Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex

862:– a major source of melts in a collisional volcanism system – underlies the Western Cordillera. Below the Altiplano, low-velocity zones indicate the presence of large amounts of partial melts that correlate with volcanic zones south of 21° S, whereas north of 21° S thicker lithospheric layers may prevent the formation of melts. Next to the Eastern Cordillera, low-velocity zones extend farther north to 18.5° S. A thermally weakened zone, evidenced by strong attenuation, in the crust is associated with the APVC. This indicates the presence of melts in the crust. A layer of low velocity (shear speed of 1 kilometre per second (0.62 mi/s)) 17–19 kilometres (11–12 mi) thick is assumed to host the APVC magma body. This body has a volume of about 480,000–530,000 cubic kilometres (120,000–130,000 cu mi) and a temperature of about 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). Other seismological data indicate a partial 20: 243: 4426: 344:

segregation or fluidization features. Such eruptions have been argued to require external triggers to occur. There is a volume-dependent relationship between homogeneity of the eruption products and their volume; large volume ignimbrites have uniform mineralogical and compositional heterogeneity. Small volume ignimbrites often show gradation in composition. This pattern has been observed in other volcanic centres such as the

599:. In the northern Puna, ignimbrite activity began 10 mya, with large-scale activity occurring 5 to 3.8 Ma in the arc front and 8.4 to 6.4 Ma in the back arc. In the southern Puna, backarc activity set in 14–12 Ma and the largest eruptions occurred after 4 Ma. The start of ignimbritic activity is not contemporaneous in the entire APVC area; north of 21°S the 709:

Magma generation rates during the pulses are about 0.001 cubic kilometres per year (0.032 m/s), based on the assumption that for each 50–100 cubic kilometres (12–24 cu mi) of arc there is one caldera. These rates are substantially higher than the average for the Central Volcanic Zone,

3523:

Taussi, Marco; Godoy, Benigno; Piscaglia, Filippo; Morata, Diego; Agostini, Samuele; Le Roux, Petrus; González-Maurel, Osvaldo; Gallmeyer, Guillermo; Menzies, Andrew; Renzulli, Alberto (March 2019). "The upper crustal magma plumbing system of the Pleistocene Apacheta-Aguilucho Volcanic Complex area

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in New Zealand are analogous to the province. The APVC is located in the southern Altiplano-Puna plateau, a surface plateau 300 kilometres (190 mi) wide and 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) long at an altitude of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft), and lies 50–150 kilometres (31–93 mi) east of

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Ignimbrites deposited during eruptions of APVC volcanoes are formed by "boiling over" eruptions, where magma chambers containing viscous crystal-rich volatile-poor magmas partially empty in tranquil, non-explosive fashion. As a result, the deposits are massive and homogeneous and show few size

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Magma generation in the APVC is periodical, with pulses recognized 10, 8, 6, and 4 mya. The first stage included the Artola, Granada, Lower Rio San Pedro and Mucar ignimbrites. The second pulse involved the Panizos, Sifon and Vilama ignimbrites and the third was the largest, with a number of

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0.00015–0.0003 cubic kilometres per year (0.0048–0.0095 m/s). During the three strong pulses, extrusion was even higher at 0.004–0.012 cubic kilometres per year (0.13–0.38 m/s). Intrusion rates range from 0.003–0.005 cubic kilometres per year (0.095–0.158 m/s) and resulted in

791:. A steepening of the subduction after 12 mya resulted in the influx of hot asthenosphere. Until that point, differentiation and crystallization of rising mafic magmas had mostly produced andesitic magmas. The change in plate movements and increased melt generation caused an overturn and 226:; below the Atacama area conversely recent extensional dynamics and a weakened crust exist. The Puna has a higher average elevation than the Altiplano, and some individual volcanic centres reach altitudes of more than 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). The basement of the northern Puna is of 746:. Instead, melts generated in this zone eventually reach the surface, generating felsic volcanism. Some mafic magmas escape sideward after stalling in the melt containing zone; these generate more mafic volcanic systems at the edge of the felsic volcanism, such as 641:

volcano starting in 1996. Research indicates that this unrest results from the intrusion of dacitic magma at 17 kilometres (11 mi) or more depth and may be a prelude to caldera formation and large scale eruptive activity. Other active centres include the

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derived from the subduction of water-rich rocks. A volume ratio of about 10-20% of water has been invoked to explain the pattern of electrical conductivity at a depth of 15–30 kilometres (9.3–18.6 mi). The total amount of water has been estimated to be

4081:

Matteini, M.; Mazzuoli, R.; Omarini, R.; Cas, R.; Maas, R. (2002). "The geochemical variations of the upper cenozoic volcanism along the Calama–Olacapato–El Toro transversal fault system in central Andes (~24°S): petrogenetic and geodynamic implications".

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Petrinovic, I. A.; Martí, J.; Aguirre-Díaz, G. J.; Guzmán, S.; Geyer, A.; Paz, N. Salado (2010). "The Cerro Aguas Calientes caldera, NW Argentina: An example of a tectonically controlled, polygenetic collapse caldera, and its regional significance".

3225:

Coira, Beatriz; Galli, Claudia I.; Mahlburg-Kay, Suzanne; Stockli, Daniel F.; Flores, Patrocinio; Eveling, Emilio; Coira, Beatriz; Galli, Claudia I.; Mahlburg-Kay, Suzanne; Stockli, Daniel F.; Flores, Patrocinio; Eveling, Emilio (May 2022).

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Hickey, James; Gottsmann, Joachim; del Potro, Rodrigo (2013). "The large-scale surface uplift in the Altiplano-Puna region of Bolivia: A parametric study of source characteristics and crustal rheology using finite element analysis".

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Salisbury, M. J.; Jicha, B. R.; de Silva, S. L.; Singer, B. S.; Jimenez, N. C.; Ort, M. H. (2010). "40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province".

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Schmitt, Axel K; Lindsay, Jan M; de Silva, Shan; Trumbull, Robert B (2003). "U–Pb zircon chronostratigraphy of early-Pliocene ignimbrites from La Pacana, north Chile: implications for the formation of stratified magma chambers".

3323:

Oyarzun, Jorge; Oyarzun, Roberto (2007). "Massive Volcanism in the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Plateau and Formation of the Huge Atacama Desert Nitrate Deposits: A Case for Thermal and Electric Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen".

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Eruptions are affected by the local conditions, resulting in high altitude eruption columns that are sorted by westerly stratospheric winds. Coarse deposits are deposited close to the vents, while fine ash is carried to the

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Ramelow, Juliane; Riller, Ulrich; Romer, Rolf L.; Oncken, Onno (2005). "Kinematic link between episodic trapdoor collapse of the Negra Muerta Caldera and motion on the Olacapato-El Toro Fault Zone, southern central Andes".

701:. Alternatively, the body revealed by seismic studies is the remnant mush of the magma accumulation zone. Deposits from the volcanoes cover a surface area of more than 500,000 square kilometres (190,000 sq mi). 3430:

Sparks, R. S. J.; Folkes, C. B.; Humphreys, M. C. S.; Barfod, D. N.; Clavero, J.; Sunagua, M. C.; McNutt, S. R.; Pritchard, M. E. (2008). "Uturuncu volcano, Bolivia: Volcanic unrest due to mid-crustal magma intrusion".

