776:, pulmonary dysfunction, or other characteristics of occupational Hg exposure", studies on whether there exist "potential gender differences" or "genetic basis for sensitivity to mercury exposure." The removal of amalgam fillings is not recommended for reasons other than a true hypersensitivity to mercury. Mercury levels in blood and urine have been shown to rise for a short period of time following the removal of amalgam restorations and no studies have demonstrated any health gain from restoration removal. Removal involves exposure to mercury vapor released during the removal process. Amalgams also contribute to mercury toxicity in the environment. With regard to amalgam placement and removal in pregnancy, research has not shown any adverse effects for the mother or fetus. However, research is inadequate to determine the chance of harm occurring and therefore placement and removal should be avoided during pregnancy if possible.
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properties of set dental amalgam. In conventional amalgam, γ2 phase is the most reactive and readily forms an anode. It will break down releasing corrosion products and mercury. Some of the mercury will combine rapidly with unreacted alloy and some will be ingested. The chances of ditching are further increased. Copper-enriched amalgams contain little or no γ2 phase. The copper–tin phase, which replaces γ2 in these materials, is still the most corrosion-prone phase in the amalgam. The corrosion however is still much lower than conventional amalgam.
197:(ISO 1559) for dental amalgam alloy in order to control properties of set amalgam such as corrosion and setting expansion. It is important to differentiate between dental amalgam and the amalgam alloy that is commercially produced and marketed as small filings, spheroid particles, or a combination of these, suitable for mixing with liquid mercury to produce the dental amalgam. Amalgam is used most commonly for direct, permanent, posterior restorations and for large foundation restorations, or cores, which are precursors to placing crowns.
871:
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spherical particles. High-copper alloys contain either spherical particles of the same composition (unicompositional) or a mixture of irregular and spherical particles of different or the same composition (admixed). The properties of set amalgam depends upon the alloy composition—particle size, shape and distribution—and heat treatment controls the characteristic properties of the amalgam.
139:
prevents oxidation of the other metals in the alloy during the manufacturing process. Zinc accomplishes this by combining readily with oxygen to form zinc oxide. Amalgam restorations made from this balanced formula were reasonably successful and its longevity increased. However, one disadvantage that remained was fracture at the tooth-amalgam interface commonly called marginal fracture. Sn
22:
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and successful in parts of the world where amalgam is still the material of choice to restore posterior teeth with proximal caries. Though, there is insufficient evidence to support or refute any adverse effects amalgam may have on patients, new research is unlikely to change opinion on its safety and due to the decision for a global phase-down of amalgam (
393:, mercury diffuses into the silver-tin particles. Then, silver and tin dissolve, to a very limited extent, into the mercury. As this occurs, the particles become smaller. Because the solubility of both silver and tin in mercury is limited and because silver is much less soluble in mercury than is tin, silver precipitates out first as silver-mercury (γ
201:
hardens with time. The standard composition of alloy prior to 1986 is referred to as conventional amalgam alloy. More recently (post-1986), there has been a change in the compositional standard of the alloy due to better understanding of structure-property relationships for the materials. Conventional amalgam alloy commonly consists of
105:. In 1833, Polish-Jewish dentists from London, Edward Crawcour and his nephew Moses Crawcour (incorrectly referred to as "the Crawcour Brothers"), brought amalgam to the United States; but they had to flee back to Europe one year later, leaving “a long trail of victimized patients and exasperated dentists” due to their malpractices.
