1617:
1348:
1043:
1513:
1327:
2223:
1200:
leave small, fragmented, peripherally isolated populations behind. These isolated populations will contain samples of the genetic variation from the larger parent population. This variation leads to a higher likelihood of ecological niche specialization and the evolution of reproductive isolation. Centrifugal speciation has been largely ignored in the scientific literature. Nevertheless, a wealth of evidence has been put forth by researchers in support of the model, much of which has not yet been refuted. One example is the possible
1152:
781:
1217:
1993:
43:
1015:. Pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation are often the most cited mechanisms for allopatric speciation, and as such, it is difficult to determine which form evolved first in an allopatric speciation event. Pre-zygotic simply implies the presence of a barrier prior to any act of fertilization (such as an environmental barrier dividing two populations), while post-zygotic implies the prevention of successful inter-population crossing after fertilization (such as the production of an infertile
11721:
10398:
598:
11731:
10422:
1307:. First, divergent selection separates a non-allopatric population emerging from pre-zygotic barriers, from which genetic differences evolve due to the obstruction of complete gene flow. The terms allo-parapatric and allo-sympatric have been used to describe speciation scenarios where divergence occurs in allopatry but speciation occurs only upon secondary contact. These are effectively models of reinforcement or "mixed-mode" speciation events.
3672:
585:
1019:). Since species pairs who diverged in allopatry often exhibit pre- and post-zygotic isolation mechanisms, investigation of the earliest stages in the life cycle of the species can indicate whether or not divergence occurred due to a pre-zygotic or post-zygotic factor. However, establishing the specific mechanism may not be accurate, as a species pair continually diverges over time. For example, if a plant experiences a
3664:. In chapter 11, "Geographical Distribution", Darwin discusses geographic barriers to migration, stating for example that "barriers of any kind, or obstacles to free migration, are related in a close and important manner to the differences between the productions of various regions ". F. J. Sulloway contends that Darwin's position on speciation was "misleading" at the least and may have later misinformed Wagner and
10434:
10410:
2689:
refers to the number of generations in each experiment performed. If more than one experiment was formed generations are separated by semicolons or dashes (given as a range). Some studies provide a duration in which the experiment was conducted. The "Selection type" column indicates if the study modeled vicariant or peripatric speciation (this may not be explicitly).
690:, and the formation of mountains, islands, bodies of water, or glaciers. Human activity such as agriculture or developments can also change the distribution of species populations. These factors can substantially alter a region's geography, resulting in the separation of a species population into isolated subpopulations. The vicariant populations then undergo
3749:, among other biologists specializing in ecology and biogeography. Similarly, full analytical approaches have been proposed and applied to determine which speciation mode a species underwent in the past using various approaches or combinations thereof: species-level phylogenies, range overlaps, symmetry in range sizes between sister species pairs, and
1444:; that is, that the greater the diversity (species richness) of an island, the greater the increase in endemism. Increased diversity effectively drives speciation. Furthermore, the number of endemics on an island is directly correlated with the relative isolation of the island and its area. In some cases, speciation on islands has occurred rapidly.
5437:
Roy E. Gereau; Rosemary G. Gillespie; Josef
Greimler; David E. V. Harter; Tsurng-Juhn Huang; Severin D. H. Irl; Daniel Jeanmonod; Anke Jentsch; Alistair S. Jump; Christoph Kueffer; Sandra NoguĂ©; RĂŒdiger Otto; Jonathan Price; Maria M. Romeiras; Dominique Strasberg; Tod Stuessy; Jens-Christian Svenning; Ole R. Vetaas; Carl Beierkuhnlein (2016),
762:, among others. Nevertheless, verbal and mathematical models, laboratory experiments, and empirical evidence overwhelmingly supports the occurrence of allopatric speciation in nature. Mathematical modeling of the genetic basis of reproductive isolation supports the plausibility of allopatric speciation; whereas laboratory experiments of
3729:
nature. Some researchers even consider there to be a bias in reporting of positive allopatric speciation events, and in one study reviewing 73 speciation papers published in 2009, only 30 percent that suggested allopatric speciation as the primary explanation for the patterns observed considered other modes of speciation as possible.
