1.1 in), 10% larger than average for birds of its body size. The eggs are white to cream in color with brown or grey splotching. Incubation usually lasts 30 days and is mainly the responsibility of the female, although the male incubates 15–20% of the time. Eggs that are lost are typically replaced in 11–12 days. Hatching takes place over three to four days. Hatchlings are 253: 502:. The entire genus is actually a set of species so closely related that most or all can be hybridized by artificial insemination. Significant natural hybridization of species has occurred in the past during the evolution of this closely related set of species, such that precise evolutionary genetic analysis as to which species are more basal to other species or to the genus as a whole is difficult to render. 1302:

copulation, food transfers, male posturing, nest box inspection, and specific mating calls (7). High exposure levels led to increases in some behaviors and decreases in some, whereas low exposure caused decreases in almost all behaviors observed. PDBE exposure also altered the timing of these behaviors, often delaying them by several days when compared to the control group.

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falconer's hand the day after capture, be training within a week, and be ready to hunt in three to five weeks. A very tame American kestrel will allow itself to be picked up around the body with one hand while accepting tidbits from the other hand. Such tameness is very useful when checking or treating the bird for injury or illness.

397:, especially by beginners. Though not as strong a flyer as many other, larger falcons, proper training and weight control by the falconer allows many American kestrels to become effective hunters of birds in the size range of sparrows and starlings, with occasional success against birds up to approximately twice their own weight. 1157:, and are only able to sit up after five days. They grow rapidly, reaching an adult weight after 16–17 days. After 28–31 days, their wings have developed and they are able to leave the nest. The young adult kestrels may breed from a year old, and the species has approximately a three to five-year life expectancy in the wild. 1074:. The kestrel is able to maintain high population densities, at least in part because of the broad scope of its diet. The American kestrel's primary mode of hunting is by perching and waiting for prey to come near. The bird is characteristically seen along roadsides or fields perched on objects such as trees, 1309:

Diphacinone is another common pesticide that is often used to kill rodents and is thought to be related to secondary poisoning in birds of prey. When kestrels were orally dosed with diphacinone, blood clotting rates significantly decreases. Kestrels were also found to be 20 to 30 times more sensitive

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American Kestrels have also been used extensively in toxicology research. Fenthion is a common pesticide that is used to kill insects such as flies and gnats. It was also found that kestrels are highly susceptible to secondary fenthion poisoning. When 14 kestrels were presented with live sparrows who

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Physically, American kestrels are leaner and less muscular than larger falcons. The pectoral flight muscles of the American kestrel make up only about 12% of its body weight, as compared to about 20% for the strongest flying falcons such as the peregrine. The wings are moderately long, fairly narrow,

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PCBs have also been found to affect eye color in American Kestrels. Eye color in kestrels is known to vary with age and sex, however, when exposed to PCBs, color patterns were suppressed regardless of age and sex. While it is unknown what role eye color plays in visual acuity, this may be of greater

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As noted in the introduction, DNA analysis shows the American kestrel to actually be genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons than to the true kestrels. However, based on its physical similarity to the kestrels and the established nature of the name American kestrel, there has

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can alter the thyroid system and retinol concentrations in kestrels. This leads to oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and changes in glutathione metabolism. These systems are important in early development, growth, regulation of metabolism, thermoregulation, and reproduction. Oxidative stress is

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and other open to semi-open regions. They can also be found in both urban and suburban areas. A kestrel's habitat must include perches, open space for hunting, and cavities for nesting (whether natural or man-made). The American kestrel is able to live in very diverse conditions, ranging from above

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Fernie, Kim J.; Shutt, John L.; Letcher, Robert J.; Ritchie, James I.; Sullivan, Katrina; Bird, David M. (March 2008). "Changes in Reproductive Courtship Behaviors of Adult American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) Exposed to Environmentally Relevant Levels of the Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether Mixture,

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3. "Once committed to an attack, trained kestrels tend to follow through to the end. They will stoop into cover, chase birds on foot, bind to quarry twice their size, and never let go voluntarily. They have small feet, but as written elsewhere, also have the strongest feet for their size. It is a

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1. "Kestrels are thin-winged, flat-chested, under-powered and lack acceleration compared to merlins. I say that with much affection for them and with thousands of kestrel kills to prove these are not necessarily damning differences. Comparing a red-tailed hawk to a Harris' or goshawk will conjure

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method or raised in nest boxes for experiments. Kestrel metabolic rate has been found to increase in response to rainfall, and at ambient temperatures below about 25 °C. Kestrel metabolic responses to weather and temperature do not vary, however, with sex. Kestrels will increase their oxygen

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American kestrels are cavity nesters, but they are able to adapt to a wide variety of nesting situations. They generally prefer natural cavities (such as in trees) with closed tops and tight-fitting entrances that provide for maximum protection of the eggs and young. Kestrels occasionally nest in

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American kestrels are sexually mature by their first spring. In migratory populations, the males arrive at the breeding ground before females, then the female selects a mate. Pair bonds are strong, often permanent. Pairs usually use previous nesting sites in consecutive years. This gives birds an

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American kestrels' response to environmental stress is measured as blood concentration of corticosterone (CORT), a hormone produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis that releases stored energy for essential body functions. Extended periods of elevated blood CORT levels may direct

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American kestrels in Canada and the northern United States typically migrate south in the winter, some of them converging with resident kestrels of smaller size in Mexico, sometimes going as far as Central America and the Caribbean. Birds that breed south of about 35° north latitude are usually

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2. "The chief variable to choosing between a kestrel and a merlin may be your hawking land. If you live in open country or have access at least to good pasture for cattle, a merlin can excel there. If you plan to hunt mostly in town or suburb, and especially if you plan to hawk from a car, I'd

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wild bird was 11 years and 7 months, while captive kestrels can live up to 14–17 years. In a study, humans accounted for 43.2% of 1,355 reported deaths, which included direct killing and roadkills, while predation (including by larger birds of prey) accounted for 2.8%. This statistic is likely

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Under traditional classification, the American kestrel is the smallest raptor in America. The American kestrel is sexually dimorphic, although there is some overlap in plumage coloration between the sexes. The bird ranges from 22 to 31 cm (8.7 to 12.2 in) in length with a wingspan of

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American kestrels are bred in captivity for use in falconry and are among the easier falcons to breed. They are also sufficiently common that "passage" birds in their first year are relatively easy to trap. Wild-caught kestrels "tame down" fairly quickly. They will usually be eating from a

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Exposure to PCBs might also affect American Kestrel reproduction. It was found that PCBs affect the function of carotenoids in kestrels. This led to changes in coloration, especially during breeding season for adults. PCB-exposed males where duller and contributed less to egg incubation than