772:", studies on "in utero exposure to Hg" (elemental mercury), "occupational studies on with well-defined Hg exposure", studies on the absorption of Hg by the "human neonatal gut from breast milk", studies on "whether dental professionals have increased incidences of kidney disease, emotional instability,
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In July 2018 the EU prohibited amalgam for dental treatment of children under 15 years and of pregnant or breastfeeding women unless use of amalgam is medically indicated. There is no hint for a toxicity for the embryo of pregnant women. In addition, there is no scientific reason for avoiding amalgam
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in primary teeth, according to a 2007 review of the study, with some similar claims in a 2003 paper, and composites in permanent teeth according to that 2007 review and a paper from 1986. Compomers were seven times as likely to require replacement and composites were seven times as likely to require
277:
Creep or plastic deformation happens when subjected to intra-oral stresses such as chewing or grinding. Creep causes the amalgam to flow and protrudes from the margin of the cavity forming unsupported edges. "Ditch" is formed around the margins of the amalgam restoration after fracture due to amalgam
720:
The placement of amalgam restorations can potentially cause sensitivity post-operatively. According to R. Weiner, a protective layer or liner should be placed prior to the placement of amalgam to act as a buffer, helping to reduce sensitivity to the tooth. There are different liners that can be used
707:
to bond amalgam to etched tooth structure, much like is done for composite resins, appeared in the literature. Since then, a number of papers have been published on laboratory as well as clinical studies of the technique. For large cavity restorations, features such as pins, slots, holes and grooves
652:
Several reviews have been made by using database in the
Cochrane Library where randomized controlled trials of few studies comparing dental resin composite with dental amalgams in permanent posterior teeth were compared. This review supports the fact that amalgam restorations are particularly useful
641:
restorations were placed and 177 (10.1%) of them failed during the course of the study. Recurrent marginal decay was the main reason for failure in both amalgam and composite restorations, accounting for 66% (32/48) and 88% (113/129), respectively. Polymerization shrinkage, the shrinkage that occurs
240:
To fabricate an amalgam filling, the dentist uses a mixing device to blend roughly equal parts (by mass) of shavings of a silver-base alloy with mercury until the shavings are thoroughly wetted. The silver alloy is typically 40–70% Ag, 25-29% Sn, 2–40% Cu and 0–2% Zn (when the alloy is formulated Zn
171:
Hg could not form. Early results from the clinical use of this new amalgam showed an improvement in marginal integrity. Faculty members of the
Department of Operative Dentistry at The University of Alberta Faculty of Dentistry conducted clinical trials on the new material. It was produced by a local
309:
An amalgam restoration develops its strength slowly and may take up to 24 hours or longer to reach a reasonably high value. At the time when the patient is dismissed from the surgery, typically some 15–20 minutes after placing the filling, the amalgam is relatively weak. Therefore, dentists need to
737:
A varnish can be applied to the cavity wall to provide a good marginal seal. The varnish should be insoluble in water and is usually composed of a resin in a volatile solvent. When applied to the cavity, the solvent evaporates, leaving the resin behind to seal the dentinal tubules. The amalgam can
192:
Dental amalgam is produced by mixing liquid mercury with an alloy made of silver, tin, and copper solid particles. Small quantities of zinc, mercury and other metals may be present in some alloys. This combination of solid particles is known as amalgam alloy. The composition of the alloy particles
150:
In 1962 a new amalgam alloy, called
Dispersalloy, was introduced by William and Ralph Yuodelis of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. William was a metallurgist in the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Alberta. His younger brother Ralph was a 1955 graduate of the Faculty of Dentistry at the same
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plant, which is not designed to treat or recycle mercury or other heavy metals. The mercury contaminates the sludge processed at the treatment plant, and thereby can spread the mercury in surrounding communities, if the sludge is land-applied for disposal. Dental amalgam is the largest source of
791:
Dental amalgam is thought to be relatively safe to be used as a restorative material as it is used in low doses. Amalgam vapour can be released through chewing but this is minimal. However, there is an increased release of mercury following the exposure of electromagnetic fields generated by MRI
200:
The reaction between mercury and alloy when mixed together is termed an amalgamation reaction. It will result in the formation of a silver-grey workable mass which can be condensed into cavities. After condensing, the dental amalgam is shaped to generate the required anatomical features and then
711:
There is no current scientific evidence to justify the extra cost and effort associated with the use of adhesively bonded amalgam restorations in comparison with nonbonded amalgam restorations. In view of the lack of evidence on the additional benefit of adhesively bonding amalgam compared with
268:
Amalgam is a mixture of two or more metals (alloy) with mercury which has been purified first by distillation to remove impurities. Major components of the alloy are silver, tin, and copper. The composition of the alloy powder is controlled by ISO standard for dental amalgam alloy (ISO 1559) to
380:
The alloys are broadly classified as low-copper (5% or less copper) and high-copper alloys (13% to 30% copper). The solid particles of the alloy are either spherical or irregularly shaped microspheres of various sizes or a combination of the two. The low-copper alloys have either irregular or
296:
In spite of that, it is thought that corrosion actually offers a clinical advantage. The corrosion products will gather at the tooth-amalgam interface and fill the microgap (marginal gap) which helps to decrease microleakage. Even so, there are no reports of increased marginal leakage for the
138:
Amalgam has been used for many years for restorations, commonly known as fillings. Prior to 1900 many compositions were tried but few were successful when placed in the oral environment. Around 1900, small amounts of copper and occasionally zinc were added. Zinc acts as a scavenger because it
292:
Corrosion occurs when an anode and cathode are set up in the presence of electrolytes, creating an electrolytic cell. The multiphase structure of dental amalgam can contribute as an anode or cathode with saliva as electrolytes. Corrosion may significantly affect the structure and mechanical
116:(ASDS), the only US dental association at the time, who forced all of its members to sign a pledge to abstain from using the mercury fillings. This was the beginning of what is known as the first dental amalgam war. The dispute ended in 1856 with the disbanding of the old association. The
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found that studies on mercury vapor and dental amalgam "provided insufficient information to enable definitive conclusions." They identified several "research gaps", including: "well-controlled studies using standardized measures that evaluate whether low level produce neurotoxic and/or
1807:
Forss, H; Widstrom, E (2003). "The post-amalgam era: a selection of materials and their longevity in the primary and young permanent dentition. Others express concern regarding the
Children's Amalgam Trial's elevated serum and urine mercury content in the children with the amalgams".