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of the crust has occurred beneath the northern Puna and southern Altiplano. Below 20 kilometres (12 mi) depth, seismic data indicate the presence of melts in a layer called the Altiplano–Puna low velocity zone or

419:. These magmas have temperatures of 700–850 °C (1,292–1,562 °F) and originate in depths of 4–8 kilometres (2.5–5.0 mi). The ignimbrites are collectively referred to as San Bartolo and Silapeti Groups. 3228:"Pliocene-Pleistocene ash-fall tuff deposits in the intermountain Humahuaca and Casa Grande basins, northwestern Argentina: tracers in chronostratigraphic reconstructions and key to identify their volcanic sources" 3487:

de Silva, S. L.; Self, S.; Francis, P. W.; Drake, R. E.; Carlos, Ramirez R. (1994). "Effusive silicic volcanism in the Central Andes: The Chao dacite and other young lavas of the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex".

3106:

Caffe, P. J.; Soler, M. M.; Coira, B. L.; Onoe, A. T.; Cordani, U. G. (2008). "The Granada ignimbrite: A compound pyroclastic unit and its relationship with Upper Miocene caldera volcanism in the northern Puna".

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is the largest single complex in the APVC with dimensions 100 by 70 square kilometres (39 sq mi × 27 sq mi), including the 65 by 35 kilometres (40 mi × 22 mi) caldera.

4379:

De Silva, S.; Zandt, G.; Trumbull, R.; Viramonte, J. G.; Salas, G.; Jimenez, N. (2006). "Large ignimbrite eruptions and volcano-tectonic depressions in the Central Andes: a thermomechanical perspective".

458:. Some volcanoes have undergone flank collapses covering as much as 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi). Most calderas are associated with fault systems that may play a role in caldera formation. 2849:

Maro, Guadalupe; Caffe, Pablo J. (21 June 2016). "The Cerro Bitiche Andesitic Field: petrological diversity and implications for magmatic evolution of mafic volcanic centers from the northern Puna".

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Kay, Suzanne Mahlburg; Coira, Beatriz L.; Caffe, Pablo J.; Chen, Chang-Hwa (2010). "Regional chemical diversity, crustal and mantle sources and evolution of central Andean Puna plateau ignimbrites".

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The area's calderas are poorly understood and some may yet be undiscovered. Some calderas were subject to comprehensive research. Research in this area is physically and logistically difficult.

489:, but limited erosion also reduces the exposure of buried layers and structures. Evidence of volcanic activity and cyclic variation has been obtained from remote fallout deposits as well. 3149:

Schmitt, Axel K.; Kasemann, Simone; Meixner, Anette; Rhede, Dieter (2002). "Boron in central Andean ignimbrites: implications for crustal boron cycles in an active continental margin".

3062:

Riller, Ulrich; Petrinovic, Ivan; Ramelow, Juliane; Strecker, Manfred; Oncken, Onno (2001). "Late Cenozoic tectonism, collapse caldera and plateau formation in the central Andes".

2447:

Fernandez-Turiel, J. L.; Garcia-Valles, M.; Gimeno-Torrente, D.; Saavedra-Alonso, J.; Martinez-Manent, S. (2005). "The hot spring and geyser sinters of El Tatio, Northern Chile".

1451: 2310:"Twenty-five million years of silicic volcanism in the southern central volcanic zone of the Andes: Geochemistry and magma genesis of ignimbrites from 25 to 27 °S, 67 to 72 °W" 795:

of the melt generating zone, forming a density barrier for mafic melts which subsequently ponded below the melt generating zone. Dacitic melts escaped from this zone, forming

3628:"The great escape: Petrogenesis of low-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′-22°50′S)" 3679:"Geochronological imaging of an episodically constructed subvolcanic batholith: U-Pb in zircon chronochemistry of the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes" 4117:

Jofré, C. B.; Caffe, P. J.; Trumbull, R. B.; Maro, G.; Schmitt, A. K.; Sarchi, C.; Flores, P. I.; Peralta Arnold, Y. J.; Franco, M. G.; Lucassen, F. (1 November 2021).

2935:

Godoy, Benigno; Taussi, Marco; González-Maurel, Osvaldo; Renzulli, Alberto; Hernández-Prat, Loreto; le Roux, Petrus; Morata, Diego; Menzies, Andrew (1 November 2019).

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below the South American Plate and was accompanied by extensive volcanism. Between 14° S and 28° S lies one volcanic area with over fifty recently active systems, the

600: 4265:

del Potro, Rodrigo; Díez, Mikel; Blundy, Jon; Camacho, Antonio G.; Gottsmann, Joachim (2013). "Diapiric ascent of silicic magma beneath the Bolivian Altiplano".

3374:

del Potro, Rodrigo; Díez, Mikel; Blundy, Jon; Camacho, Antonio G.; Gottsmann, Joachim (2013). "Diapiric ascent of silicic magma beneath the Bolivian Altiplano".

2809:

de Silva, Shanaka L.; Gosnold, William D. (2007). "Episodic construction of batholiths: Insights from the spatiotemporal development of an ignimbrite flare-up".

955: 3952:

Schurr, B.; Rietbrock, A.; Asch, G.; Kind, R.; Oncken, O. (2006). "Evidence for lithospheric detachment in the central Andes from local earthquake tomography".

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The APVC erupted over an area of 70,000 square kilometres (27,000 sq mi) from ten major systems, some active over millions of years and comparable to

4035:

Cabrera, A.P.; Caffe, P.J. (2009). "The Cerro Morado Andesites: Volcanic history and eruptive styles of a mafic volcanic field from northern Puna, Argentina".

4174:"Repeated extraction of aphyric melts in a rhyolitic system revealed by zircon age and composition: The Ramadas Volcanic Centre (Puna plateau), NW Argentina" 2937:"Linking the mafic volcanism with the magmatic stages during the last 1 Ma in the main volcanic arc of the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex (Central Andes)" 2763:

Allmendinger, Richard W.; Jordan, Teresa E.; Kay, Suzanne M.; Isacks, Bryan L. (1997). "The Evolution of the Altiplano-Puna Plateau of the Central Andes".

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the volcanic front of the Andes. Deformational belts limit it in the east. The Altiplano itself forms a block that has been geologically stable since the

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and andesites. The area was uplifted during the flare-up and the crust thickened to 60–70 kilometres (37–43 mi). This triggered the formation of

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Ort, Michael H. (1993). "Eruptive processes and caldera formation in a nested downsagcollapse caldera: Cerro Panizos, central Andes Mountains".

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with a volume of at least 15,000 cubic kilometres (3,600 cu mi), and the underlying magmatic body is considered to be the largest

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them differently, resulting in different arrival times and strengths of waves travelling in a certain direction. From various measurements

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melts into an amphibole crust, resulting in the formation of hybrid magmas. Partial melting of the crust and of hydrous basalt generates

4172:

Bardelli, L.; Becchio, R.; Ortíz, A.; Schmitt, A. K.; Pereira, R.; Báez, W.; Reckziegel, F.; Viramonte, J.; Giordano, G. (1 July 2021).

