237:, oscillating movements of water in lakes, bays, or gulfs, that would have reached the site in North Dakota within minutes or hours of the impact. This would have led to the rapid burial of organisms under a thick layer of sediment. Coauthor David Burnham of the University of Kansas was quoted as saying "They’re not crushed, it’s like an avalanche that collapses almost like a liquid, then sets like concrete. They were killed pretty suddenly because of the violence of that water. We have one fish that hit a tree and was broken in half."
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the scientists themselves. Verbal accusations have been thrown both by and toward many prominent researchers including Gerta Keller and Luis
Alvarez, discouraging civil debate and in some cases threatening careers. Walter Alvarez is an active member of the UC Berkeley team researching the connection between Deccan volcanism and the Chicxulub impact.
97:, as being the cause of the extinction. A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism. They had determined that a space rock 10–15 km (6–9 mi) in diameter hurtled into earth at Chicxulub. For comparison, the Martian moon
355:
by immense pressure from its usual state into its present form in just minutes; the fact that the peak ring was made of granite was also significant, since granite is not a rock found in sea-floor deposits, it originates much deeper in the Earth and had been ejected to the surface by the immense pressures of impact; that
112:
A 2016 drilling project into the peak ring of the crater strongly supported the hypothesis, and confirmed various matters that had been unclear until that point. These included the fact that the peak ring comprised granite (a rock found deep within the Earth) rather than typical sea floor rock, which
379:
from the mid-crust deep within the Earth, to create colossal water movements, and to eject an immense quantity of vaporized rock and sulfates into the atmosphere, where they would have persisted for a long time. This global dispersal of dust and sulfates would have led to a sudden and catastrophic
354:
samples from the impact itself. The discoveries were widely seen as confirming current theories related to both the crater impact, and its effects. They confirmed that the rock composing the peak ring had been subjected to immense pressures and forces and had been melted by immense heat and shocked
323:
Debate regarding the cause of the K-Pg extinction has proven to be extremely controversial among researchers, and the resilience of its intensity has earned it the moniker of the "dinosaur wars." Criticism is unusually harsh, targeting not only research findings but the credibility and integrity of
288:
to more accurately identify the eruptions as occurring both within a span of one million years and around 250,000 years prior to the K-Pg boundary. Keller additionally determined that ocean temperatures rose seven to nine degrees
Celsius during the most significant period of the Deccan eruptions.
283:
spanning ~1.3 million square kilometers that were created by massive volcanic activity during the same time period in which the
Chicxulub impact occurred. Prior to Keller's research, the timeframe of the Deccan Traps' eruptions had a significantly large range of error, making it difficult to draw
319:
strong enough to initiate volcanic eruptions. They determined that the largest period of Deccan volcanic eruptions, or the Wai subgroup, occurred 50,000 to 100,000 years after the
Chixculub impact, which is consistent with theoretical predictions modeling the length of time after which eruptions
296:
Keller has specifically rejected the
Alvarez hypothesis, pointing to evidence she gathered from the Chicxulub crater in 2009 revealing that twenty inches of sediment separates the impact from the extinction. The finding suggests that the impact occurred 200,000 to 300,000 years before the K-Pg
314:
led by Paul Renne and Mark
Richards. This theory proposes that the impact itself instigated the most intense period of Deccan eruptions, both of which had devastating effects contributing to the K-Pg extinction. Renne and Richards calculated that the Chixculub impact was capable of producing
232:
found on the site and were also embedded in the gills of about 50 percent of the fossil fish. They were also able to find traces of iridium. The authors – who include Walter
Alvarez – postulate that shock of the impact, equivalent to an earthquake of magnitude 10 or 11, may have led to
320:
should occur. The group also confirmed that the length of time between the extinction and subsequent biological recovery was consistent with the length of Deccan volcanic activity, proposing that the eruptions paused the recovery of the marine ecosystems destroyed by the impact.