5436:
Manuel J. Steinbauer; Richard Field; John-Arvid
Grytnes; Panayiotis Trigas; Claudine Ah-Peng; Fabio Attorre; H. John B. Birks; Paulo A. V. Borges; Pedro Cardoso; Chang-Hung Chou; Michele De Sanctis; Miguel M. de Sequeira; Maria C. Duarte; Rui B. Elias; JosĂ© MarĂa FernĂĄndez-Palacios; Rosalina Gabriel;
1516:
Allopatric speciation can result from mountain topography. Climatic changes can drive species into altitudinal zonesâeither valleys or peaks. Colored regions indicate distributions. As distributions are modified due to the change in suitable habitats, reproductive isolation can drive the formation of
1370:
was the first to summarize the contemporary literature of the time in 1942 and 1963. Many of the examples he set forth remain conclusive; however, modern research supports geographic speciation with molecular phylogeneticsâadding a level of robustness unavailable to early researchers. The most recent
1169:
a population of birds on an oceanic island), selection can act on the population independent of the parent population. Given both geographic separation and enough time, speciation can result as a byproduct. It can be distinguished from allopatric speciation by three important features: 1) the size of
3732:
Contemporary research relies largely on multiple lines of evidence to determine the mode of a speciation event; that is, determining patterns of geographic distribution in conjunction with phylogenetic relatedness based on molecular techniques. This method was effectively introduced by John D. Lynch
2698:
one line with more bristles and the other line with less). Some studies performed experiments modeling or controlling for genetic drift. Reproductive isolation occurred pre-zygotically, post-zygotically, both, or not at all. It is important to note that many of the studies conducted contain multiple
1142:
Various alternative models have been developed concerning allopatric speciation. Special cases of vicariant speciation have been studied in great detail, one of which is peripatric speciation, whereby a small subset of a species population becomes isolated geographically; and centrifugal speciation,
845:. Vicariant barriers can change the distribution of species populations. Suitable or unsuitable habitat may be come into existence, expand, contract, or disappear as a result of global climate change or even large scale human activities (for example, agricultural, civil engineering developments, and
796:
in the mid-twentieth century. The vicariance theory, which showed coherence along with the acceptance of plate tectonics in the 1960s, was developed in the early 1950s by this
Venezuelan botanist, who had found an explanation for the similarity of plants and animals found in South America and Africa
5933:
Brian
Tilston Smith; John E. McCormack; Andrés M. Cuervo; Michael. J. Hickerson; Alexandre Aleixo; Carlos Daniel Cadena; Jorge Pérez-Emån; Curtis W. Burney; Xiaoou Xie; Michael G. Harvey; Brant C. Faircloth; Travis C. Glenn; Elizabeth P. Derryberry; Jesse Prejean; Samantha Fields; Robb T. Brumfield
1647:
army ants supports an earlier bridge or a series of bridges. Regardless of the exact timing of the isthmus closer, biologists can study the species on the
Pacific and Caribbean sides in what has been called, "one of the greatest natural experiments in evolution". Additionally, as with most geologic
1125:
can also lead to reproductive isolation if there are minor variations in selective pressures (such as predation risks or habitat differences) among each population. (See the
Further reading section below). Mathematical models concerning reproductive isolation-by distance have shown that populations
1046:
In allopatric speciation, a species population becomes separated by a geographic barrier, whereby reproductive isolation evolves producing two separate species. From this, if a recently separated population comes in contact again, low fitness hybrids may form, but reinforcement acts to complete the
1174:
on small populations. However, it can often be difficult for researchers to determine if peripatric speciation occurred as vicariant explanations can be invoked due to the fact that both models posit the absence of gene flow between the populations. The size of the isolated population is important
1302:
Ecological speciation can occur allopatrically, sympatrically, or parapatrically; the only requirement being that it occurs as a result of adaptation to different ecological or micro-ecological conditions. Ecological allopatry is a reverse-ordered form of allopatric speciation in conjunction with
3728:
Since the 1940s, allopatric speciation has been accepted. Today, it is widely regarded as the most common form of speciation taking place in nature. However, this is not without controversy, as both parapatric and sympatric speciation are both considered tenable modes of speciation that occur in
1199:
is a variant, alternative model of peripatric speciation. This model contrasts with peripatric speciation by virtue of the origin of the genetic novelty that leads to reproductive isolation. When a population of a species experiences a period of geographic range expansion and contraction, it may
746:
do not significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each otherâthey do not occur together or only occur within a narrow zone of contact. Historically, the language used to refer to modes of speciation directly reflected biogeographical distributions. As such, allopatry is a geographical
3679:
David Starr Jordan played a significant role in promoting allopatric speciation in the early 20th century, providing a wealth of evidence from nature to support the theory. Much later, the biologist Ernst Mayr was the first to encapsulate the then contemporary literature in his 1942 publication
2688:
Below is a non-exhaustive table of the laboratory experiments conducted on allopatric speciation. The first column indicates the species used in the referenced study, where the "Trait" column refers to the specific characteristic selected for or against in that species. The "Generations" column
2684:
presented previously, a survey of 25 allopatric speciation experiments (included in the table below) found that reproductive isolation was not as strong as typically maintained and that laboratory environments have not been well-suited for modeling allopatric speciation. Nevertheless, numerous
1183:
within the descendant population. This gives rise to the potential for genetic incompatibilities to evolve. These incompatibilities cause reproductive isolation, giving rise to rapid speciation events. Models of peripatry are supported mostly by species distribution patterns in nature. Oceanic
751:(speciation within the same area). Furthermore, the terms allopatric, vicariant, and geographical speciation are often used interchangeably in the scientific literature. This article will follow a similar theme, with the exception of special cases such as peripatric, centrifugal, among others.
2247:
Experiments on allopatric speciation are often complex and do not simply divide a species population into two. This is due to a host of defining parameters: measuring reproductive isolation, sample sizes (the number of matings conducted in reproductive isolation tests), bottlenecks, length of
1027:
hybrids will resultâfunctioning as a form of post-zygotic isolation. Subsequently, the newly formed species pair may experience pre-zygotic barriers to reproduction as selection, acting on each species independently, will ultimately lead to genetic changes making hybrids impossible. From the
2238:
mediums respectively. The experiment was replicated with 8 populations; 4 with maltose and 4 with starch. Differences in adaptations were found for each population corresponding to the different mediums. Later investigation found that the populations evolved behavioral isolation as a
996:
represents the entire continuum, although some scientists argue that a classification scheme based solely on geographic mode does not necessarily reflect the complexity of speciation. Allopatry is often regarded as the default or "null" model of speciation, but this too is debated.
2693:
refers to selection imposed to promote reproductive isolation whereas indirect selection implies isolation occurring as a pleiotropic byproduct of natural selection; whereas divergent selection implies deliberate selection of each allopatric population in opposite directions
1636:
approximately 2.7 to 3.5 mya, with some evidence suggesting an earlier transient bridge existing between 13 and 15 mya. Recent evidence increasingly points towards an older and more complex emergence of the
Isthmus, with fossil and extant species dispersal (part of the
1083:
mate discrimination occurs to a greater extent between sympatric populations than it does in purely allopatric populations; however, other factors have been proposed to account for the observed patterns. Reinforcement in allopatry has been shown to occur in nature
1669:
waters while older diverged species live in deeper water, correlating with a gradual closure of the isthmus. Support for an allopatric divergence also comes from laboratory experiments on the species pairs showing nearly complete reproductive isolation.