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PDBEs were linked to changes in breeding behavior in kestrels as well. Different levels of PDBE exposure were linked to different changes in behavior as well. Overall, PDBE exposure led to changes in behaviors that strengthen the bond between a breeding pair. Such behaviors include frequent

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Three to seven eggs (typically four or five) are laid approximately 24–72 hours apart. (Two supernormal clutches of eight eggs and one of nine have been documented. One egg in one of the eight-egg clutches hatched as did one egg in the nine-egg clutch.) The average egg size is 32 mm

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Falconers using the American kestrel should be alert to protect the falcon from larger predators that may attack the kestrel, particularly if it is distracted on the ground with captured prey. Domestic cats and dogs are the greatest threat to attack the falcon on the ground, but the

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when the kestrel is upset or excited. This call is used in a wide variety of situations and is heard from both sexes, but the larger females typically have lower-pitched voices than the males. The "whine" call is primarily associated with feeding but is also uttered during

1317:, significant changes to the thyroid systems were observed. Higher levels of thyroid activity indicate that exposure to these gases leads to a loss of inhibition of thyroid glands in kestrels. However, there were no changes to immune function or food consumption. 319:

The American kestrel usually hunts in energy-conserving fashion by perching and scanning the ground for prey to ambush, though it also hunts from the air. It sometimes hovers in the air with rapid wing beats while homing in on prey. Its diet typically consists of

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Gault, Kathleen E.; Walters, Jeffrey R.; Tomcho, Joseph Jr.; Phillips, Louis F. Jr.; Butler, Andrew (2004). "Nest Success of Southeastern American Kestrels Associated with Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers in Old-Growth Longleaf Pine Habitat in Northwest Florida".

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has sufficient size and strength to carry the kestrel away, though falconers have reported often being successful in recovering the kestrel unharmed by acting quickly to intimidate the larger hawk into releasing the kestrel.

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The American kestrel is likely the most abundant falcon in North America, although its total population is difficult to quantify, as local populations can change quickly due to resource availability. Count data from the USGS

1235:-selected. They are able to breed at one year old, have few non-breeding adults in the population, and have larger broods. Their population growth rate is high relative to larger raptors, which typically lean towards being 1081:

Prey is most often caught on the ground, though occasionally they take birds in flight. Before striking, the kestrel characteristically bobs its head and tail, then makes a direct flight toward the prey to grab it in its

1410:. It is more adapted to ambush hunting and short chases than to the longer aerial chases larger falcons often adopt. Used within its limits, it is effective. Experienced falconer Matthew Mullenix, author of the book 1405:

Hawking with the American kestrel requires adapting to the strengths and weaknesses of the bird. It is a tiny falcon, and even for its size, it is less muscular than other small falcons such as the athletic and swift

1078:, or fence posts. It also hunts by kiting, hovering in the air with rapid wing beats and scanning the ground for prey. Other hunting techniques include low flight over fields, or chasing insects and birds in the air. 332:). This broad diet has contributed to its wide success as a species. It nests in cavities in trees, cliffs, buildings, and other structures. The female lays three to seven eggs, which both sexes help to incubate. 1524:

Wink, M., and H. Sauer-Gürth (2004) "Phylogenetic relationships in diurnal raptors based on nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear marker genes", pp. 483–498 in R.D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg (eds.)

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Fernie, Kim J.; Mayne, Greg; Shutt, J. Laird; Pekarik, Cynthia; Grasman, Keith A.; Letcher, Robert J.; Drouillard, Ken (1 December 2005). "Evidence of immunomodulation in nestling American kestrels (

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been little impetus to change its name. This could change in the future if continued genetic research more precisely determines the evolutionary history of the American kestrel within the genus

304:. It also ranges to South America and is a well-established species that has evolved into 17 subspecies adapted to different environments and habitats throughout the Americas. It exhibits 3293:

Pizzino, Gabriele; Irrera, Natasha; Cucinotta, Mariapaola; Pallio, Giovanni; Mannino, Federica; Arcoraci, Vincenzo; Squadrito, Francesco; Altavilla, Domenica; Bitto, Alessandra (2017).

940:. It is the only kestrel found in the Americas, though as mentioned above this classification is genetically inaccurate. It has occurred as a vagrant in the UK, Denmark, Malta and the 2219: 770:

and peregrines, but their efficient adaptation to a broader diet of more available smaller prey, and need for less food per day, has resulted in there being many more of them.

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Strasser, Erin H.; Heath, Julie A. (1 August 2013). "Reproductive failure of a human-tolerant species, the American kestrel, is associated with stress and human disturbance".

3247:"Exposure to Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs): Changes in Thyroid, Vitamin A, Glutathione Homeostasis, and Oxidative Stress in American Kestrels (Falco sparverius)" 865: 3590:

Rattner, Barnett A.; Horak, Katherine E.; Warner, Sarah E.; Day, Daniel D.; Meteyer, Carol U.; Volker, Steven F.; Eisemann, John D.; Johnston, John J. (11 March 2011).

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American kestrels can also be significantly influenced by air contaminants. When exposed to common gaseous pollutants such as benzene, toluene, nitrogen dioxide, and

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Wilson, Glenn R.; Cooper, Sheldon J.; Gessaman, James A. (1 November 2004). "The effects of temperature and artificial rain on the metabolism of American kestrels (

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Since American kestrels are carnivores, toxic chemical runoff ingested by their prey can concentrate at high levels in their blood. Wild kestrels are subject to

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The American kestrel has three basic vocalizations – the "klee" or "killy", the "whine", and the "chitter". The "klee" is usually delivered as a rapid series –

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While PBDEs can affect immune response and suppress growth of certain organs, they can also affect the thyroid system of American Kestrels. Exposure to PBDEs

351:. It is a local breeder in Central America and is widely distributed throughout South America. Most birds breeding in Canada and the northern United States 1426:

simple fact that American kestrels hold starlings better than merlins, on average, and will gladly tackle larger quarry than will any jack (male merlin)."

4421: 3910: 2423:"Diet Variation of a Generalist Predator, the American Kestrel Falco sparverius, in a Gradient of Agricultural Intensification in Central Argentina" 2767: 3592:"Acute toxicity, histopathology, and coagulopathy in American kestrels (Falco sparverius) following administration of the rodenticide diphacinone" 4312: 2109: 390:

to fit a similar small prey niche in the ecosystem as the true kestrels have left it with similar physical characteristics and hunting methods.