162:
Previously, in a 1953 publication, geologists Allan O. Kelly and Frank
Dachille analyzed global geological evidence suggesting that one or more giant asteroids impacted the Earth, causing an angular shift in its axis, global floods, firestorms, atmospheric occlusion, and the
301:
in 2015, as well the more recent assertion that a tsunami generated by the impact created the unusual sediment layer. Keller additionally claims that the impact did not cause as much ecological damage as is widely believed, and she determined that many
400:
Renne, Paul R.; Deino, Alan L.; Hilgen, Frederik J.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mark, Darren F.; Mitchell, William S.; Morgan, Leah E.; Mundil, Roland; Smit, Jan (7 February 2013). "Time Scales of
Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary".
306:
species began to decline well before the impact event occurred. Her 2009 project revealed that the 52 species found in the sediment prior to the impact were present in the sediment following it, suggesting that the impact caused minimal extinction.
254:
that declared that the extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by
Chicxulub was co-authored by 41 scientists, dozens of other scientists challenged both the paper's methods and its conclusions. A leading critic of the Alvarez hypothesis is
117:, a sulfate-containing rock, which would have been vaporized and dispersed as an aerosol into the atmosphere, confirming the presence of a probable link between the impact and global longer-term effects on the climate and food chain.
263:
volcanism as a likely cause of a more gradual extinction. Despite the fact that the Alvarez hypothesis has overwhelming support from the scientific community, Keller has continued to advocate for research into alternate theories.
367:
usually present in the shallow seabed of the region, had been almost entirely removed and must therefore have been almost entirely vaporized and entered the atmosphere, and that the event was immediately followed by a huge
70:. Prior to 2013, it was commonly cited as having happened about 65 million years ago, but Renne and colleagues (2013) gave an updated value of 66 million years. Evidence indicates that the asteroid fell in the
113:
had been shocked, melted, and ejected to the surface in minutes, and evidence of colossal seawater movement directly afterwards from sand deposits. Crucially, the cores also showed a near-complete absence of
240:
According to a high-resolution study of fossilized fish bones published in 2022, the Cretaceous-Paleogene asteroid which caused mass extinction impacted during the Northern Hemisphere spring.
101:
has a diameter of 22 km (14 mi), and Mount Everest is just under 9 km (5.6 mi). The collision would have released the same energy as 100,000,000 megatonnes of TNT (4.2
1127:
Richards, Mark A.; Alvarez, Walter; Self, Stephen; Karlstrom, Leif; Renne, Paul R.; Manga, Michael; Sprain, Courtney J.; Smit, Jan; Vanderkluysen, LoĂżc; Gibson, Sally A. (2015-04-30).
126:
910:"An asteroid killed dinosaurs in spring—which might explain why mammals survived - New study sheds light on why species extinction was so selective after the K-Pg impact"
224:
that the authors say provides a "postimpact snapshot" of events after the asteroid collision "including ejecta accretion and faunal mass death". The team found that the
1037:
Schoene, Blair; Samperton, Kyle M.; Eddy, Michael P.; Keller, Gerta; Adatte, Thierry; Bowring, Samuel A.; Khadri, Syed F. R.; Gertsch, Brian (2015-01-09).
1318:
1268:
909:
293:, ozone reduction, acid rain, and a release of harmful gases, she asserts that these conditions were sufficient to have initiated the mass extinction.
793:
275:
The Deccan Traps theory was first proposed in 1978 by geologist Dewey McLean but quickly lost traction. The Deccan Traps are an area of volcanic
372:(a massive movement of sea waters) sufficient to lay down the largest known layer of sand separated by grain size directly above the peak ring.
640:
819:
1374:
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strong conclusions regarding their connection to the K-Pg extinction. In a 2014 report, Keller and her colleagues used uranium-lead zircon
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55:
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These strongly support the hypothesis that the impactor was large enough to create a 120-mile peak ring, to melt, shock and eject
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extinction, a period far too large for the two to be correlated. This, however, contrasts the range of 33,000 years determined by
1369:
1311:
1379:
654:
564:
Alvarez, L.W.; Alvarez, W.; Asaro, F.; Michel, H. V. (1980). "Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction".