1837: 1531: 4471: 1562: 1335: 3763:"Giant magmatic water reservoirs at mid-crustal depth inferred from electrical conductivity and the growth of the continental crust" 3762: 3109: 1984: 3626:

González-Maurel, Osvaldo; le Roux, Petrus; Godoy, Benigno; Troll, Valentin R.; Deegan, Frances M.; Menzies, Andrew (2019-11-15).

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Perkins, Jonathan P.; Ward, Kevin M.; de Silva, Shanaka L.; Zandt, George; Beck, Susan L.; Finnegan, Noah J. (25 October 2016).

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González-Maurel, Osvaldo; Deegan, Frances M.; le Roux, Petrus; Harris, Chris; Troll, Valentin R.; Godoy, Benigno (2020-04-22).

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ignimbrites. The fourth pulse was weaker than the preceding ones and involved the Patao and Talabre ignimbrites among others.

3677:

Kern, Jamie M.; de Silva, Shanaka L.; Schmitt, Axel K.; Kaiser, Jason F.; Iriarte, A. Rodrigo; Economos, Rita (August 2016).

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below a volcanic system. Different layers and structures in the Earth have different propagation speeds of seismic waves and

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formed 15–17 and 18–23 mya respectively, whereas south of 21°S large scale ignimbrite activity didn't begin until 10.6 mya.

3815:"Lithospheric-scale structure across the Bolivian Andes from tomographic images of velocity and attenuation forPandSwaves" 450:

and eastern cordillera. The highest volcanoes in the world are located here, including 6,887 metres (22,595 ft) high

275:. Regional variations of activity north and south of 24°S have been attributed to the southwards moving subduction of the 3064: 622:

in nature with large ignimbrites absent. Activity with composition similar to ignimbrites was limited to the eruption of

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to Miocene age and deformed during previous stages of Andean orogeny, with low volume volcanics. Activity until the late

896: 5190: 150: 3227: 5215: 5195: 4119:"Petrogenesis of peraluminous magmas in the Central Andean backarc: the Huayra Huasi Volcanic Complex, NW Argentina" 2997:"Constraining the sub-arc, parental magma composition for the giant Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile" 596: 438:, inclusions in more silicic magmas and lava flows which sometimes occur in isolation and sometimes are linked to 2897:

de Silva, S. L. (1991). "Styles of zoning in central Andean ignimbrites; Insights into magma chamber processes".

64: 4342:

Chmielowski, Josef; Zandt, George; Haberland, Christian (1999). "The Central Andean Altiplano-Puna magma body".

2742: 5185: 5180: 5160: 4464: 820: 739: 3856:"Attenuation tomography in the western central Andes: A detailed insight into the structure of a magmatic arc" 854:

models of the geological structures can be inferred. Results of such research indicate that a highly hydrated

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province formed over 70 kilometres (43 mi) thick crust, the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex, between the

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in four distinct pulses separated by periods of low levels of activity. At least three volcanic centres (

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Laube, Norbert; Springer, Jörn (1998). "Crustal melting by ponding of mafic magmas: A numerical model".

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and chemical signature. The melt generation process may involve several different layers in the crust.

146: 19: 4173: 3627: 2936: 279:. This southwards migration results in a steepening of the subducting plate behind the ridge, causing 5210: 5170: 4814: 4457: 3799: 1678: 673:

components in recently erupted volcanic rocks may indicate that the magma system is being recharged.

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Laumonier, Mickael; Gaillard, Fabrice; Muir, Duncan; Blundy, Jon; Unsworth, Martyn (January 2017).

4997: 595:. The sudden increase is explained by a sudden steepening of the subducting plate, similar to the 4439: 1905: 918: 5017: 2194:

Granada/Orosmayo/Pampa Barreno Ignimbrite, 60 cubic kilometres (14 cu mi) 10-10.5 mya.

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of 30,000–50,000 cubic kilometres (7,200–12,000 cu mi) volume beneath the calderas.

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Schnurr, W. B. W.; Trumbull, R. B.; Clavero, J.; Hahne, K.; Siebel, W.; Gardeweg, M. (2007).

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Pitas/Vega Real Grande Ignimbrites, 600 cubic kilometres (140 cu mi) 4.51–4.84 mya.

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Cueva Negra/Leon Muerto Ignimbrites, 35 cubic kilometres (8.4 cu mi) 3.8–4.25 mya.

750:. The magmas are mixtures of crust derived and mafic mantle-derived melts with a consistent 5002: 4972: 4869: 4744: 4606: 4480: 4389: 4351: 4322: 4274: 4236: 4181: 4130: 4091: 4044: 3999: 3963: 3908: 3867: 3826: 3777: 3727: 3690: 3635: 3582: 3533: 3497: 3442: 3383: 3333: 3297: 3197: 3158: 3118: 3073: 3008: 2948: 2858: 2818: 2774: 2730: 2676: 2498: 2458: 2446: 2410: 2323: 2309: 997: 518: 263: 84: 76: 5032: 4932: 4854: 866:

of the crust under the Puna, resulting in increased volcanic activity and terrain height.

8: 4957: 4561: 3524:(Altiplano-Puna, northern Chile) as inferred from the erupted lavas and their enclaves". 686: 682: 435: 158: 23:

The APVC lies in the lower part of the image, above the chain of volcanoes at the bottom.

4393: 4355: 4326: 4278: 4240: 4185: 4134: 4095: 4048: 4003: 3967: 3912: 3871: 3830: 3731: 3694: 3639: 3586: 3537: 3501: 3446: 3387: 3337: 3301: 3201: 3162: 3122: 3012: 2952: 2862: 2822: 2778: 2734: 2680: 2502: 2462: 2414: 2327: 5090: 4922: 4649: 4405: 4367: 4300: 4205: 4154: 3929: 3897:"Surface uplift in the Central Andes driven by growth of the Altiplano Puna Magma Body" 3896: 3743: 3659: 3608: 3549: 3458: 3409: 3349: 3267: 3039: 2996: 2972: 2874: 2369: 2260:

Tajamar/Chorrillos Ignimbrite, 350 cubic kilometres (84 cu mi) 10.5–10.1 mya.

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1–4 kilometres (0.62–2.49 mi) high at 14–17 kilometres (8.7–10.6 mi) depth.

5080: 5037: 5012: 4874: 4551: 4516: 4501: 4409: 4371: 4209: 4197: 4158: 4146: 4011: 3934: 3663: 3651: 3553: 3545: 3462: 3353: 3271: 3259: 3044: 3026: 2976: 2964: 2910: 2878: 2830: 2688: 2510: 2373: 2335: 294: 4304: 3747: 3612: 3413: 5095: 5085: 5007: 4987: 4942: 4819: 4784: 4546: 4521: 4431: 4397: 4359: 4330: 4290: 4282: 4244: 4189: 4138: 4099: 4052: 4015: 4007: 3971: 3924: 3916: 3875: 3834: 3795: 3785: 3735: 3698: 3643: 3598: 3590: 3541: 3505: 3450: 3399: 3391: 3341: 3305: 3249: 3239: 3205: 3166: 3126: 3081: 3034: 3016: 2956: 2902: 2866: 2826: 2786: 2782: 2738: 2684: 2506: 2466: 2418: 2361: 2331: 2215:

Las Termas Ignimbrite 1 and 2, 650 cubic kilometres (160 cu mi) 6.45 mya.