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cement just prior to filling with amalgam, in order to improve the seal and retention. The practice did not become universally accepted and eventually fell into disuse. Until the 1980s, most amalgam restorations placed worldwide were done without adhesives, although in the 1970s a
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regulation in 2017 which prohibits most dental practices from disposing dental amalgam waste down the drain. Most dental offices in the U.S. are required to use an amalgam separator in their drain system. The separator captures the waste material, which is then recycled.
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restorations, in which amalgam would require the removal of more sound tooth structure, as well as in "enamel sites beyond the height of contour". For cosmetic purposes, composite is preferred when a restoration is required on an immediately visible portion of a tooth.
451:
Sn (ε) phase. The fact that tin had a greater affinity for copper than for mercury meant that the gamma-2 phase was reduced or eliminated. This resulted in the dramatic improvement in physical properties. The higher copper content is supplied as two types:
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machines, although the small amount released is not thought to pose a risk to health. Some patients may develop allergic reactions to it. Resin composite, glass ionomer cements and ceramic or gold inlays can be used as alternatives to amalgam.
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The dental operating team should deal with amalgam with proper use of personal protective equipment to protect themselves. A popular methodology for removal and replacement is the Safe
Mercury Amalgam Removal Technique or S.M.A.R.T. protocol.
300:
Microleakage is the leakage of minute amounts of fluids, debris, and microorganisms through the microscopic space between a dental restoration and the adjacent surface of the cavity preparation. Microleakage can risk recurrent cavities.
1496:
Soncini JA, Maserejian NN, Trachtenberg F, Tavares M, Hayes C (2007). "The longevity of amalgam versus compomer/composite restorations in posterior primary and permanent teeth: findings From the New
England Children's Amalgam Trial".
172:
Edmonton company, Western
Metallurgical. Johnson & Johnson pharmaceuticals eventually purchased the patent from the Youdelis brothers. 10 years later, another alloy, called Tytin, was introduced by adding significant amount of Cu
845:
Mercury can cross the placenta leading to stillbirths and birth defects. Although there is no evidence linking amalgam use and pregnancy damage, it is advisable to delay or avoid dealing with amalgam fillings in pregnant patients.
100:
Ever since its introduction in the
Western world from 1818 and into the 1830s, amalgam has been the subject of recurrent controversies because of its mercury content. Early amalgam was made by mixing mercury with the filings of
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Mortazavi, Ghazal; Mortazavi, S.M.J. (1 December 2015). "Increased mercury release from dental amalgam restorations after exposure to electromagnetic fields as a potential hazard for hypersensitive people and pregnant women".
782:
In July 2018 the EU, "in consideration of the persistent pollution and environmental toxicity of amalgam's mercury", prohibited amalgam for dental treatment of children under 15 years and of pregnant or breastfeeding women.
71:
medical text written by Su Gong (苏恭) in 659, and appeared in
Germany in 1528. In the 1800s, amalgam became the dental restorative material of choice due to its low cost, ease of application, strength, and durability.
2495:
Mutter, J; Naumann, J; Walach, H; Daschner, F (2005). "Amalgam: Eine
Risikobewertung unter Berücksichtigung der neuen Literatur bis 2005" [Amalgam risk assessment with coverage of references up to 2005].
123:
The controversy about amalgam fillings continued throughout the rest of the nineteenth century, with regional dentist societies condemning them, such as the St. Louis Odontological Society did as early as 1867.
468:
During trituration, the dissolved silver from the silver-tin particles reacts, as in low copper alloys, to form the γ1 phase. The dissolved tin migrates to the outside of the silver-copper particles to form
96:
that the composition of an early dental amalgam was first published, and a text written by Liu Wentai in 1505 states that it consists of "100 shares of mercury, 45 shares of silver and 900 shares of tin."