2672:. Limitations and controversies exist relating to whether laboratory experiments can accurately reflect the long-scale process of allopatric speciation that occurs in nature. Experiments often fall beneath 100 generations, far less than expected, as
869:. The extrinsic barriers prevent the exchange of genetic information between the two populations, potentially leading to differentiation due to the ecologically different habitats they experience; selective pressure then invariably leads to complete
2024:
Numerous species pairs or species groups show abutting distribution patterns, that is, reside in geographically distinct regions next to each other. They often share borders, many of which contain hybrid zones. Some examples of abutting species and
3757:
dating methods are also often employed to accurately gauge divergence times that reflect the fossil or geological record (such as with the snapping shrimp separated by the closure of the
Isthmus of Panama or speciation events within the genus
3628:
Early speciation research typically reflected geographic distributions and were thus termed geographic, semi-geographic, and non-geographic. Geographic speciation corresponds to today's usage of the term allopatric speciation, and in 1868,
2248:
experiments, number of generations allowed, or insufficient genetic diversity. Various isolation indices have been developed to measure reproductive isolation (and are often employed in laboratory speciation studies) such as here (index
1120:
model of speciation by genetic drift alone. Both selection and drift can lead to postzygotic isolation, supporting the fact that two geographically separated populations can evolve reproductive isolationâsometimes occurring rapidly.
5119:
M. T. Guzik; S. J. B. Cooper; W. F. Humphreys; A. D. Austin (2009), "Fine-scale comparative phylogeography of a sympatric sister species triplet of subterranean diving beetles from a single calcrete aquifer in
Western Australia",
1055:
studies, as it requires gene flow between two populations. However, reinforcement may also play a role in allopatric speciation, whereby the reproductive barrier is removed, reuniting the two previously isolated populations. Upon
1130:; however, it has been argued that ring species are a special case, representing reproductive isolation-by distance, and demonstrate parapatric speciation insteadâas parapatric speciation represents speciation occurring along a
3651:, an evolutionary biologist and a strong proponent of the importance of natural selection, highlighted the role of geographic isolation in promoting speciation, in the process coining the term "sympatric speciation" in 1903.
3724:
The late 20th century saw the development of mathematical models of allopatric speciation, leading to the clear theoretical plausibility that geographic isolation can result in the reproductive isolation of two populations.
1521:
Patterns of increased endemism at higher elevations on both islands and continents have been documented on a global level. As topographical elevation increases, species become isolated from one another; often constricted to
6507:
C. Montes; A. Cardona; C. Jaramillo; A. Pardo; J. C. Silva; V. Valencia; C. Ayala; L. C. Pérez-Angel; L. A. Rodriguez-Parra; V. Ramirez; H. Niño; et al. (2015), "Middle
Miocene closure of the Central American Seaway",
1287:
on a small, localized scale within the population) it is "microallopatric". Ben Fitzpatrick and colleagues contend that this original definition, "is misleading because it confuses geographical and ecological concepts".
800:
Currently, speciation by vicariance is widely regarded as the most common form of speciation; and is the primary model of allopatric speciation. Vicariance is a process by which the geographical range of an individual
1072:. Reinforcement can play a role in all geographic modes (and other non-geographic modes) of speciation as long as gene flow is present and viable hybrids can be formed. The production of inviable hybrids is a form of
6552:
Christine D. Bacon; Daniele Silvestro; Carlos Jaramillo; Brian Tilston Smith; Prosanta Chakrabarty; Alexandre Antonelli (2015), "Biological evidence supports an early and complex emergence of the Isthmus of Panama",
725:
Allopatric speciation is typically subdivided into two major models: vicariance and peripatric. These models differ from one another by virtue of their population sizes and geographic isolating mechanisms. The terms
9653:
Catherine H. Graham; Santiago R. Ron Juan C. Santos; Christopher J. Schneider; Craig Moritz (2004), "Integrating Phylogenetics and Environmental Niche Models to Explore Speciation Mechanisms in Dendrobatid Frogs",
1175:
because individuals colonizing a new habitat likely contain only a small sample of the genetic variation of the original population. This promotes divergence due to strong selective pressures, leading to the rapid
3799:
comparisons (such as with the possible allopatric speciation event that occurred between ancestral humans and chimpanzees), linking species' evolutionary history with ecology and clarifying phylogenetic patterns.