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at a depth of 50 kilometres (31 mi). This residual is denser than the mantle

647: 4912: 4884: 4749: 4571: 4511: 4193: 4056: 3647: 3130: 2960: 2901:. Geological Society of America Special Papers. Vol. 265. pp. 217–232. 2470: 2176:

Cerro Panizos Ignimbrite, 650 cubic kilometres (160 cu mi) 6.7–6.8 mya.

839: 735: 727: 604: 451: 298: 44: 4977: 3975: 3345: 2721:

de Silva, S. L. (1989). "Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex of the central Andes".

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Pairique Chico block and ash, 6 cubic kilometres (1.4 cu mi) 10.4 mya.

2155:

Artola/Mucar Ignimbrite, 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) 9.4–10.6 mya.

4804: 4729: 4142: 3790: 3718:

Ramos, V. A.; Folguera, A. (2009). "Andean flat-slab subduction through time".

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Cerro Blanco Ignimbrite, 150 cubic kilometres (36 cu mi) 0.5–0.2 mya.

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Merihuaca Ignimbrites, 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) 5.49–6.39 mya.

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Laguna Verde Ignimbrite, 70 cubic kilometres (17 cu mi) 3.7–4.0 mya.

2209:

Laguna Colorada Ignimbrite, 60 cubic kilometres (14 cu mi) 1.98 mya.

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the Puna-Altiplano region was subject to an episode of flat subduction of the

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volcanism. Increases in the melt flux and thus heat and volatile input causes

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The APVC is still active, with recent unrest and ground inflation detected by

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isotope analysis has been used to determine the origin of eruption products.

439: 431: 408: 404: 302: 5052: 4531: 3186:"Composition and structural control of crustal domains in the central Andes" 2285:

Verde Ignimbrite, 140–300 cubic kilometres (34–72 cu mi) 17.2 mya.

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Guacha Ignimbrite, 1,200 cubic kilometres (290 cu mi) 5.6–5.7 mya.

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Chuhuilla Ignimbrite, 1,200 cubic kilometres (290 cu mi) 5.45 mya.

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Puripicar Ignimbrite, 1,500 cubic kilometres (360 cu mi) 4.2 mya.

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Caspana Ignimbrite, 8 cubic kilometres (1.9 cu mi) 4.59–4.18 mya.

1794: 1219: 1034: 863: 851: 835: 651: 455: 317: 283:. Between 1:4 to 1:6 of the generated melts are erupted to the surface as 5057: 4907: 4774: 4769: 4759: 4699: 4506: 4363: 3880: 3855: 3210: 3185: 2254:

Rosada Ignimbrite, 30 cubic kilometres (7.2 cu mi) 6.3–8.1 mya.

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Arco Jara Ignimbrite, 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) 11.3 mya.

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in the United States. The APVC is the largest ignimbrite province of the

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have been erupted by the APVC as well. These "mafic" magmas form various

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including the APVC. The volcanic province is located between 21° S–24° S

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Vallecito Ignimbrite, 40 cubic kilometres (9.6 cu mi) 3.6 mya.

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Atana Ignimbrite, 1,600 cubic kilometres (380 cu mi) 4.11 mya.

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produced by earthquakes to gather information on the composition of the

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and are found in the southern Puna and Altiplano. The southern Puna has

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Acay Ignimbrite, 25 cubic kilometres (6.0 cu mi) 9.5–9.9 mya.

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and can cause delamination of the lower crust containing the residual.

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for future activity in the APVC are controversial, but the presence of

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Myers, Stephen C.; Beck, Susan; Zandt, George; Wallace, Terry (1998).

3509: 3395: 2269:

Tatio Ignimbrite, 40 cubic kilometres (9.6 cu mi) 0.703 mya.

540:

magmas were erupted and the crustal components increased. In the late

4917: 4902: 4879: 4844: 4824: 4809: 4664: 4644: 4334: 2422: 2245:

Purico Ignimbrite, 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) 1.3 mya.

2191:

Galan Ignimbrite, 550 cubic kilometres (130 cu mi) 2.1 mya.

2173:

Cerro Lucho lavas, 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) 10.6 mya.

1599: 847: 762: 751: 723: 702: 698: 694: 666: 662: 659: 623: 619: 572: 400: 353: 349: 333: 214: 210: 206: 134: 92: 52: 4526: 3739: 2272:

Toba 1 Ignimbrite, 6 cubic kilometres (1.4 cu mi) 7.6 mya.

882: 738:

of the crust, forming a layer containing melts reaching down to the

242: 153:, as well as smaller scale eruptive centres. Activity waned after 2 5105: 5042: 4952: 4789: 4719: 4714: 4684: 4654: 4591: 4586: 4581: 4566: 4449: 4425: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2266:

Tara Ignimbrite, 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) 3.6 mya.

2021: 1979: 792: 758: 743: 643: 638: 615: 568: 541: 537: 514: 510: 416: 396: 380: 325: 305: 170: 162: 111: 88: 56: 4982: 4859: 2994: 2934: 2233:

Pampa Chamaca, 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) 2.52 mya.

218: 173:

volcano indicate still-extant present-day activity of the system.

4947: 4864: 4849: 4834: 4739: 4709: 4541: 4536: 3988: 799:

and the magma chambers that generated APVC ignimbrite volcanism.

766: 711: 690: 588: 584: 557: 533: 506: 486: 423: 412: 392: 372: 360: 337: 313: 202: 194: 119: 107: 96: 3625: 2429: 5022: 4962: 4829: 4764: 4734: 4694: 4674: 4639: 4611: 3061: 2276: 796: 770: 742:

that inhibits the ascent of mafic magmas because of its higher

576: 564: 497:

The APVC area before the upper Miocene was largely formed from

467: 388: 231: 223: 123: 4225: 4689: 4576: 3224: 807: 731: 670: 634: 580: 549: 475: 290: 182: 100: 80: 48: 2397: 2161:

Blanco Ignimbrite, 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi).

5117:

Note: volcanoes are ordered by latitude from north to south

4171: 3760: 3429: 3148: 2762: 2743:

10.1130/0091-7613(1989)017<1102:APVCOT>2.3.CO;2

2307: 471: 376: 4080: 3522: 3373: 769:

melts that escape upwards. A residual forms composed from

3676: 3184:

Mamani, Mirian; Tassara, Andrés; Wörner, Gerhard (2008).