477:, the eta prime (η′) phase of the copper-tin system. Thus, copper reacts with sufficient tin to prevent the formation of γ2. The amalgamation reaction may be simplified as follows (notice the absence of γ
1724:
Rasines Alcaraz, MG; Veitz-Keenan, A; Sahrmann, P; Schmidlin, PR; Davis, D; Iheozor-Ejiofor, Z (2014). "Direct composite resin fillings versus amalgam fillings for permanent or adult posterior teeth".
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phase) was considered to be responsible for this problem. This phase has been shown to be the weakest phase in the set amalgam and is subject to corrosion, particularly at the tooth-amalgam interface.
84:, indications that dental amalgam was used in the first part of the Tang dynasty in China (AD 618–907), and in Germany by Strockerus in about 1528. Evidence of a dental amalgam first appears in the
447:
In high copper alloy, copper is added to improve mechanical properties, resistance to corrosion and marginal integrity. The higher copper is supplied by either the silver-copper eutectic or the Cu
64:. The amalgam is mixed by the dentist just before use. It remains soft for a short while after mixing, which facilitates it being snugly packed into the cavity and shaped before it sets hard.
779:
In response to The Minamata Convention on Mercury, the European Commission has confirmed its position that individual nations should work to gradually scale down the use of dental amalgam.
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Critics argue that it has toxic effects that make it unsafe, both for the patient and perhaps even more so for the dental professional manipulating it during a restoration. A study by the
2844:"Health and safety in the dental clinic – Hygiene regulations for use of elemental mercury in the protection of rights, safety and well-being of the patients, workers and the environment"
92:(新修本草) written by Su Gong (苏恭) in 659, manufactured from tin and silver. Historical records hint that the use of amalgams may date to even earlier in the Tang dynasty. It was during the
2448:"An unusual case of immediate hypersensitivity reaction associated with an amalgam restoration, An l case of immediate hypersensitivity reaction associated with an amalgam restoration"
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has issued a Waste Directive that classifies amalgam waste as a hazardous waste. The waste should be separated from other waste by fitting amalgam separators in all dental practices.
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Bernardo, M; Martin, MD; Lerouz, BG (2007). "Survival and reasons for failure of amalgam versus resin-based composites posterior restorations placed in a randomized clinical trial".
678:
638:
2294:"Post cementation sensitivity evaluation of glass Ionomer, zinc phosphate and resin-modified glass Ionomer luting cements under class II inlays: An in vivo comparative study"
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Amalgam is tolerant to a wide range of clinical placement conditions and moderately tolerant to the presence of moisture during placement. In contrast, the techniques for
642:
during the composite curing process, has been implicated in a 2002 review of the literature and a 2003 study as the primary reason for postoperative marginal leakage.
184:
phase. Both of these relatively new alloys raised the copper content from 5%, present in the older balanced composition alloy, to about 13% for the newer alloys.
760:. Major health and professional organizations regard amalgam as safe but questions have been raised and acute but rare allergic reactions have been reported.
120:(ADA) was founded in its place in 1859, which has since then strongly defended dental amalgam from allegations of being too risky from the health standpoint.
159:
Sn particle in a ratio of 1:2. The mixture of these two types of particles is known as admix alloy. This alloy strengthened the set amalgam and reduced the γ
2033:"Bond strength between amalgam and tooth hard tissues with application of fluoride, glass ionomer cement and adhesive resin cement in various combinations"
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Sn(ε) phase. These alloys are usually spherical. When liquid mercury is mixed with these alloys, it diffuses into the surface of these particles forming Ag
108:
However, the use of amalgam caught on in the following years, and in 1844 it was reported that fifty percent of all dental restorations placed in upstate
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Shimizu, A; Ui, T; Kawakami, M; Tsuchitani, Y (1987). "Adhesive amalgam restoration with resin cement lining: Basic technique and three clinical cases".
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Bonsor, S., Pearson, G., & Dawson Books. (2013). A clinical guide to applied dental materials. Amsterdam : London :: Churchill Livingstone.
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polymers (for example TEGMA, triethylene glycol methacrylate) composing the matrix of resin composites "encourages the growth of microorganisms". In the
1227:"Geometric, electronic and elastic properties of dental silver amalgam γ-(Ag3Sn), γ1-(Ag2Hg3), γ2-(Sn8Hg) phases, comparison of experiment and theory"
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for breastfeeding women. As the milk teeth won't remain for long, the avoidance of amalgam for children is driving by environmental considerations.
401:). The set amalgam consists of unreacted gamma particles surrounded by a matrix of gamma 1 and gamma 2. The amalgamation is summarised as follows:
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However, there is low-quality evidence in two 2014 studies to suggest that resin composites lead to higher failure rates and risk of secondary
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structure. This was recognized as a shortcoming by early practitioners such as Baldwin. He recommended that the prepared cavity be coated with
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Davies, R. Andrew; Ardalan, Shaghayegh; Mu, Wei-Hua; Tian, Kun; Farsaikiya, Fariborz; Darvell, Brian W.; Chass, Gregory A. (27 January 2010).