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in North America. Formerly called "sparrowhawk", a misnomer as it is a true falcon and is unrelated genetically to the Eurasian sparrowhawk,

3647:"Inhaling Benzene, Toluene, Nitrogen Dioxide, and Sulfur Dioxide, Disrupts Thyroid Function in Captive American Kestrels (Falco sparverius)" 3246: 4522: 366:, but DNA analysis shows the American kestrel to actually be genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons such as the 962: 3861: 1600:

Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis

1457:, so American kestrels are illegal to possess without a permit (such as a falconry permit) in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. 2583:

Mikula, P.; Morelli, F.; Lučan, R. K.; Jones, D. N.; Tryjanowski, P. (2016). "Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective".

4537: 4263: 4325: 1125:. Food transfers from the male to the female occur from about four to five weeks prior to egg laying to one to two weeks after. 3054: 2258:"Intra-specific variation in migration phenology of American Kestrels ( Falco sparverius ) in response to spring temperatures" 3967: 3948: 2140: 2088: 1912: 1887: 1794: 1741: 1671: 461: 4330: 3357:"Carotenoid Concentration and Coloration of American Kestrels (Falco sparverius) Disrupted by Experimental Exposure to PCBs" 2303:

Ardia, Daniel R.; Bildstein, Keith L. (1997). "Sex-related differences in habitat selection in wintering American kestrels,

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Based on appearance and behavior it was for many years considered a member of the primarily European and African kestrel

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Smith, Dwight G.; Wilson, Charles R.; Frost, Herbert H. (1972). "The Biology of the American Kestrel in Central Utah".

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more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low

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back with noticeable barring. Its plumage is colorful and attractive, and juveniles are similar in plumage to adults.

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American kestrels are often useful in scientific studies on animal physiology, and are typically captured using the

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Seventeen subspecies of the American kestrel are recognized, generally based upon plumage, size, and vocalizations:

430:. Linnaeus based his account on the "little hawk" that had been described and illustrated by the English naturalist 4542: 4468: 4232: 810:, copulation, and the feeding of nestlings. Nestlings can produce calls similar to those of adults at 16 days old. 4382: 4245: 4214: 932:

the Arctic Circle, to the tropics of Central America, to elevations of over 4,500 m (14,800 ft) in the

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Fernie, K. J.; Shutt, J. L.; Mayne, G.; Hoffman, D.; Letcher, R. J.; Drouillard, K. G.; Ritchie, I. J. (2005).

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Birds of the High Andes: A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia, South America

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In contrast to many other raptor species, the sexes differ more in plumage than in size. Males have blue-grey

4499: 4364: 1231:). Between these two extremes, the American kestrel is one of the few raptor species that lean towards being 695: 4291: 1195:-selected species are those that place an emphasis on a high growth rate, typically exploiting less-crowded 974: 4118: 4089: 4395: 4152: 2158:"Genotoxicity in American kestrels in an agricultural landscape in the Baja California peninsula, Mexico" 1145:. They have been recorded nesting on cliff ledges and building tops, as well as in abandoned cavities in 4157: 2717:"The influence of relatedness and display effort on the mate choice of captive female American kestrels" 1306:

had come into contact with a fenthion solution, all 14 died within 3 days after consuming the sparrows.

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Fernie, Kim J.; Cruz-Martinez, Luis; Peters, Lisa; Palace, Vince; Smits, Judit E.G. (18 October 2016).

1345:) has declined 82% since 1940 due to a decrease in nest site availability. This decline is a result of 2716: 1500: 986: 378:. Though the species has not been renamed as a result of these genetic analyses, it is not actually a 4473: 4131: 2105: 1371: 4008: 2321: 1700: 1257:

consumption, and therefore their metabolic rate in cold and wet conditions to counteract heat loss.

936:. The bird is distributed from northern Canada and Alaska to the southernmost tip of South America, 729: 4390: 4255: 4013: 2933:"Effects of Macrohabitat and Microhabitat on Nest-Box Use and Nesting Success of American Kestrels" 2368: 1643:. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 402. 1310:

to secondary poisoning from diphacinone than other birds like Northern bobwhite and mallard ducks.

4356: 2530:"Trophic segregation of the Burrowing Owl and the American Kestrel in fragmented desert in Mexico" 2256:

Powers, Breanna F.; Winiarski, Jason M.; Requena-Mullor, Juan M.; Heath, Julie A. (October 2021).

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In ecological terms, the reproductive pattern of the American kestrel leans towards a small bird "

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The American kestrel is not long-lived, with a lifespan of <5 years for wild birds. The oldest

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Sauer, J.R.; Hines, J.E.; Fallon, J.E.; Pardieck, J.L.; Ziolkowski Jr., D.J.; Link, W.A. (2011).

2806: 601: 579: 439: 4447: 1827: 4527: 4317: 4139: 4042: 3702:"The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966 – 2010. Version 12.07.2011" 2316: 541: 4343: 442:

as America but this was restricted to South Carolina based on Catesby. The genus name is from

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Tveten, John L.; Tveten, Gloria A. (2004). "Our Smallest Falcon—American Kestrel: 198/1996".

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biased, however, as reported deaths are usually found near or in areas populated by humans.

4144: 4100: 3658: 3540: 3368: 3211: 3172: 2681: 2541: 2169: 1603:(in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 90. 1335: 1165: 803: 649: 473: 387: 1098: 8: 4105: 2472: 1852: 1220: 1075: 784: 521: 406: 61: 4021: 3662: 3544: 3372: 3215: 3176: 2685: 2545: 2257: 2173: 1623:(in English and French). Vol. 1. London: W. Innys and R. Manby. p. 5, Plate 5. 1477: 1349:

being cleared for agricultural fields. Despite this, the American kestrel is classed as

3838: 3792: 3627: 3572: 3447: 3392: 3329: 3294: 3030: 2944: 2913: 2866: 2858: 2749: 2697: 2654: 2565: 2450: 2403: 2342: 2285: 2201: 1984: 1565: 1391: 1360: 1203:, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high 645: 609: 91: 530:, described by Howe and King in 1902, is found in the southeastern United States from 482:. The sixth edition of the AOU Checklist corrected this, officially renaming the bird 4429: 4175: 3963: 3944: 3682: 3674: 3619: 3611: 3564: 3556: 3483: 3439: 3431: 3384: 3380: 3334: 3316: 3268: 3227: 3143: 3120: 3078: 3010: 2735: 2672:

Rudolph, Seri G. (1982). "Foraging Strategies of American Kestrels During Breeding".

2569: 2557: 2454: 2442: 2334: 2289: 2277: 2205: 2193: 2185: 2136: 2084: 1946: 1929: 1908: 1883: 1790: 1737: 1667: 1418:

equally negative points of fact, yet we all know how good trained red-tails can be!"