83:

caused by subduction have generated the volcanoes of the

3894: 3571: 3486: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2348: 517:

as the major product. After a volcanic pause related to

4076: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 3951: 4116: 3847: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3144: 3142: 3140: 4221: 4219: 3812: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2749: 2279:, 100 cubic kilometres (24 cu mi) 4.65 mya. 185:

mountain chain originated from the subduction of the

4421: 4063: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3283: 3281: 3055: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2383: 563:

occurred. During this flare-up it erupted primarily

63:

in the east and by the main chain of the Andes, the

16:

Complex of volcanic systems in the Puna of the Andes

3982: 3945: 3560: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3425: 3423: 3183: 3137: 3105: 806:The magmas beneath the APVC are noticeably rich in 626:and flows, interpreted as escaping from a regional 4216: 3853: 3316: 2793: 2301: 485:has protected the deposits of APVC volcanism from 422:Since the Miocene, less silicic magmas containing 3854:Haberland, Christian; Rietbrock, Andreas (2001). 3711: 3360: 3278: 3177: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 2666: 2380: 5127: 4382:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 4028: 3720:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 3469: 3420: 2342: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2808: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 4229:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3992:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3526:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3322: 3290:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 3092: 2811:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 2716: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2669:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2491:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 2315:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 726:melts coming from the mantle rise through the 552:volcanism coupled with a sudden appearance of 4465: 3806: 3717: 3287: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2766:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 359:Petrologically, ignimbrites are derived from 340:) lavas are found in the southern Altiplano. 4034: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2885: 665:flows and domes. The implications of recent 415:magmas, while higher Si magmas also contain 2695: 2517: 2206:Laguna Amarga Ignimbrite, 3.7–4.0, 5.0 mya. 461: 4472: 4458: 2983: 2837: 658:calderas. The latter also contains <10 4294: 4019: 3928: 3879: 3838: 3800:1983/b23b8814-995e-4186-9355-a8d7f9a685ae 3789: 3702: 3602: 3403: 3253: 3243: 3209: 3038: 3020: 2923: 2899:Andean Magmatism and Its Tectonic Setting 2848: 2484: 2482: 2480: 481:The dry climate and high altitude of the 399:. Northern Puna ignimbrites also contain 4037:Journal of South American Earth Sciences 3110:Journal of South American Earth Sciences 2941:Journal of South American Earth Sciences 2896: 2720: 757:Another model requires the intrusion of 650:geothermal fields and the fields within 241: 18: 4123:International Journal of Earth Sciences 2353:International Journal of Earth Sciences 2251:Rachaite volcanic complex, 7.2–8.4 mya. 454:and 6,723 metres (22,057 ft) high 5128: 4315:Geological Society of America Bulletin 2477: 2402:Geological Society of America Bulletin 2218:Los Colorados Ignimbrite, 7.5–7.9 mya. 826: 4453: 2239:Potrero Grande Ignimbrite, 9.8–9 mya. 815:14,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms (3.1 4479: 3575:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 3190:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 161:activity and volcanoes dated to the 3770:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3065:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2488: 2149:Antofalla Ignimbrite, 11.4–9.6 mya. 722:Modelling indicates a system where 717: 492: 67:, in the west. It results from the 13: 2263:Tamberia Ignimbrite, 10.7–9.5 mya. 91:. The APVC spans the countries of 14: 5232: 4417: 2203:Guaitiquina Ignimbrite, 5.07 mya. 2188:Cusi Cusi Ignimbrite, >10 mya. 614:, and after 1 mya and during the 528:Ignimbrites range in age from 25 33:Complejo volcánico Altiplano-Puna 4424: 4012:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.04.012 3546:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.01.021 2831:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.07.015 2689:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.08.013 2336:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.06.005 597:Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up 197:between 21° S and 24° S a major 4258: 4165: 4110: 3888: 3860:Journal of Geophysical Research 3819:Journal of Geophysical Research 3754: 3670: 3619: 3516: 3490:Journal of Geophysical Research 3218: 2288:Vilama Ignimbrite, 8.4–8.5 mya. 147:Volcanic Exposivity Index (VEI) 29:Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex 2787:10.1146/annurev.earth.25.1.139 2291:Vizcayayoc Ignimbrite, 13 mya. 2133: 525:volcanism increased suddenly. 1: 4402:10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.269.01.04 4249:10.1016/S0377-0273(02)00359-1 4104:10.1016/S0040-1951(01)00214-1 3310:10.1016/S0377-0273(97)00072-3 3171:10.1016/S0009-2541(01)00382-5 3086:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00333-8 2295: 2242:Potreros Ignimbrite, 6.6 mya. 1642:Negra Muerta volcanic complex 1452:Huayra Huasi volcanic complex 869: 812: 348:in the United States and the 254:The APVC is generated by the 4344:Geophysical Research Letters 4267:Geophysical Research Letters 4194:10.1016/j.lithos.2021.106141 4057:10.1016/j.jsames.2009.03.007 3648:10.1016/j.lithos.2019.105162 3376:Geophysical Research Letters 3326:International Geology Review 3131:10.1016/j.jsames.2007.10.004 2961:10.1016/j.jsames.2019.102295 2511:10.1016/0377-0273(93)90018-M 2471:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2005.07.005 2197:Grenada Ignimbrite, 9.8 mya. 2182:Cienago Ignimbrite, 7.9 mya. 2170:Cerro Colorado, 9.5–9.8 mya. 2139:Abra Grande Ignimbrite, 6.8 567:with subordinate amounts of 176: 7: 3976:10.1016/j.tecto.2005.12.007 3434:American Journal of Science 3346:10.2747/0020-6814.49.10.962 2227:Morro II Ignimbrite, 6 mya. 2224:Morro I Ignimbrite, 12 mya. 907:GPX (secondary coordinates) 819:10 lb), comparable to 587:and may have generated the 266:at an angle of nearly 30°. 