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crystals are much larger and rod-shaped than those in admixed alloy. Copper added in unicomposition causes removal of the gamma2 phase.
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Allison, James R.; Chary, Karthik; Ottley, Chris; Vuong, Quoc C.; German, Matthew J.; Durham, Justin; Thelwall, Peter (December 2022).
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Some individuals have a sensitivity to amalgam and may develop oral lesions in which case a change of filling type is recommended.
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High copper admix alloy (spherical particles of the silver-copper eutectic alloy to a low-copper lathe-cut alloy in a ratio of 1:2)
808:
In the United States, dental offices have typically disposed of amalgam waste down the drain. The wastewater is sent to the local
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can be used for the retention of large amalgam restorations, but they do not reinforce the amalgam or increase its strength.
817:
2074:"Microleakage of amalgam restorations with adhesive resin cement lining, glass ionomer cement base and fluoride treatment"
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These are some of the reasons why amalgam has remained a superior restorative material over resin-base composites. The
213:(~8%) and other trace metals; current amalgam alloy consists of silver (40%), tin (32%), copper (30%) and other metals.
1955:
Zardiackas, L D; Stoner, G E; Smith, F K (1976). "Dental amalgam stabilization by selective interfacial amalgamation".
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Hyson Jr, John M. "Amalgam: Its history and perils." Journal of the California Dental Association 34.3 (2006): 215-229.
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copper-enriched amalgams indicating that sufficient quantities of corrosion product are produced to seal the margins.
1287:
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703:-based adhesive liner was formulated specifically for this purpose In the mid-1980s the first reports of the use of
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repair. There are circumstances in which composite serves better than amalgam. For example, when a more conservative
668:, yielded results "consistent with previous reports suggesting that the longevity of amalgam is higher than that of
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Qvist, V; Thylstrup, A (1986). "Restorative treatment patterns and longevity of amalgam restorations in Denmark".
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Alloy powder is then mixed with liquid mercury to produce dental amalgam. Low-copper amalgam commonly consists of
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Amalgam induced lichen planus on the lateral surface of the tongue. Amalgam filling is indicated by white arrow
2999:
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Staninec, M; Holt, M (1988). "Bonding of amalgam to tooth structure: Tensile adhesion and microleakage tests".
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The difference in eta prime phase of admixed alloy and unicomposition alloy is that in unicomposition alloy, Cu
128:
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nonbonded amalgam, it is important that clinicians are mindful of the additional costs that may be incurred.
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would be beneficial, composite is the recommended restorative material. These situations would include small
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Burgess, JO; Walker, R; Davidson, JM (2002). "Posterior resin-based composite: review of the literature".
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creep at the occlusal margins. The γ2 phase of amalgam is primarily responsible for high values of creep.
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1337:"Setting reactions in dental amalgam. Part 1. Phases and microstructures between one hour and one week"
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consisted of amalgam. The same year, the use of dental amalgam was declared to be malpractice by the
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phases, are a matrix for unreacted original alloy, minus the fast-reacting β-phase and excess Sn.
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Hg). The increased copper in the silver-copper eutectic reacted preferentially with tin so that Sn
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951:
Czarnetzki, A.; Ehrhardt S. (1990). "Re-dating the Chinese amalgam-filling of teeth in Europe".
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is a scavenger and is mostly consumed during melting and lost as oxide). The dentist packs the
2694:"The effect of magnetic resonance imaging on mercury release from dental amalgam at 3T and 7T"
52:. It is made by mixing a combination of liquid mercury and particles of solid metals such as
1690:
Estefan, D.; Agosta, C. (2003). "Eliminating microleakage from the composite resin system".
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in dental practices today, many of which contain zinc. Examples of lining materials include
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mass, before it sets, into the cavity. The amalgam expands ≈0.1% over 6–8 hours on setting.
2757:
EPA (2017-06-14). "Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Dental Category."
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Guthrow CE, Johnson LB, Lawless KR "Corrosion of dental amalgam and its component phases."
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8:
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Gesundheitswesen (Bundesverband der Arzte des Offentlichen Gesundheitsdienstes (Germany))
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Westcott, A. (1844). "Report to the Onondonga Medical Society on metal paste (amalgam)".
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Sn(ε), similar to the low-copper lathe-cut alloys, but with much greater amount of the Cu
1569:"Posterior composite restoration update: focus on factors influencing form and function"
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Materials in Dentistry: Principles and Applications - Jack L. Ferracane - Google Boeken
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instruct patients not to apply undue stress to their freshly placed amalgam fillings.