1414:, in an article comparing kestrels to merlins, summed their abilities up as follows: 1216: 807: 305: 3576: 3451: 3034: 2870: 2438: 2346: 1638: 1618: 4180: 3666: 3631: 3603: 3548: 3475: 3423: 3376: 3324: 3306: 3258: 3219: 3180: 3112: 3070: 3022: 2905: 2850: 2753: 2739: 2731: 2689: 2646: 2592: 2549: 2434: 2326: 2269: 2177: 1951: 1941: 1555: 1495: 1438: 1430: 1399: 1196: 1019: 937: 587: 367: 329: 4486: 2635:"Diet, Capture Success, and Mode of Hunting by Female American Kestrels in Winter" 2553: 1598: 1429:

American kestrels do not train so easily as some larger falcons (particularly the

4403: 4219: 4167: 3502: 3223: 1134: 1087: 1083: 933: 677: 631: 545: 419: 371: 292: 4460: 4369: 3074: 2529: 748:, described by Cory in 1915, is found from northeastern Brazil south to eastern 4240: 4227: 3116: 2181: 1314: 555: 454: 375: 352: 53: 3983: 3813: 3753: 3727: 1215:-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to 4516: 4338: 4206: 4065: 3678: 3615: 3560: 3435: 3412:"Iris Colour of American Kestrels Varies with Age, Sex, and Exposure to PCBs" 3388: 3320: 2561: 2446: 2281: 2189: 2157: 1594: 1486: 1407: 1387: 1376: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1138: 767: 513: 410: 301: 268: 220: 207: 148: 81: 76: 3834: 3670: 3479: 3263: 3184: 1810:

American Kestrel, Life History, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology

1544:"Phylogeny of the Falconidae Inferred from Molecular and Morphological Data" 486:. Several other colloquial names for the kestrel are also in use, including 3986:

Research and conservation activities designed for participants of all ages

3686: 3623: 3487: 3443: 3338: 3311: 3272: 3231: 3124: 3082: 2330: 2197: 1614: 1329:

A rehabilitated male American kestrel with handler at an educational event.

1325: 1002: 431: 383: 3646: 3568: 2338: 1112: 44: 4408: 4351: 4299: 4074: 3006: 2744: 1275: 1023: 1015: 627: 340: 321: 1930:"Deceptive plumage signals in birds: manipulation of predators or prey?" 4481: 4268: 3796: 3552: 3396: 3356: 2948: 2917: 2862: 2701: 2407: 1988: 1956: 1634: 1569: 1298:

concern to birds like kestrels who rely heavily on vision for hunting.

1253: 1176: 1130: 605: 443: 158: 2658: 2596: 2273: 777:

with black spots and white undersides with black barring. The back is

468:

in 1983, the most commonly used name for the American kestrel was the

3705: 3528: 2392:"Longevity Records of North American Birds: Gaviidae through Alcidae" 1928:

Negro, Juan José; Bortolotti, Gary R.; Sarasola, José Hernán (2007).

1442: 1395: 1200: 1180: 1154: 1122: 1058:, and small birds. The kestrel has also been reported to have killed 1031: 920: 919:

American kestrels are found in a wide variety of habitats, including

739: 685: 663: 569: 531: 478: 348: 108: 4304: 4036: 3607: 3411: 2962:

Miller, Karl E. (2020). "Supernormal clutches of American Kestrels (

2909: 2693: 2650: 2528:

Frixione, Martín G.; Rodríguez-Estrella, Ricardo (1 November 2020).

2390:

Clapp, Roger B.; Klimkiewicz, M. Kathleen; Kennard, John H. (1982).

2156:

Frixione, Martín G.; Rodríguez-Estrella, Ricardo (1 December 2020).

1882:. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. p. 210. 1560: 355:

south in the winter. It is an occasional vagrant to Western Europe.

30: 4193: 4059: 3997: 3750:"Raptor Population Index, Regional Population Trend Summaries 2011" 3427: 3055:"Effects of developmental conditions on nestling American Kestrel ( 3026: 2634: 1972: 1453:

Migratory raptors native to the United States are protected by the

1383: 1219:, and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches that 1071: 1059: 891: 681: 559: 394: 297: 261: 257: 128: 3776: 3410:

Bortolotti, GaryR.; Smits, JuditE.; Bird, DavidM. (January 2003).

3355:

Bortolotti, Gary R.; Fernie, Kimberly J.; Smits, Judit E. (2003).

2932: 2611: 2391: 2255: 2015: 1762:. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Geology. 1543: 1441:

is well known to boldly attack kestrels. This mid-sized American

4494: 4126: 838: 749: 705: 635: 617: 591: 438:

that was published between 1729 and 1732. Linnaeus specified the

379: 309: 252: 4113: 3808: 3806: 3644: 3527:

Hunt, K. A.; Bird, D. M.; Mineau, P.; Shutt, L. (1 July 1991).

1620:

The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands

1290:

also known to contribute to cancers and neurological diseases.

1146: 1039: 1035: 941: 928: 924: 778: 714:, described by Cory in 1915, is found in southwestern Ecuador, 667: 436:

The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands

344: 336: 325: 313: 287: 168: 118: 524:. It is found in most of the United States, Canada and Mexico. 4455: 4188: 3990:

KestrelCams, American Kestrel Partnership, The Peregrine Fund

3529:"Secondary poisoning hazard of fenthion to American kestrels" 1142: 1063: 1051: 1043: 738:, described by Swainson in 1837, is found in Peru, Chile and 719: 613: 359: 3803: 3292: 1520: 1518: 2855:

10.1656/1528-7092(2004)003[0191:NSOSAK]2.0.CO;2

1106: 1055: 1047: 1027: 876: 857: 774: 715: 583: 138: 2839: 2527: 2421:

Orozco-Valor, Paula M.; Grande, Juan M. (20 August 2021).

2155: 3913:. Bureau of Land Management. 15 July 2008. Archived from 3464: 1515: 1149:. American kestrels also commonly utilize nesting boxes. 1067: 968:

Male showing female a nest box and offering mouse – Maine

3704:. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Archived from 3699: 1907:. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 252. 1014:

American kestrels feed largely on small animals such as

568:, described by Howell in 1965, is found in Honduras and 3295:"Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health" 3244: 3197: 2582: 2389: 1927: 3533:

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

2466: 2464: 1475: 3589: 3354: 2931:

Rohrbaugh, Ronald W. Jr.; Yahner, Richard H. (1997).