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The location of the impact was unknown when the Alvarez team developed their hypothesis, but later scientists discovered the
1877:
952:
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1384:
1364:
1213:
Renne, Paul R.; Sprain, Courtney J.; Richards, Mark A.; Self, Stephen; Vanderkluysen, LoĂżc; Pande, Kanchan (2015-10-02).
86:, who first suggested it in 1980. Shortly afterwards, and independently, the same was suggested by Dutch paleontologist
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311:
167:. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but without strong confirming evidence.
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31:
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has reported that the date of the asteroid event is 66,038,000 years ago, plus or minus 11,000 years, based on
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A more recent theory combining both Deccan volcanism and the impact hypothesis has been developed by teams at
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In March 2010, an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the
213:. He further posits that the mass extinction of dinosaurs occurred within 33,000 years of this date.
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87:
586:
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1215:"State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact"
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581:
106:
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1839:
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1039:"U-Pb geochronology of the Deccan Traps and relation to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction"
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71:
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750:
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523:
503:"The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary"
471:
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1011:"New, tighter timeline confirms ancient volcanism aligned with dinosaurs' extinction".
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The Western Ghats, a province within the Deccan Traps that has been thoroughly studied.
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1269:"Updated: Drilling of dinosaur-killing impact crater explains buried circular hills"
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735:"A seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the KPg boundary, North Dakota"
151:(K–Pg boundary, formerly called Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T boundary) contain a
136:
83:
27:
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effect on the climate worldwide, large temperature drops, and devastated the
285:
280:
152:
98:
1296:
1284:"Drilling into the Chicxulub Crater, Ground Zero of the Dinosaur Extinction"
1238:
1062:
820:"Springtime was the season the dinosaurs died, ancient fish fossils suggest"
759:
531:
422:
1824:
1746:
1736:
1343:
1254:
1078:
985:"Were the Dinosaurs Really Wiped Out by an Asteroid? Possibly Not (Update)"
914:
883:
778:
603:
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430:
303:
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260:
256:
210:
105:
10 J), over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombs dropped on
59:
679:
De Laubenfels, M. W. (1956). "Dinosaur Extinctions: One More Hypothesis".
16:
Asteroid impact hypothesis as cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction
1595:
1500:
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369:
267:
140:
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381:
298:
202:
191:
78:. The hypothesis is named after the father-and-son team of scientists
1726:
1721:
1706:
1152:
479:
351:
343:
147:, discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the
1184:"Did dinosaur-killing asteroid trigger largest lava flows on Earth?"
1129:"Triggering of the largest Deccan eruptions by the Chicxulub impact"
131:
In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel prize-winning physicist
1128:
63:
51:
1420:
1097:"Questioning the Impact Theory: What Really Killed the Dinosaurs?"
186:
1771:
1766:
1671:
1666:
848:"Fossil fish reveal timing of asteroid that killed the dinosaurs"
712:
376:
360:
225:
195:
156:
794:"Animals in North Dakota Died from Chicxulub Asteroid in Mexico"
19:
455:"An extraterrestrial event at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary"
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234:
114:
75:
35:
342:
In 2016, a scientific drilling project drilled deep into the
229:
67:
1126:
217:
1036:
627:
Target: Earth – The Role of Large Meteors In Earth Science
500:
127:
Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research
1019:(6): 11. February 2015 – via Gale Academic Onefile.
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327:
1212:
399:
453:
733:De Palma, Robert A.; et al. (1 April 2019).
1869:
1326:
1312:
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624:
451:
198:where erosion has exposed the K–Pg boundary.
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898:
655:"Early Ideas About Impacts and Extinctions"
228:that had peppered the area were present in
1319:
1305:
639:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
904:
873:
768:
758:
585:
559:
557:
183:, now considered the likely impact site.
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393:
266:
216:In April 2019, a paper was published in
185:
54:and many other living things during the
18:
705:
159:hundreds of times greater than normal.
1870:
1133:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1094:
953:"What Caused the Dinosaur Extinction?"
950:
845:
726:
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328:2016 Chicxulub crater drilling project
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938:
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934:
932:
338:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
56:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
452:Smit, J; Hertogen, J (22 May 1980).