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2543:"Review and Analysis of the Literature on the Health Effects of Dental Amalgams"
899:. Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 29 September 2020.
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2747:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 24 April 2020.
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Kal, B. Ilhan; Evcin, O.; Dundar, N.; Tezel, H.; Unal, I. (22 November 2008).
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Christensen, GJ (2005). "Longevity of posterior tooth dental restorations".
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In addition, amalgam restorations are brittle and susceptible to corrosion.
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Sn, in the form of a unicompositional spherical particle to eliminate the γ
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2583:. London: British Dental Association. March 2008. Fact File. Archived from
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1378:"Setting reactions in dental amalgam. Part 2. The kinetics of amalgamation"
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Material used in dentistry for direct restorative procedures in the tooth
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2218:"No available evidence to assess the effectiveness of bonded amalgams"
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2008:
1991:
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Innes, DBK; Youdelis, WV (1963). "Dispersion strengthened amalgams".
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Bjørklund, G (1989). "The history of dental amalgam (in Norwegian)".
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The Story of Dentistry from the Dawn of Civilization to the Present
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Health, Center for Devices and Radiological (18 February 2021).
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Hoffmann-Axthelm, Walter. "Geschichte der Zahnheilkunde." (1981)
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2884:
2626:
1901:
Newman, SM (1991). "Amalgam alternatives: what can compete?".
768:
neuropsychological effect", studies on "co-exposure to Hg and
1882:
Fuks, AB (2002). "The use of amalgam in pediatric patients".
1760:"Amalgam or composite fillings--which material lasts longer?"
151:
university. William Yuodelis added a spherical silver-copper
41:
2257:
Weiner, R. (2011). "Liners and bases in general dentistry".
2167:
Agnihotry, Anirudha; Fedorowicz, Zbys; Nasser, Mona (2016).
2494:
2112:
229:
2739:
2737:
969:
133:
21:
2166:
225:
206:
61:
2842:
Ngim, Chunhan; Ngim, Allister Daquan (1 December 2013).
787:
Environmental impact and prevention of amalgam poisoning
2734:
2691:
2389:"The Dental Amalgam Toxicity Fear: A Myth or Actuality"
657:) general opinion on its safety is unlikely to change.
1989:
1060:
Molin, C (February 1992). "Amalgam—fact and fiction".
588:
Advantages of high copper compared to low copper alloy
1954:
1662:
950:
2935:
1617:
1567:
Bohaty BS, Ye Q, Misra A, Sene F, Spencer P (2013).
2802:. Brussels: European Commission. 23 September 2020.
2445:
1312:
Materials in Dentistry: Principles and Applications
1224:
970:Bharti R, Wadhwani KK, Tikku AP, Chandra A (2010).
795:
2639:
1936:Baldwin, H (1897). "Cement and amalgam fillings".
1143:
752:Concerns have been raised about the potential for
2071:
2030:
1566:
828:
2986:
2885:"SMART = Safe Mercury Amalgam Removal Technique"
2386:
1314:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 3.
1137:
1135:
2821:Das News-Portal der Zahnärztlichen Mitteilungen
2629:. British Dental Association. 24 February 2016.
1200:Sakaguchi, R.L.; Powers, J.M. (11 April 2018).
1199:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1115:
732:
511:
463:
397:) followed by tin in the form of tin-mercury (γ
1903:The Journal of the American Dental Association
1844:
1620:The Journal of the American Dental Association
1303:
840:
622:placement are more sensitive to many factors.
272:
2291:
1811:International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry
1806:
1689:
1456:
1375:
1334:
1044:American Society of Dental Surgeons. (1845).
891:
889:
887:
613:
2131:
1990:Varga, J; Matsumura, H; Masuhara, E (1986).
1112:
946:
944:
942:
940:
910:
908:
906:
316:
2970:Composite Fillings - Tooth-Colored Fillings
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2537:
2535:
1531:
1141:
853:
813:mercury received by U.S. treatment plants.
67:Dental amalgams were first documented in a
2882:
2488:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1088:
1053:
884:
741:
2859:
2709:
2463:
2422:
2404:
2319:
2309:
2233:
2192:
2089:
2048:
2007:
1775:
1639:
1594:
1584:
1393:
1352:
1309:
1275:
1100:Dental Items of Interest Pub. Co. p 86–87
997:
987:
937:
914:
903:
516:Here, the alloy particles contain both Ag
129:Dental amalgam controversy § History
2841:
2784:. European Commission. 6 September 2016.