1822: 1820: 1818: 1784: 1133:, or use the abandoned nests of other birds, such as 3137: 3098: 1537: 1535: 704:, described by Mearns in 1892, is found in northern 335:

Its breeding range extends from central and western

3728:"American Kestrel Partnership: population declines" 3526: 3409: 3138:Willmer, Pat; Stone, Graham; Johnston, Ian (2009). 2461: 2133:

The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition

1753: 558:in 1930, is found from southern Mexico to northern 343:, and south throughout North America, into central 2420: 2131:Snow, David (1998). Perrins, Christopher M (ed.). 1815: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2083:. Svendborg, Denmark: Apollo Books. p. 112. 2013: 1785:Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). 1532: 1501:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22696395A93559037.en 472:. This was due to a mistaken connection with the 4514: 3984:American Kestrel Partnership, The Peregrine Fund 2999: 2895: 2135:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 152. 1973:"Displays and Vocalizations of the Sparrow Hawk" 788:American Kestrel, Barr Lake State Park, Colorado 728:, described by Chapman in 1915, is found on the 3992:Live, streaming video of a nesting kestrel pair 3752:. Raptor Population Index. 2012. Archived from 2930: 1529:, World Working Group on Birds of Prey, Berlin. 4027:– USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter 3775:Hoffman, Mark L.; Collopy, Michael W. (1988). 3774: 3202:) exposed to environmentally relevant PBDEs". 2633:Collopy, Michael W.; Koplin, James R. (1983). 2369:"American Kestrel: Demography and Populations" 2353: 2302: 2014:Smallwoood, John A.; Dudajek, Valerie (2003). 393:The American kestrel is a common bird used in 308:in size (females being moderately larger) and 3162: 3052: 2804: 2632: 2366: 2103: 2078: 1903:Clark, William S.; Wheeler, Brian K. (2001). 1698: 1541: 1382:One important use of American kestrels is in 1269: 3777:"Historical Status of the American Kestrel ( 2766:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2162:Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1902: 1877: 1656:The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names 1633: 1613: 1260: 3998:Photos, audio and video of American kestrel 3053:Strasser, Erin H.; Heath, Julie A. (2011). 3048: 3046: 3044: 2805:Smallwood, John A.; Bird, David M. (2002). 2367:Smallwood, John A.; Bird, David M. (2002). 2104:Smallwood, John A.; Bird, David M. (2002). 1736:, 2008, Mountain Press Publishing Company, 1699:Smallwood, John A.; Bird, David M. (2002). 626:, described by Gmelin in 1788, is found on 3960:The American kestrel: falcon of many names 3911:"Legal Requirements for Raptor Possession" 2715:Duncan, James, R.; Bird, David M. (1989). 2714: 2523: 2521: 1847: 1845: 1812:. Allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2013-02-25. 1320: 219: 70: 43: 29: 3328: 3310: 3299:Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 3262: 3105:Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 3094: 3092: 2743: 2320: 2097: 1955: 1945: 1934:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 1880:Our life with birds: a nature trails book 1559: 1499: 449:meaning a "falcon". The specific epithet 3041: 2016:"Vocal Development in American Kestrel ( 1593: 1370: 1324: 1111: 1097: 783: 267: 251: 2671: 2612:"Diets of North American Falconiformes" 2609: 2518: 1970: 1905:A field guide to hawks of North America 1842: 1653: 914: 4515: 3651:Environmental Science & Technology 3596:Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 3089: 3005: 2961: 2112:from the original on 26 September 2010 1839:Davis, Kate, Kindle locations 225–234. 1828:Merlins and American Kestrels Compared 1766:from the original on 13 September 2010 1471: 1469: 1183:in one of two generalized directions: 698:in 1915, is found in western Colombia. 4041: 4040: 3862:Kestrels, Merlins, and Micro-falconry 3416:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 3350: 3348: 3063:General and Comparative Endocrinology 2498:"American kestrel (Falco sparverius)" 2473:"Falco sparverius (American kestrel)" 1680: 1658:. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 1637:; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). 462:AOU Checklist of North American Birds 4500:A5AFBCC6-5E17-4DD4-AF57-C34B5047E2DF 4246:d86d53ec-c7ea-4044-8343-effb1cfa8bbe 3941:American Kestrels in Modern Falconry 3142:(2nd ed.). Wiley. p. 126. 2130: 2079:Fjeldså, Jon; Krabbe, Niels (1990). 1412:American Kestrels in Modern Falconry 1278:, or an altered immune response, to 1242: 4523:IUCN Red List least concern species 3500: 3140:Environmental Physiology of Animals 2124: 1747: 1487:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1466: 286:), is the smallest and most common 13: 3345: 3156: 2470: 1366: 1341:The southeastern U.S. subspecies ( 409:in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist 14: 4559: 4292:american-kestrel-falco-sparverius 3977: 3943:. Western Sporting Publications. 2996:Davis, Kate, Kindle location 948. 2968:The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 1455:Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 272:Kestrel resting in an apple tree. 3381:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2003.00778.x 3059:) corticosterone concentrations" 2220:"The Journal of Raptor Research" 2106:"American Kestrel: Introduction" 2042:"American Kestrel, Life History" 1947:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00735.x 1744:, Kindle Edition, Location 2232. 1640:Check-List of Birds of the World 985: 973: 961: 949: 898: 883: 864: 845: 827: 815: 792: 95: 4538:Birds of the Dominican Republic 3903: 3891: 3879: 3867: 3855: 3843: 3828: 3768: 3742: 3720: 3693: 3638: 3583: 3520: 3494: 3458: 3403: 3286: 3238: 3191: 3131: 2990: 2978: 2955: 2924: 2889: 2877: 2833: 2821: 2798: 2786: 2774: 2708: 2665: 2626: 2603: 2576: 2490: 2439:10.3161/00016454AO2021.56.1.008 2414: 2383: 2296: 2249: 2237: 2212: 2149: 2072: 2060: 2034: 2007: 1995: 1964: 1921: 1896: 1871: 1833: 1803: 1778: 1726: 1715: 1701:"American Kestrel: Systematics" 1692: 1476:BirdLife International (2016). 1093: 980:Female feeding nestling – Maine 460:Until the sixth edition of the 4031:American Kestrel photo gallery 3962:. Boulder, CO: Johnson Books. 