43:of volcanic systems in the 10: 5237: 4143:10.1007/s00531-021-02076-y 3791:10.1016/j.epsl.2016.10.023 3022:10.1038/s41598-020-63454-1 2257:Sifon Ignimbrite, 8.3 mya. 293:rocks are associated with 237: 5191:Pleistocene South America 5114: 5071: 4893: 4620: 4487: 4445:Andes Ignimbrite Database 2871:10.1007/s00445-016-1039-y 2366:10.1007/s00531-005-0042-x 1679:Pairique volcanic complex 902:GPX (primary coordinates) 877:Map all coordinates using 834:is a technique that uses 676: 316:magmas being the 6.7 mya 273:Altiplano Puna magma body 5216:Geology of South America 5196:Quaternary South America 3245:10.5027/andgeov49n2-3377 1869:Ramadas volcanic complex 885:Download coordinates as: 462:Scientific investigation 246:The lobate flows of the 59:bounded by the Bolivian 3782:2017E&PSL.457..173L 3078:2001E&PSL.188..299R 2851:Bulletin of Volcanology 1906:Rincon volcanic complex 919:Aguas Calientes caldera 730:and generate a zone of 610:Activity waned after 2 548:, a sudden decrease of 51:. It is located in the 4894:Southern Volcanic Zone 4680:Andagua volcanic field 4488:Northern Volcanic Zone 618:, activity was mostly 532:to 1 mya. In the late 332:(both 25 and 21 m) to 251: 193:(CVZ). Since the late 32: 24: 5186:Neogene South America 5181:Miocene South America 5161:Pleistocene volcanism 5072:Austral Volcanic Zone 4998:Puyehue-Cordón Caulle 4670:Huambo volcanic field 4621:Central Volcanic Zone 3901:Nature Communications 2043:22.27000°S 67.18000°W 1526:Laguna Amarga caldera 956:Alto de los Colorados 897:GPX (all coordinates) 697:melt zone, forming a 436:monogenetic volcanoes 281:decompression melting 245: 191:Central Volcanic Zone 145:) had eruptions of a 22: 5176:Geology of Argentina 5141:Andean Volcanic Belt 4607:Licto volcanic field 4364:10.1029/1999GL900078 3881:10.1029/2000JB900472 3211:10.1029/2007GC001925 2048:-22.27000; -67.18000 998:Cerro Blanco caldera 821:large lakes on Earth 519:flat slab subduction 277:Juan Fernández Ridge 264:South American Plate 165:, as well as recent 85:Andean Volcanic Belt 77:South American Plate 5206:Pleistocene geology 4394:2006GSLSP.269...47D 4356:1999GeoRL..26..783C 4327:2011GSAB..123..821S 4279:2013GeoRL..40.2044D 4241:2003JVGR..120...43S 4186:2021Litho.39206141B 4180:. 392–393: 106141. 4135:2021IJEaS.110.2725J 4096:2002Tectp.345..211M 4049:2009JSAES..28..113C 4004:2010JVGR..194...15P 3968:2006Tectp.415..203S 3921:10.1038/ncomms13185 3913:2016NatCo...713185P 3872:2001JGR...10611151H 3866:(B6): 11151–11167. 3831:1998JGR...10321233M 3825:(B9): 21233–21252. 3732:2009GSLSP.327...31R 3695:2016Geosp..12.1054K 3640:2019Litho.34605162G 3634:. 346–347: 105162. 3587:2013GGG....14..540H 3538:2019JVGR..373..179T 3502:1994JGR....9917805D 3496:(B9): 17805–17825. 3447:2008AmJS..308..727S 3388:2013GeoRL..40.2044D 3338:2007IGRv...49..962O 3302:1998JVGR...81...19L 3202:2008GGG.....9.3006M 3163:2002ChGeo.183..333S 3123:2008JSAES..25..464C 3013:2020NatSR..10.6864G 2953:2019JSAES..9502295G 2907:10.1130/SPE265-p217 2863:2016BVol...78...51M 2823:2007JVGR..167..320D 2779:1997AREPS..25..139A 2735:1989Geo....17.1102D 2681:2010JVGR..198...81K 2503:1993JVGR...56..221O 2463:2005SedG..180..125F 2450:Sedimentary Geology 2415:2011GSAB..123..821S 2328:2007JVGR..166...17S 2113: / 2076: / 2039: / 2002: / 1960: / 1923: / 1886: / 1849: / 1812: / 1775: / 1738: / 1696: / 1659: / 1617: / 1580: / 1543: / 1506: / 1469: / 1432: / 1395: / 1353: / 1316: / 1274: / 1237: / 1200: / 1163: / 1126: / 1089: / 1052: / 1015: / 973: / 936: / 827:Tomographic studies 687:Long Valley Caldera 683:Yellowstone Caldera 521:, starting from 27 213:volcanic system in 5166:Geology of Bolivia 5156:Pliocene volcanism 5136:Volcanism of Chile 4993:Carrán-Los Venados 4938:Nevados de Chillán 4923:Descabezado Grande 3704:10.1130/GES01258.1 3595:10.1002/ggge.20057 3455:10.2475/06.2008.01 3001:Scientific Reports 1373:El Morro-Organullo 832:Seismic tomography 783:Between 18 and 12 575:basins containing 295:strike-slip faults 252: 167:ground deformation 157:, but present-day 65:Western Cordillera 25: 5151:Miocene volcanism 5123: 5122: 4933:Nevado de Longaví 4875:Cueros de Purulla 4855:Cordón del Azufre 4517:Nevado del Tolima 4287:10.1002/grl.50493 4273:(10): 2044–2048. 3840:10.1029/98JB00956 3510:10.1029/94JB00652 3396:10.1002/grl.50493 3382:(10): 2044–2048. 2916:978-0-8137-2265-8 2117:22.600°S 66.850°W 2080:26.500°S 68.500°W 2059:Vallecito caldera 2006:24.167°S 67.050°W 1964:24.750°S 65.883°W 1927:24.083°S 67.333°W 1890:24.167°S 66.333°W 1853:23.000°S 66.083°W 1816:24.317°S 66.717°W 1779:22.950°S 67.750°W 1742:24.167°S 67.050°W 1700:22.900°S 66.800°W 1663:24.467°S 66.200°W 1621:23.167°S 67.417°W 1584:22.433°S 67.967°W 1510:21.833°S 67.583°W 1473:23.500°S 66.617°W 1436:22.750°S 67.467°W 1399:22.950°S 66.967°W 1357:24.167°S 67.050°W 1320:23.000°S 66.250°W 1299:Coranzulí caldera 1278:22.250°S 67.750°W 1241:22.850°S 66.717°W 1204:26.000°S 66.833°W 1167:22.167°S 68.033°W 1146:Cerro Chillahuita 1130:21.883°S 67.900°W 1093:22.117°S 68.150°W 1056:21.800°S 68.250°W 1019:26.683°S 67.767°W 977:26.083°S 68.250°W 940:24.250°S 66.500°W 858:derived from the 312:, with the least 35:), also known as 5228: 5211:Pliocene geology 5171:Geology of Chile 5118: 4988:Mocho-Choshuenco 4522:Nevado del Huila 4481:Andean volcanoes 4474: 4467: 4460: 4451: 4450: 4434: 4432:Volcanoes portal 4429: 4428: 4413: 4375: 4338: 4335:10.1130/B30280.1 4321:(5–6): 821–840. 4308: 4298: 4253: 4252: 4223: 4214: 4213: 4169: 4163: 4162: 4129:(8): 2725–2754. 4114: 4108: 4107: 4090:(1–4): 211–227. 4078: 4061: 4060: 4032: 4026: 4025: 4023: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3962:(1–4): 203–223. 3949: 3943: 3942: 3932: 3892: 3886: 3885: 3883: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3810: 3804: 3803: 3793: 3767: 3758: 3752: 3751: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3689:(4): 1054–1077. 3674: 3668: 3667: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3606: 3569: 3558: 3557: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3484: 3467: 3466: 3427: 3418: 3417: 3407: 3371: 3358: 3357: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3285: 3276: 3275: 3257: 3247: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3181: 3175: 3174: 3157:(1–4): 333–347. 3151:Chemical Geology 3146: 3135: 3134: 3103: 3090: 3089: 3072:(3–4): 299–311. 3059: 3053: 3052: 3042: 3024: 2992: 2981: 2980: 2932: 2921: 2920: 2894: 2883: 2882: 2846: 2835: 2834: 2817:(1–4): 320–335. 2806: 2791: 2790: 2760: 2747: 2746: 2718: 2693: 2692: 2664: 2515: 2514: 2486: 2475: 2474: 2457:(3–4): 125–147. 2444: 2427: 2426: 2423:10.1130/B30280.1 2409:(5–6): 821–840. 2395: 2378: 2377: 2346: 2340: 2339: 2305: 2128: 2127: 2125: 2124: 2123: 2122:-22.600; -66.850 2118: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2109: 2106: 2091: 2090: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2085:-26.500; -68.500 2081: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2072: 2069: 2054: 2053: 2051: 2050: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2035: 2032: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2011:-24.167; -67.050 2007: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1998: 1995: 1975: 1974: 1972: 1971: 1970: 1969:-24.750; -65.883 1965: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1953: 1938: 1937: 1935: 1934: 1933: 1932:-24.083; -67.333 1928: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1916: 1901: 1900: 1898: 1897: 1896: 1895:-24.167; -66.333 1891: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1864: 1863: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1858:-23.000; -66.083 1854: 1850: 1847: 1846: 1845: 1842: 1832:Rachaite complex 1827: 1826: 1824: 1823: 1822: 1821:-24.317; -66.717 1817: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1790: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1785: 1784:-22.950; -67.750 1780: 1776: 1773: 1772: 1771: 1768: 1753: 1752: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1747:-24.167; -67.050 1743: 1739: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1731: 1711: 1710: 1708: 1707: 1706: 1705:-22.900; -66.800 1701: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1674: 1673: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1668:-24.467; -66.200 1664: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1632: 1631: 1629: 1628: 1627: 1626:-23.167; -67.417 1622: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1595: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1590: 1589:-22.433; -67.967 1585: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1558: 1557: 1555: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1521: 1520: 1518: 1517: 1516: 1515:-21.833; -67.583 1511: 1507: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1499: 1484: 