2602:
2563:
2532:
1029:
869:
799:
263:
235:
155:particle to the traditional lathe-cut Ag
20:
2368:. American Dental Association. May 2015
2173:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
2072:Shimizu, A; Ui, T; Kawakami, M (1987).
2031:Shimizu, A; Ui, T; Kawakami, M (1986).
1935:
1482:
1062:Scandinavian Journal of Dental Research
134:Low copper to high copper amalgam alloy
2987:
2908:
2256:
1900:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
2965:National Council Against Health Fraud
2817:"Die Minamata-Konvention und Amalgam"
2811:
2809:
2215:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1421:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1282:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1262:
1260:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1059:
1032:American Journal of Dental Science IV
953:International Journal of Anthropology
637:study in Portugal (1986–1989), 1,748
2902:
2216:Murad, Mohammed (24 December 2009).
1881:
1202:Craig's Restorative Dental Materials
1142:McCabe, J.F.; Walls, A.W.G. (2008).
818:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
756:with dental amalgam when used in a
664:Children's Amalgam Trial (NECAT), a
488:Sn) + Ag-Cu (eutectic) + Hg → γ1 (Ag
442:
2979:Amalgam Archives at Listserv.dfn.de
2439:
1038:
729:, zinc poly-carboxylate and resin.
715:
384:
352:Hg (weakest phase, corrodes easily)
341:(major matrix phase in set amalgam)
269:control the properties of amalgam.
114:American Society of Dental Surgeons
13:
2954:Position Paper on Amalgam Fillings
2806:
2633:
2619:
2615:. World Health Organization. 2005.
2380:
2346:. European Commission. 2 June 2015
1748:
1710:
1410:
1257:
1164:
1074:10.1111/j.1600-0722.1992.tb01811.x
1047:American Journal of Dental Science
690:Dental amalgam does not by itself
14:
3021:
2931:
2366:"Dental Amalgam: What Others Say"
2344:"Final opinion on dental amalgam"
2298:Journal of Conservative Dentistry
2292:Chandrasekhar, V (2 March 2018).
976:Journal of Conservative Dentistry
685:
508:Sn) + unreacted Ag-Cu (eutectic)
75:
2938:
2271:10.1111/j.1834-7819.2010.01292.x
1824:10.1046/j.1365-263x.2003.00453.x
796:U.S. amalgam disposal regulation
738:then be packed into the cavity.
2876:
2835:
2788:
2770:
2751:
2685:
2643:Reviews on Environmental Health
2358:
2336:
2285:
2250:
2209:
2160:
2125:
2106:
2065:
2024:
1983:
1948:
1929:
1915:10.14219/jada.archive.1991.0246
1894:
1875:
1838:
1800:
1683:
1656:
1632:10.14219/jada.archive.2007.0265
1611:
1560:
1546:10.14219/jada.archive.2005.0142
1525:
1511:10.14219/jada.archive.2007.0264
1469:
1450:
1369:
1328:
1269:
1218:
1103:
862:
326:Sn (mechanically the strongest)
2185:10.1002/14651858.CD007517.pub3
1884:Journal of Pediatric Dentistry
1848:Acta Odontologica Scandinavica
1734:10.1002/14651858.CD005620.pub2
1665:Journal of Pediatric Dentistry
1243:10.1016/j.intermet.2009.12.004
1023:
1014:
963:
829:EU amalgam disposal regulation
655:Minamata Convention on Mercury
232:(~8%) and other trace metals.
187:
1:
2550:Life Sciences Research Office
1376:Mitchell RJ, Okabe T (1996).
1335:Mitchell RJ, Okabe T (1996).
1050:. Harvard University. p. 170.
878:
765:Life Sciences Research Office
2745:"Dental Effluent Guidelines"
2146:10.1016/0022-3913(88)90030-3
1726:Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.
1479:1967 Nov-Dec; 46(6):1372-81.
1424:International Dental Journal
1395:10.1177/10454411960070010201
1354:10.1177/10454411960070010101
1150:. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
733:Sealing amalgam restorations
625:Mercury has properties of a
593:Better corrosion resistance.
512:Uni/single composition alloy
464:Admix alloy setting reaction
459:Uni/single-composition alloy
281:
7:
2974:American Dental Association
2778:"Waste Framework Directive"
2711:10.1016/j.jdent.2022.104322
1310:Ferracane, Jack L. (2001).
1276:Ferracane, Jack L. (2001).
972:"Dental amalgam: An update"
841:Avoidance in pregnant women
666:randomized controlled trial
649:than amalgam restorations.
606:Less tarnish and corrosion.