3932: 3814:"American Kestrel Partnership" 2108:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 1647: 1627: 1607: 1587: 1576: 1280:polybrominated diphenyl ethers 756: 544:in 1892, is found in southern 466:American Ornithologists' Union 386:sense. Instead, a process of 328:, mice, and small birds (e.g. 1: 3938: 3897: 3885: 3873: 3849: 2554:10.1080/00222933.2020.1865470 1582: 1460: 680:in 1915, is found in eastern 590:and the central and southern 312:, although both sexes have a 16:North American falcon species 4033:at VIREO (Drexel University) 3864:. oregonfalconers.com (2012) 3224:10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.008 2809:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology 2807:"American Kestrel: Behavior" 2736:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90011-0 2396:Journal of Field Ornithology 2371:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology 2048:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology 1859:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology 1754:McCollough, Kathryn (2001). 1703:. Cornell Lab of Ornithology 494:, due to its distinct call. 7: 4548:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus 3075:10.1016/j.ygcen.2011.05.010 2898:The Southwestern Naturalist 1971:Mueller, Helmut C. (1971). 400: 245: Winter (non-breeding) 10: 4564: 4002:Cornell Lab of Ornithology 3957: 3939:Mullenix, Matthew (2002). 3816:. The Peregrine Fund. 2012 3730:. The Peregrine Fund. 2012 3165:Journal of Applied Ecology 3117:10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.10.009 2984: 2966:) in peninsular Florida". 2883: 2827: 2792: 2780: 2616:Journal of Raptor Research 2610:Sherrod, Steve K. (1978). 2534:Journal of Natural History 2243: 2182:10.1007/s11356-020-10392-0 2066: 2024:Journal of Raptor Research 2001: 1721: 1686: 1654:Jobling, James A. (2010). 1270:Environmental contaminants 1247: 1175:, selective pressures are 1009: 339:across northern Canada to 4049: 3958:Wauer, Roland H. (2005). 3835:Live-streaming video feed 1261:Environmental disturbance 992:Just fledged male – Maine 648:in 1892, is found in the 405:The American kestrel was 227: 218: 197: 190: 92:Scientific classification 90: 68: 59: 51: 42: 37: 28: 23: 4014:Internet Bird Collection 4009:"American Kestrel media" 3507:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 1734:Falcons of North America 1494:: e.T22696395A93559037. 1164:selection" strategy. In 4543:Birds described in 1758 3779:Falco sparverius paulus 3671:10.1021/acs.est.6b03026 3204:Environmental Pollution 3185:10.1111/1365-2664.12103 2843:Southeastern Naturalist 2224:meridian.allenpress.com 1343:Falco sparverius paulus 1321:Status and conservation 1129:holes created by large 822:Male upperparts pattern 662:in 1837, is found from 602:Johann Friedrich Gmelin 580:Nicholas Aylward Vigors 490:, due to its diet, and 239: Summer (breeding) 228:American kestrel range 3468:Toxicological Sciences 3251:Toxicological Sciences 3011:"On r and K selection" 2331:10.1006/anbe.1996.0364 1826:Mullenix, Matt (2003) 1542:Griffiths, C. (1999). 1379: 1330: 1117: 1109: 956:Female about to pounce 799:klee, klee, klee, klee 789: 730:Juan Fernández Islands 542:Edgar Alexander Mearns 273: 265: 4533:Birds of the Americas 4443:Paleobiology Database 3480:10.1093/toxsci/kfm295 3264:10.1093/toxsci/kfi295 1830:. merlinfalconry.com. 1374: 1328: 1115: 1101: 787: 660:William John Swainson 604:in 1788, is found on 582:in 1827, is found on 464:was published by the 457:for a "sparrowhawk". 271: 255: 4241:Fauna Europaea (new) 3312:10.1155/2017/8416763 2540:(41–42): 2713–2732. 1789:. Houghton Mifflin. 1787:Raptors of the World 1336:Breeding Bird Survey 1076:overhead power lines 915:Ecology and behavior 875:female white morph, 650:Netherlands Antilles 474:Eurasian sparrowhawk 388:convergent evolution 4022:American Kestrel – 4004:'s Macaulay Library 3785:The Wilson Bulletin 3663:2016EnST...5011311F 3657:(20): 11311–11318. 3545:1991ArECT..21...84H 3373:2003FuEco..17..651B 3216:2005EPoll.138..485F 3177:2013JApEc..50..912S 3015:American Naturalist 2937:The Wilson Bulletin 2686:1982Ecol...63.1268R 2546:2020JNatH..54.2713F 2477:Animaldiversity.org 2174:2020ESPR...2745755F 2168:(36): 45755–45766. 1977:The Wilson Bulletin 1853:"American Kestrel, 1375:Male with handler, 1199:, and produce many 890:Perched in central 702:F. s. aequatorialis 630:and throughout the 566:F. s. nicaraguensis 522:nominate subspecies 324:and other insects, 62:Conservation status 3839:The Peregrine Fund 3553:10.1007/BF01055561 3361:Functional Ecology 2427:Acta Ornithologica 1756:"American Kestrel 1402:(a true kestrel). 1392:sharp-shinned hawk 1380: 1361:The Peregrine Fund 1331: 1118: 1110: 872:F. s. sparveroides 853:F. s. sparveroides 835:F. s. dominicensis 790: 736:F. s. cinnamominus 726:F. s. fernandensis 646:Hans von Berlepsch 610:Dominican Republic 598:F. s. dominicensis 576:F. s. sparveroides 538:F. s. peninsularis 423:under the current 407:formally described 274: 266: 183:F. sparverius 4510: 4509: 4430:Open Tree of Life 4043:Taxon identifiers 3969:978-1-55566-353-7 3950:978-1-888357-05-9 3917:on 21 August 2010 2597:10.1111/mam.12060 2274:10.1111/ibi.12953 2142:978-0-19-850188-6 2090:978-87-88757-16-3 1914:978-0-395-67067-5 1889:978-1-58544-380-2 1796:978-0-618-12762-7 1742:978-0-87842-553-2 1673:978-1-4081-2501-4 1527:Raptors Worldwide 1243:Stress physiology 1217:carrying capacity 1197:ecological niches 808:courtship feeding 684:and northwestern 656:F. s. isabellinus 642:F. s. brevipennis 624:F. s. caribaearum 362:within the genus 306:sexual dimorphism 250: 249: 85: 24:American kestrel 4555: 4503: 4502: 4490: 4489: 4487:Falco-sparverius 4477: 4476: 4464: 4463: 4451: 4450: 4438: 4437: 4425: 4424: 4422:american-kestrel 4412: 4411: 4399: 4398: 4386: 4385: 4373: 4372: 4370:NHMSYS0000530356 4360: 4359: 4347: 4346: 4334: 4333: 4321: 4320: 4308: 4307: 4295: 4294: 4282: 4281: 4279:american-kestrel 4272: 4271: 4259: 4258: 4249: 4248: 4236: 4235: 4223: 4222: 4210: 4209: 4197: 4196: 4184: 4183: 4171: 4170: 4161: 4160: 4148: 4147: 4135: 4134: 4132:20C2214E655A79AB 4122: 4121: 4119:falco-sparverius 4109: 4108: 4106:Falco_sparverius 4096: 4095: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4081:Falco sparverius 4070: 4069: 4068: 4051:Falco sparverius 4038: 4037: 4024:Falco sparverius 4018: 3973: 3954: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3889: 3883: 3877: 3871: 3865: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3810: 3801: 3800: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3724: 3718: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3697: 3691: 3690: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3602:(5): 1213–1222. 3587: 3581: 3580: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3462: 3456: 3455: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3352: 3343: 3342: 3332: 3314: 3290: 3284: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3266: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3200:Falco sparverius 3195: 3189: 3188: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3101:Falco sparverius 3096: 3087: 3086: 3057:Falco sparverius 3050: 3039: 3038: 3021:(940): 592–597. 