708:"Dinosaur extinction battle flares"
625:Kelly, A. O.; Dachille, F. (1953).
248:Although a 2010 paper published in
13:
1201:
1167:
1113:
1085:
1023:
1001:
969:
929:
14:
1909:
1282:Fleur, Nicholas St (2016-11-17).
951:Bosker, Bianca (September 2018).
501:Schulte, P.; et al. (2010).
1419:
1413:
1275:
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839:
812:
791:
785:
706:Perlman, D. (8 February 2013).
699:
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618:
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220:which describes evidence from
1:
1893:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
1850:Lunar and Planetary Institute
1682:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
596:10.1126/science.208.4448.1095
387:
222:a fossil site in North Dakota
207:Berkeley Geochronology Center
149:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
846:Barras, Colin (2022-02-23).
243:
7:
1878:Late Cretaceous extinctions
1742:Planar deformation features
1095:Patton, Paul (2014-10-23).
983:O'Neill, Ian (2009-04-27).
170:
165:extinction of the dinosaurs
10:
1914:
1888:Hypothetical impact events
1845:Impact Field Studies Group
875:10.1038/d41586-022-00511-x
331:
124:
120:
1780:
1649:
1428:
1411:
1352:
1334:
1328:Impact cratering on Earth
1815:William Kenneth Hartmann
1481:Clearwater East and West
1429:Confirmed≥20 km diameter
1732:Ordovician meteor event
1239:10.1126/science.aac7549
1063:10.1126/science.aaa0118
760:10.1073/pnas.1817407116
681:Journal of Paleontology
629:. Carlsbad, California.
532:10.1126/science.1177265
423:10.1126/science.1230492
348:Chicxulub impact crater
1835:Eugene Merle Shoemaker
1712:Late Heavy Bombardment
363:-containing rock that
272:
199:
107:Hiroshima and Nagasaki
39:
1856:Traces of Catastrophe
1840:Earth Impact Database
1788:Ralph Belknap Baldwin
270:
259:, who has focused on
189:
135:, his son, geologist
22:
1139:(11–12): 1507–1520.
1013:Science and Children
908:(23 February 2022).
26:, left, and his son
1231:2015Sci...350...76R
1145:2015GSAB..127.1507R
1055:2015Sci...347..182S
906:Ouellette, Jennifer
866:2022Natur.603...17B
751:2019PNAS..116.8190D
578:1980Sci...208.1095A
572:(4448): 1095–1108.
524:2010Sci...327.1214S
518:(5970): 1214–1218.
472:1980Natur.285..198S
415:2013Sci...339..684R
291:ocean acidification
145:Helen Vaughn Michel
24:Luis Walter Alvarez
1752:Shock metamorphism
1657:Alvarez hypothesis
1288:The New York Times
800:. LABX media group
273:
200:
58:was caused by the
44:Alvarez hypothesis
40:
1865:
1864:
1805:Edward C. T. Chao
1049:(6218): 182–184.
798:the scientist.com
745:(17): 8190–8199.
466:(5762): 198–200.
409:(6120): 684–687.
181:Yucatán Peninsula
72:Yucatán Peninsula
50:of the non-avian
1905:
1898:1980s in science
1830:Peter H. Schultz
1793:Daniel Barringer
1702:Impact structure
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657:. Archived from
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377:basement granite
334:Chicxulub crater
317:seismic activity
177:Chicxulub Crater
104:
95:Chicxulub impact
74:, at Chicxulub,
46:posits that the
30:, right, at the
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1912:
1908:
1907:
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1903:
1902:
1868:
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1810:Robert S. Dietz
1798:Barringer Medal
1776:
1687:Cryptoexplosion
1645:
1576:Puchezh-Katunki
1556:Nördlinger Ries
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1375:Asia and Russia
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1225:(6256): 76–78.
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587:10.1.1.126.8496
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398:
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332:Main articles:
330:
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139:, and chemists
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48:mass extinction
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5:
1911:
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1757:Shocked quartz
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1717:Lechatelierite
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1677:Complex crater
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1101:Universe Today
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989:Universe Today
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792:Hou, Chia-Yi.