304:
273:Plastic deformation (creep)
118:American Dental Association
10:
3026:
748:Dental amalgam controversy
745:
614:Amalgam vs. polymer resins
285:
126:
2911:"Dental Amalgam Fillings"
2861:10.1016/j.sdj.2013.11.004
2259:Australian Dental Journal
1969:10.3109/10731197609118650
1861:10.3109/00016358609094344
1573:Clin Cosmet Investig Dent
897:"Dental Amalgam Fillings"
317:Amalgam's reaction phases
248:The final structure is a
2848:Singapore Dental Journal
2823:(in German). 1 July 2018
2610:"Mercury in Health Care"
2393:Toxicology International
2222:Evidence-Based Dentistry
1146:Applied Dental Materials
854:Awareness among dentists
80:There are, according to
2655:10.1515/reveh-2015-0017
2465:10.1038/sj.bdj.2008.981
2406:10.4103/0971-6580.97191
2311:10.4103/0972-0707.62638
989:10.4103/0972-0707.73380
742:Dental amalgam toxicity
2452:British Dental Journal
2235:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400682
1777:10.1038/sj.ebd.6401026
1758:Hurst, D (June 2014).
1382:Crit Rev Oral Biol Med
1341:Crit Rev Oral Biol Med
918:Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen
875:
805:
250:metal matrix composite
193:are controlled by the
29:
3000:Restorative dentistry
2510:10.1055/s-2005-857962
1957:Biota Med Dev Art Org
1094:Bremner MDF. (1939).
873:
820:(EPA) promulgated an
803:
431:i.e. (γ + β) + Hg → γ
286:Further information:
264:Properties of amalgam
236:Metallurgy of amalgam
127:Further information:
24:
2796:"Mercury Regulation"
2698:Journal of Dentistry
1586:10.2147/CCIDE.S42044
925:(34–36): 3582–3585.
727:glass ionomer cement
670:resin-based compomer
627:bacteriostatic agent
596:Less susceptible to
2959:12 May 2008 at the
1034:. 1st Ser: 175–201.
835:European Commission
822:effluent guidelines
176:Sn together with Ag
25:Amalgam filling on
3005:Chinese inventions
2590:on 1 February 2016
2115:Jpn J Conserv Dent
876:
806:
725:, zinc phosphate,
723:zinc oxide eugenol
609:Greater longevity.
504:)+ unreacted γ (Ag
288:Galvanic corrosion
30:
2759:Federal Register,
2050:10.4012/dmj.5.225
2009:10.4012/dmj.5.158
1692:General Dentistry
1321:978-0-7817-2733-4
804:Amalgam separator
754:mercury poisoning
603:Greater strength.
557:Sn) + Hg → γ1 (Ag
443:High copper alloy
3017:
2995:Dental materials
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2943:
2942:
2941:
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2889:The SMART Choice
2883:theSMARTchoice.
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2011:
1987:
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901:
900:
893:
810:sewage treatment
716:Liners and bases
629:whereas certain
385:Low copper alloy
3025:
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2985:
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2961:Wayback Machine
2946:Medicine portal
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1764:Evid-Based Dent
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746:Main article:
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696:zinc phosphate
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966:
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730:
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724:
713:
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697:
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90:Xinxiu bencao
88:medical text
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2914:
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2892:. Retrieved
2888:
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2820:
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2078:Dent Mater J
2077:
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2037:Dent Mater J
2036:
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1996:Dent Mater J
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312:
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2827:12 February
2800:Environment
2782:Environment
1770:(2): 50–1.
1641:10451/34312
1477:J Dent Res.
675:preparation
662:New England
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224:(~22–32%),
188:Composition
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2989:Categories
2894:24 January
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2594:27 January
2372:17 January
2350:17 January
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2415:0971-6580
2265:: 11–22.
1579:: 33–42.
1436:0020-6539
1251:0966-9795
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639:posterior
282:Corrosion
256:, η and γ
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163:phase (Sn
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3010:Amalgams
2957:Archived
2870:24360262
2720:36228805
2679:24924949
2671:26544100
2518:15789284
2482:19023309
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2330:20582215
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679:occlusal
635:Casa Pia
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305:Strength
228:(~14%),
209:(~29%),
205:(~65%),
153:eutectic
110:New York
2981:(Forum)
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2321:2883803
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2018:3333231
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999:3010024
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2766:27154
2724:S2CID
2675:S2CID
2613:(PDF)
2588:(PDF)
2581:(PDF)
2546:(PDF)
2522:S2CID
1790:S2CID
598:creep
143:Hg (γ
42:alloy
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2866:PMID
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2716:PMID
2667:PMID
2659:ISSN
2596:2016
2557:2009
2514:PMID
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