3003: 2997: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2964:Falco sparverius 2959: 2953: 2952: 2928: 2922: 2921: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2765: 2757: 2747: 2724:Animal Behaviour 2721: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2680:(5): 1268–1276. 2669: 2663: 2662: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2525: 2516: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2502: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2471:Townes, Sutton. 2468: 2459: 2458: 2418: 2412: 2411: 2387: 2381: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2364: 2351: 2350: 2324: 2315:(6): 1305–1311. 2309:Animal Behaviour 2305:Falco sparverius 2300: 2294: 2293: 2268:(4): 1448–1456. 2253: 2247: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2216: 2210: 2209: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2076: 2070: 2064: 2058: 2057: 2055: 2053: 2038: 2032: 2031: 2018:Falco sparverius 2011: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1968: 1962: 1961: 1959: 1949: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1855:Falco sparverius 1849: 1840: 1837: 1831: 1824: 1813: 1807: 1801: 1800: 1782: 1776: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1758:Falco sparverius 1751: 1745: 1730: 1724: 1719: 1713: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1696: 1690: 1684: 1678: 1677: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1631: 1625: 1624: 1611: 1605: 1604: 1591: 1585: 1580: 1574: 1573: 1563: 1539: 1530: 1522: 1513: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1503: 1480:Falco sparverius 1473: 1431:peregrine falcon 1400:European kestrel 1276:immunomodulation 1211:). By contrast, 1173:selection theory 1135:red-tailed hawks 1103:Falco sparverius 1086:. Much like the 989: 977: 965: 953: 938:Tierra del Fuego 907:F. s. tropicalis 902: 887: 868: 856:male red morph, 849: 831: 819: 712:F. s. peruvianus 588:Isla de Juventud 552:F. s. tropicalis 510:F. s. sparverius 488:grasshopper hawk 484:American kestrel 428:Falco sparverius 283:Falco sparverius 278:American kestrel 256:Adult female in 244: 238: 233: Year round 232: 223: 203: 201:Falco sparverius 100: 99: 79: 74: 73: 47: 33: 21: 20: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4498: 4493: 4485: 4480: 4472: 4467: 4459: 4454: 4446: 4441: 4433: 4428: 4420: 4415: 4407: 4404:Observation.org 4402: 4394: 4389: 4381: 4376: 4368: 4363: 4355: 4350: 4342: 4337: 4329: 4324: 4316: 4311: 4303: 4298: 4290: 4285: 4277: 4275: 4267: 4262: 4254: 4252: 4244: 4239: 4231: 4226: 4218: 4213: 4205: 4200: 4192: 4187: 4179: 4174: 4166: 4164: 4156: 4151: 4143: 4138: 4130: 4125: 4117: 4112: 4104: 4099: 4093: 4088: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4064: 4063: 4058: 4045: 4007: 3980: 3970: 3951: 3935: 3930: 3920: 3918: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3896: 3892: 3884: 3880: 3872: 3868: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3844: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3817: 3812: 3811: 3804: 3773: 3769: 3759: 3757: 3756:on 3 March 2016 3748: 3747: 3743: 3733: 3731: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3711: 3709: 3698: 3694: 3643: 3639: 3608:10.1002/etc.490 3588: 3584: 3525: 3521: 3511: 3509: 3499: 3495: 3463: 3459: 3408: 3404: 3353: 3346: 3291: 3287: 3277: 3275: 3243: 3239: 3196: 3192: 3161: 3157: 3150: 3136: 3132: 3097: 3090: 3051: 3042: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2960: 2956: 2929: 2925: 2910:10.2307/3669841 2894: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2812: 2810: 2803: 2799: 2791: 2787: 2779: 2775: 2759: 2758: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2694:10.2307/1938854 2670: 2666: 2651:10.2307/1367081 2631: 2627: 2608: 2604: 2581: 2577: 2526: 2519: 2509: 2507: 2500: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2481: 2479: 2469: 2462: 2419: 2415: 2388: 2384: 2374: 2372: 2365: 2354: 2322:10.1.1.597.3819 2301: 2297: 2254: 2250: 2242: 2238: 2228: 2226: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2154: 2150: 2143: 2129: 2125: 2115: 2113: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2077: 2073: 2065: 2061: 2051: 2049: 2046:All About Birds 2040: 2039: 2035: 2012: 2008: 2000: 1996: 1969: 1965: 1926: 1922: 1915: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1876: 1872: 1862: 1860: 1851: 1850: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1825: 1816: 1808: 1804: 1797: 1783: 1779: 1769: 1767: 1752: 1748: 1731: 1727: 1720: 1716: 1706: 1704: 1697: 1693: 1685: 1681: 1674: 1652: 1648: 1632: 1628: 1612: 1608: 1592: 1588: 1581: 1577: 1561:10.2307/4089459 1540: 1533: 1523: 1516: 1506: 1504: 1474: 1467: 1463: 1369: 1367:Use in falconry 1323: 1272: 1263: 1250: 1245: 1096: 1088:red-tailed hawk 1012: 993: 990: 981: 978: 969: 966: 957: 954: 934:Andes Mountains 917: 910: 903: 894: 888: 879: 874: 869: 860: 855: 850: 841: 832: 823: 820: 795: 759: 694:, described by 678:Charles B. Cory 676:, described by 674:F. s. ochraceus 658:, described by 644:, described by 632:Lesser Antilles 600:, described by 578:, described by 554:, described by 546:Baja California 540:, described by 512:, described by 420:Systema Naturae 403: 376:prairie falcons 293:Accipiter nisus 246: 242: 240: 236: 234: 230: 214: 205: 199: 186: 94: 86: 75: 71: 64: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4561: 4551: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4491: 4478: 4465: 4452: 4439: 4426: 4413: 4400: 4387: 4374: 4361: 4348: 4335: 4322: 4309: 4296: 4283: 4273: 4260: 4250: 4237: 4228:Fauna Europaea 4224: 4211: 4198: 4185: 4172: 4162: 4149: 4136: 4123: 4110: 4097: 4086: 4071: 4055: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4035: 4034: 4028: 4019: 4005: 3995: 3994: 3993: 3979: 3978:External links 3976: 3975: 3974: 3968: 3955: 3949: 3934: 3931: 3929: 3928: 3902: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3854: 3842: 3827: 3802: 3767: 3741: 3719: 3708:on 9 June 2012 3692: 3637: 3582: 3519: 3493: 3474:(1): 171–178. 3457: 3428:10.1086/345485 3402: 3367:(5): 651–657. 3344: 3285: 3257:(2): 375–383. 3237: 3210:(3): 485–493. 3190: 3171:(4): 912–919. 3155: 3148: 3130: 3111:(3): 389–394. 3088: 3069:(1): 164–170. 3040: 3027:10.1086/282697 2998: 2989: 2977: 2954: 2943:(3): 410–423. 2923: 2888: 2876: 2849:(2): 191–204. 2832: 2820: 2797: 2785: 2773: 2707: 2664: 2645:(3): 369–371. 