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687:(1): 207–218.
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190:Badlands near
172:
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137:Walter Alvarez
125:Main article:
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84:Walter Alvarez
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1825:Graham Ryder
1747:Shatter cone
1737:Philippinite
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1586:Saint Martin
1581:Rochechouart
1486:Gosses Bluff
1441:Amelia Creek
1344:Impact event
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1192:. Retrieved
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957:The Atlantic
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919:. Retrieved
915:Ars Technica
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860:(7899): 17.
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830:. Retrieved
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261:Deccan Traps
257:Gerta Keller
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211:Ar-Ar dating
201:
174:
161:
133:Luis Alvarez
130:
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92:
43:
41:
32:K–T Boundary
1621:Tookoonooka
1606:Steen River
1596:Siljan Ring
1526:Manicouagan
1511:Keurusselkä
921:26 February
370:megatsunami
312:UC Berkeley
289:Along with
141:Frank Asaro
62:of a large
1883:Hypotheses
1872:Categories
1762:Stishovite
1662:Australite
1641:Yarrabubba
1611:Strangways
1571:Presqu'île
1546:Montagnais
1516:Lappajärvi
1466:Charlevoix
1451:Beaverhead
1446:Araguainha
1400:By country
1370:Antarctica
1194:2024-03-16
1106:2024-03-16
994:2024-03-16
962:2018-08-21
832:2022-02-24
719:2013-02-08
665:2013-02-09
388:References
382:food chain
299:Paul Renne
203:Paul Renne
192:Drumheller
1727:Moldavite
1722:Meteorite
1707:Impactite
1636:Woodleigh
1631:Vredefort
1591:Shoemaker
1551:Morokweng
1536:Mistastin
1476:Chicxulub
1380:Australia
1360:Worldwide
1247:0036-8075
1161:0016-7606
1071:0036-8075
892:247083600
635:cite book
582:CiteSeerX
352:rock core
344:peak ring
244:Criticism
52:dinosaurs
1781:Research
1626:Tunnunik
1521:Logancha
1491:Haughton
1461:Carswell
1405:Possible
1255:26430116
1188:Berkeley
1079:25502315
884:35197589
779:30936306
612:16017767
604:17783054
540:20203042
431:23393261
226:tektites
171:Evidence
88:Jan Smit
64:asteroid
1772:Tektite
1767:Suevite
1672:Coesite
1667:Breccia
1616:Sudbury
1566:Popigai
1561:Obolon'
1541:Mjølnir
1506:Karakul
1496:Kamensk
1456:Boltysh
1436:Acraman
1227:Bibcode
1219:Science
1141:Bibcode
1051:Bibcode
1043:Science
862:Bibcode
825:Science
804:4 April
770:6486721
747:Bibcode
713:SF Gate
693:1300393
574:Bibcode
566:Science
548:2659741
520:Bibcode
511:Science
488:4339429
468:Bibcode
439:6112274
411:Bibcode
403:Science
361:sulfate
346:of the
251:Science
235:seiches
205:of the
196:Alberta
179:in the
157:iridium
121:History
66:on the
1650:Topics
1531:Manson
1385:Europe
1365:Africa
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1190:. 2022
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357:gypsum
115:gypsum
99:Phobos
76:Mexico
60:impact
36:Gubbio
28:Walter
1353:Lists
888:S2CID
689:JSTOR
608:S2CID
544:S2CID
506:(PDF)
484:S2CID
435:S2CID
230:amber
68:Earth
1501:Kara
1251:PMID
1243:ISSN
1157:ISSN
1075:PMID
1067:ISSN
923:2022
880:PMID
806:2019
775:PMID
739:PNAS
641:link
600:PMID
536:PMID
427:PMID
359:, a
336:and
218:PNAS
143:and
82:and
80:Luis
42:The
1235:doi
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1149:doi
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870:doi
858:603
765:PMC
755:doi
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419:doi
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103:Ă—
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