1483: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1478:-23.500; -66.617 1474: 1470: 1467: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1447: 1446: 1444: 1443: 1442: 1441:-22.750; -67.467 1437: 1433: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1425: 1410: 1409: 1407: 1406: 1405: 1404:-22.950; -66.967 1400: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1388: 1368: 1367: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1362:-24.167; -67.050 1358: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1349: 1346: 1331: 1330: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1325:-23.000; -66.250 1321: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1289: 1288: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1283:-22.250; -67.750 1279: 1275: 1272: 1271: 1270: 1267: 1252: 1251: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1246:-22.850; -66.717 1242: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1230: 1215: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1209:-26.000; -66.833 1205: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1196: 1193: 1178: 1177: 1175: 1174: 1173: 1172:-22.167; -68.033 1168: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1156: 1141: 1140: 1138: 1137: 1136: 1135:-21.883; -67.900 1131: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1104: 1103: 1101: 1100: 1099: 1098:-22.117; -68.150 1094: 1090: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1067: 1066: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1061:-21.800; -68.250 1057: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1048: 1045: 1030: 1029: 1027: 1026: 1025: 1024:-26.683; -67.767 1020: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1008: 988: 987: 985: 984: 983: 982:-26.083; -68.250 978: 974: 971: 970: 969: 966: 951: 950: 948: 947: 946: 945:-24.250; -66.500 941: 937: 934: 933: 932: 929: 818: 814: 718:Source of magmas 605:Oxaya Formations 591:deposits of the 493:Geologic history 346:Fish Canyon Tuff 322:Rachaite complex 308:erupted after 7 5236: 5235: 5231: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5221:Puna de Atacama 5201:Miocene geology 5146:Plate tectonics 5126: 5125: 5124: 5119: 5116: 5110: 5073: 5067: 4895: 4889: 4885:Ojos del Salado 4815:Aguas Calientes 4622: 4616: 4512:Nevado del Ruiz 4489: 4483: 4478: 4430: 4423: 4420: 4378: 4341: 4311: 4264: 4261: 4256: 4224: 4217: 4170: 4166: 4115: 4111: 4079: 4064: 4033: 4029: 3987: 3983: 3950: 3946: 3893: 3889: 3852: 3848: 3811: 3807: 3765: 3759: 3755: 3740:10.1144/SP327.3 3716: 3712: 3675: 3671: 3624: 3620: 3570: 3561: 3521: 3517: 3485: 3470: 3428: 3421: 3372: 3361: 3332:(10): 962–968. 3321: 3317: 3286: 3279: 3223: 3219: 3182: 3178: 3147: 3138: 3104: 3093: 3060: 3056: 2993: 2984: 2933: 2924: 2917: 2895: 2886: 2847: 2838: 2807: 2794: 2761: 2750: 2719: 2696: 2675:(1–2): 81–111. 2665: 2518: 2487: 2478: 2445: 2430: 2396: 2381: 2347: 2343: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2136: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2112: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2099: 2084: 2082: 2078: 2075: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2062: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2033: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2025: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2001: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1988: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1946: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1909: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1885: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1872: 1857: 1855: 1851: 1848: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1835: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1811: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1799: 1798: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1774: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1761: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1737: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1724: 1704: 1702: 1698: 1695: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1682: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1645: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1616: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1603: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1579: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1566: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1542: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1505: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1492: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1468: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1440: 1438: 1434: 1431: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1418: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1394: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1381: 1378:Granada complex 1361: 1359: 1355: 1352: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1339: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1303: 1302: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1273: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1260: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1236: 1231: 1228: 1226: 1224: 1223: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1187: 1186: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1162: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1149: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1113: 1112: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1088: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1076: 1075: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1051: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1039: 1038: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1014: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1002: 1001: 981: 979: 975: 972: 967: 964: 962: 960: 959: 944: 942: 938: 935: 930: 927: 925: 923: 922: 915: 914: 913: 912: 911: 872: 829: 816: 736:partial melting 720: 679: 536:, more evolved 495: 464: 452:Ojos del Salado 440:stratovolcanoes 352:ignimbrites in 240: 179: 61:Cordillera Real 17: 12: 11: 5: 5234: 5224: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5121: 5120: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5077: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5066: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4899: 4897: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4805:Purico complex 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4626: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4615: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4594: 4589: 4584: 4579: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4493: 4491: 4485: 4484: 4477: 4476: 4469: 4462: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4419: 4418:External links 4416: 4415: 4414: 4376: 4350:(6): 783–786. 4339: 4309: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4254: 4235:(1–2): 43–53. 4215: 4164: 4109: 4084:Tectonophysics 4062: 4043:(2): 113–131. 4027: 3998:(1–3): 15–26. 3981: 3955:Tectonophysics 3944: 3887: 3846: 3805: 3753: 3710: 3669: 3618: 3581:(3): 540–555. 3559: 3515: 3468: 3441:(6): 727–769. 3419: 3359: 3315: 3296:(1–2): 19–35. 3277: 3238:(2): 208–237. 3232:Andean Geology 3217: 3176: 3136: 3117:(4): 464–484. 3091: 3054: 2982: 2922: 2915: 2884: 2836: 2792: 2773:(1): 139–174. 2748: 2694: 2516: 2497:(3): 221–252. 2476: 2428: 2379: 2360:(3): 529–541. 