2625: 2602: 2575: 2517: 2489: 2460: 2413: 2382: 2352: 2295: 2248: 2236: 2211: 2148: 2141: 2123: 2096: 2089: 2071: 2059: 2033: 2006: 1994: 1983:(3): 249–254. 1963: 1940:(3): 467–477. 1920: 1913: 1895: 1888: 1870: 1841: 1832: 1814: 1802: 1795: 1777: 1746: 1725: 1714: 1691: 1679: 1672: 1646: 1626: 1606: 1595:Linnaeus, Carl 1586: 1575: 1554:(1): 116–130. 1531: 1514: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1394:(the smallest 1368: 1365: 1347:longleaf pines 1322: 1319: 1315:sulfur dioxide 1271: 1268: 1262: 1259: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1095: 1092: 1011: 1008: 995: 994: 991: 984: 982: 979: 972: 970: 967: 960: 958: 955: 948: 916: 913: 912: 911: 904: 897: 895: 889: 882: 880: 870: 863: 861: 851: 844: 842: 833: 826: 824: 821: 814: 794: 791: 758: 755: 754: 753: 743: 733: 723: 709: 699: 689: 671: 653: 639: 621: 595: 573: 563: 556:Ludlow Griscom 549: 535: 525: 455:Medieval Latin 402: 399: 248: 247: 241: 235: 229: 225: 224: 216: 215: 206: 195: 194: 188: 187: 180: 178: 174: 173: 166: 162: 161: 156: 152: 151: 146: 142: 141: 136: 132: 131: 126: 122: 121: 116: 112: 111: 106: 102: 101: 88: 87: 69: 66: 65: 60: 57: 56: 54:Cincinnati Zoo 52:Female at the 49: 48: 40: 39: 35: 34: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4560: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4528:Falco (genus) 4526: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4501: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4270: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4076: 4072: 4067: 4061: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4032: 4029: 4026: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4003: 3999: 3996: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3971: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3916: 3912: 3906: 3899: 3894: 3887: 3882: 3875: 3870: 3863: 3858: 3851: 3846: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3815: 3809: 3807: 3798: 3794: 3791:(1): 91–107. 3790: 3786: 3782: 3781:) in Florida" 3780: 3771: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3729: 3723: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3461: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3422:(1): 99–104. 3421: 3417: 3413: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3351: 3349: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3194: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3159: 3151: 3149:9781444309225 3145: 3141: 3134: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3093: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3058: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2993: 2986: 2981: 2974:(2): 438–441. 2973: 2969: 2965: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2927: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2892: 2885: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2829: 2824: 2808: 2801: 2794: 2789: 2782: 2777: 2769: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2745:2027.42/28134 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2711: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2629: 2622:(2): 103–106. 2621: 2617: 2613: 2606: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2585:Mammal Review 2579: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2524: 2522: 2506: 2499: 2493: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2465: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2402:(2): 81–124. 2401: 2397: 2393: 2386: 2370: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2245: 2240: 2225: 2221: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2152: 2144: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2111: 2107: 2100: 2092: 2086: 2082: 2075: 2068: 2063: 2047: 2043: 2037: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2019: 2010: 2003: 1998: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1967: 1958: 1953: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1924: 1916: 1910: 1906: 1899: 1891: 1885: 1881: 1874: 1858: 1856: 1848: 1846: 1836: 1829: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1811: 1806: 1798: 1792: 1788: 1781: 1765: 1761: 1759: 1750: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1732:Davis, Kate, 1729: 1723: 1718: 1702: 1695: 1688: 1683: 1675: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1650: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1630: 1622: 1621: 1617:(1729–1732). 1616: 1615:Catesby, Mark 1610: 1602: 1601: 1596: 1590: 1584: 1579: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1538: 1536: 1528: 1521: 1519: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1472: 1470: 1465: 1458: 1456: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1439:Cooper's hawk 1434: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1378: 1377:San Diego Zoo 1373: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1356: 1355:IUCN Red List 1352: 1351:least concern 1348: 1344: 1339: 1337: 1327: 1318: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1267: 1258: 1255: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1126: 1124: 1114: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1007: 1004: 999: 988: 983: 976: 971: 964: 959: 952: 947: 946: 945: 943: 939: 935: 930: 926: 922: 908: 901: 896: 893: 886: 881: 878: 873: 867: 862: 859: 854: 848: 843: 840: 836: 830: 825: 818: 813: 812: 811: 809: 805: 800: 793:Vocalizations 786: 782: 780: 776: 771: 769: 763: 751: 747: 744: 741: 737: 734: 731: 727: 724: 721: 718:and northern 717: 713: 710: 707: 703: 700: 697: 696:Frank Chapman 693: 690: 687: 683: 679: 675: 672: 669: 665: 661: 657: 654: 651: 647: 643: 640: 637: 633: 629: 625: 622: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 596: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 574: 571: 567: 564: 561: 557: 553: 550: 547: 543: 539: 536: 533: 529: 526: 523: 519: 515: 514:Carl Linnaeus 511: 508: 507: 506: 503: 501: 495: 493: 489: 485: 481: 480: 476:in the genus 475: 471: 467: 463: 458: 456: 452: 448: 445: 441: 440:type locality 437: 433: 429: 426: 425:binomial name 422: 421: 416: 415:tenth edition 412: 411:Carl Linnaeus 408: 398: 396: 391: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 333: 331: 327: 323: 317: 315: 311: 307: 303: 302:mourning dove 299: 295: 294: 289: 285: 284: 279: 270: 263: 259: 254: 226: 222: 217: 213: 209: 204: 202: 196: 193: 192:Binomial name 189: 185: 184: 179: 176: 175: 172: 171: 167: 164: 163: 160: 157: 154: 153: 150: 149:Falconiformes 147: 144: 143: 140: 137: 134: 133: 130: 127: 124: 123: 120: 117: 114: 113: 110: 107: 104: 103: 98: 93: 89: 83: 78: 77:Least Concern 67: 63: 58: 55: 50: 46: 41: 36: 32: 27: 22: 19: 4050: 4023: 4012: 3959: 3940: 3919:. 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