2341: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2293: 2292: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2135: 2132: 2131: 2130: 2093: 2056: 2019: 1982: 1977: 1943:Tastil volcano 1940: 1903: 1866: 1829: 1792: 1758:Purico Complex 1755: 1718: 1716:Pastos Grandes 1713: 1676: 1639: 1634: 1597: 1560: 1523: 1489:Kapina caldera 1486: 1449: 1415:Guacha caldera 1412: 1375: 1370: 1333: 1296: 1294:Chipas caldera 1291: 1254: 1217: 1180: 1143: 1106: 1069: 1032: 995: 990: 953: 910: 909: 904: 899: 894: 888: 875: 874: 873: 871: 868: 828: 825: 719: 716: 678: 675: 656:Pastos Grandes 593:Atacama Desert 494: 491: 483:Atacama Desert 463: 460: 239: 236: 178: 175: 139:Pastos Grandes 131:Guacha caldera 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5233: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5113: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5028:Michinmahuida 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4892: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4870:San Francisco 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4780:Aucanquilcha‎ 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4660:Hualca Hualca 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4627: 4625: 4619: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4588: 4585: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4490:(6° N – 3° S) 4486: 4482: 4475: 4470: 4468: 4463: 4461: 4456: 4455: 4452: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4440:Volcano World 4438: 4437: 4433: 4427: 4422: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4262: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4222: 4220: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4113: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 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3251: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3111: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3066: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2918: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2767: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2451: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2403: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2354: 2345: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2316: 2311: 2304: 2300: 2290: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2137: 2126: 2097: 2094: 2089: 2060: 2057: 2052: 2023: 2020: 2015: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1973: 1944: 1941: 1936: 1907: 1904: 1899: 1870: 1867: 1862: 1833: 1830: 1825: 1796: 1793: 1788: 1759: 1756: 1751: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1709: 1680: 1677: 1672: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1630: 1601: 1598: 1593: 1564: 1561: 1556: 1547:26.7°S 68.5°W 1527: 1524: 1519: 1490: 1487: 1482: 1453: 1450: 1445: 1416: 1413: 1408: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1366: 1337: 1334: 1329: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1287: 1258: 1257:Cerro Panizos 1255: 1250: 1221: 1218: 1213: 1184: 1181: 1176: 1147: 1144: 1139: 1110: 1109:Cerro Chascon 1107: 1102: 1073: 1070: 1065: 1036: 1033: 1028: 999: 996: 994: 993:Cerro Bitiche 991: 986: 957: 954: 949: 920: 917: 916: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 889: 887: 886: 881: 880:OpenStreetMap 878: 867: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 836:seismic waves 833: 824: 822: 809: 804: 800: 798: 794: 790: 786: 781: 779: 775: 772: 768: 764: 760: 755: 753: 749: 748:Cerro Bitiche 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 715: 713: 707: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 674: 672: 668: 664: 661: 657: 653: 649: 648:Sol de Mañana 645: 640: 636: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 608: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 526: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 490: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 459: 457: 453: 449: 443: 441: 437: 433: 432:clinopyroxene 429: 425: 420: 418: 414: 411:occur in low- 410: 409:orthopyroxene 406: 405:clinopyroxene 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 357: 355: 351: 347: 341: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 304: 303:calc-alkaline 300: 296: 292: 288: 286: 282: 278: 274: 269: 265: 261: 257: 249: 244: 235: 233: 229: 225: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 174: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 104: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 50: 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 21: 4978:Quetrupillán 4840:Llullaillaco 4705:Huaynaputina 4388:(1): 47–63. 4385: 4381: 4347: 4343: 4318: 4314: 4270: 4266: 4259:Bibliography 4232: 4228: 4177: 4167: 4126: 4122: 4112: 4087: 4083: 4040: 4036: 4030: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3959: 3953: 3947: 3904: 3900: 3890: 3863: 3859: 3849: 3822: 3818: 3808: 3773: 3769: 3756: 3726:(1): 31–54. 3723: 3719: 3713: 3686: 3682: 3672: 3631: 3621: 3578: 3574: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3493: 3489: 3438: 3432: 3379: 3375: 3329: 3325: 3318: 3293: 3289: 3255:11336/196915 3235: 3231: 3220: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3154: 3150: 3114: 3108: 3069: 3063: 3057: 3004: 3000: 2944: 2940: 2898: 2854: 2850: 2814: 2810: 2770: 2764: 2729:(12): 1102. 2726: 2722: 2672: 2668: 2494: 2490: 2454: 2448: 2406: 2400: 2357: 2351: 2344: 2322:(1): 17–46. 2319: 2313: 2303: 1552:-26.7; -68.5 1220:Cerro Morado 1035:Cerro Chanka 884: 883: 876: 864:delamination 830: 805: 801: 782: 756: 752:petrological 721: 708: 680: 652:Cerro Guacha 632: 609: 601:Alto de Pica 527: 496: 480: 465: 456:Llullaillaco 444: 421: 358: 342: 318:Cerro Morado 289: 268:Delamination 262:beneath the 253: 180: 105: 75:beneath the 36: 28: 26: 5074:(49°–55° S) 5058:Mate Grande 4908:Tupungatito 4896:(33°–46° S) 4775:Olca-Paruma 4770:Irruputuncu 4760:Tata Sabaya 4700:Pichu Pichu 4630:Quimsachata 4623:(14°–27° S) 4507:Cerro Bravo 4296:10261/88258 4021:11336/52025 3776:: 173–180. 3604:10871/23514 3405:10261/88258 3007:(1): 6864. 2134:Ignimbrites 2120: / 2083: / 2046: / 2009: / 1967: / 1930: / 1893: / 1856: / 1819: / 1782: / 1745: / 1703: / 1666: / 1624: / 1587: / 1550: / 1513: / 1476: / 1439: / 1402: / 1360: / 1323: / 1281: / 1244: / 1207: / 1183:Cerro Galán 1170: / 1133: / 1096: / 1059: / 1022: / 980: / 943: / 860:Nazca Plate 789:Nazca Plate 695:continental 561:ignimbrites 554:rhyodacitic 499:sedimentary 428:plagioclase 391:with minor 385:plagioclase 369:Phenocrysts 365:rhyodacitic 330:shoshonitic 297:and normal 285:ignimbrites 260:Nazca Plate 187:Nazca Plate 127:ignimbrites 73:Nazca Plate 5130:Categories 5018:Hornopirén 5003:Casablanca 4973:Villarrica 4968:Sollipulli 4928:Cerro Azul 4800:Licancabur 4795:Sairecabur 4755:Guallatiri 4745:Parinacota 4725:Purupuruni 4635:Auquihuato 4602:Tungurahua 4597:Chimborazo 4557:Reventador 4532:Doña Juana 3196:(3): n/a. 2947:: 102295. 2296:References 2034:67°10′48″W 2031:22°16′12″S 1072:Cerro Chao 870:Subsystems 778:peridotite 774:pyroxenite 667:lava domes 624:lava domes 546:Quaternary 544:until the 503:Ordovician 501:layers of 320:and 8–7 m 256:subduction 248:Cerro Chao 228:Ordovician 199:ignimbrite 159:geothermal 69:subduction 31:(Spanish: 5038:Corcovado 4958:Lonquimay 4918:Calabozos 4903:Tupungato 4880:Incahuasi 4845:Lastarria 4825:Chiliques 4665:Sabancaya 4645:Sara Sara 4562:Pichincha 4497:Paipa-Iza 4410:129924955 4372:129812369 4210:233559606 4202:0024-4937 4159:235749995 4151:1437-3262 3907:: 13185. 3683:Geosphere 3664:201291787 3656:0024-4937 3554:135345626 3463:130099527 3354:128419522 3272:247305850 3264:0718-7106 3031:2045-2322 2977:200018486 2969:0895-9811 2879:133134870 2857:(7): 51. 2374:129227490 1600:La Pacana 848:attenuate 763:andesitic 724:andesitic 703:La Pacana 699:batholith 663:rhyolitic 620:andesitic 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