3733:
in 1986 and numerous researchers have employed it and similar methods, yielding enlightening results. Correlation of geographic distribution with phylogenetic data also spawned a sub-field of biogeography called
6884:
Gabriela Castellanos-Morales; Niza GĂĄmez; Reyna A. Castillo-GĂĄmez; Luis E. Eguiarte (2016), "Peripatric speciation of an endemic species driven by Pleistocene climate change: The case of the Mexican prairie dog
2383:
6301:
Joanne Bentley; G Anthony Verboom; Nicola G Bergh (2014), "Erosive processes after tectonic uplift stimulate vicariant and adaptive speciation: evolution in an Afrotemperate-endemic paper daisy genus",
1092:
patterns may suggest past gene flow. This masks possible initial divergence in allopatry and can indicate a "mixed-mode" speciation eventâexhibiting both allopatric and sympatric speciation processes.
849:). Such factors can alter a region's geography in substantial ways, resulting in the separation of a species population into isolated subpopulations. The vicariant populations may then undergo
1155:
In peripatric speciation, a small, isolated population on the periphery of a central population evolves reproductive isolation due to the reduction or elimination of gene flow between the two.
1068:, by which pre-zygotic isolation increases between the populations. Some arguments have been put forth that suggest the hybrids themselves can possibly become their own species: known as
1451:
speciation are the agents that explain the origins of the organisms in Hawaii. Various geographic modes of speciation have been studied extensively in Hawaiian biota, and in particular,
718:
leading to emigration can cause speciation (for instance, the dispersal and isolation of a species on an oceanic island) and is considered a special case of allopatric speciation called
3668:
into believing that Darwin viewed sympatric speciation as the most important mode of speciation. Nevertheless, Darwin never fully accepted Wagner's concept of geographical speciation.
2457:
1526:
zones. This isolation on "mountain top islands" creates barriers to gene flow, encouraging allopatric speciation, and generating the formation of endemic species. Mountain building (
10366:
3692:. Like Jordan's works, they relied on direct observations of nature, documenting the occurrence of allopatric speciation, of which is widely accepted today. Prior to this research,
2673:
9170:
L. E. Hurd; Robert M. Eisenberg (1975), "Divergent Selection for Geotactic Response and Evolution of Reproductive Isolation in Sympatric and Allopatric Populations of Houseflies",
7002:
Remington C.L. (1968) Suture-Zones of Hybrid Interaction Between Recently Joined Biotas. In: Dobzhansky T., Hecht M.K., Steere W.C. (eds) Evolutionary Biology. Springer, Boston, MA
1143:
an alternative model of peripatric speciation concerning expansion and contraction of a species' range. Other minor allopatric models have also been developed are discussed below.
1227:
Microallopatry refers to allopatric speciation occurring on a small geographic scale. Examples of microallopatric speciation in nature have been described. Rico and Turner found
3717:, and David Starr Jordan played a large role in the formation of allopatric speciation as an evolutionary concept; where Mayr and Dobzhansky contributed to the formation of the
2660:
The experimental evidence has solidly established the fact that reproductive isolation evolves as a by-product of selection. Reproductive isolation has been shown to arise from
9846:; Melanie Culver; Robert W. Murphy (2016), "Assessing models of speciation under different biogeographic scenarios; an empirical study using multi-locus and RNA-seq analyses",
1088:), albeit with less frequency than a classic allopatric speciation event. A major difficulty arises when interpreting reinforcement's role in allopatric speciation, as current
754:
Observation of nature creates difficulties in witnessing allopatric speciation from "start-to-finish" as it operates as a dynamic process. From this arises a host of issues in
6850:
Juan P. Jaramillo-Correa; Jean Bousquet (2003), "New evidence from mitochondrial DNA of a progenitor-derivative species relationship between black and red spruce (Pinaceae)",
6155:
Li Wang; Harald Schneider; Xian-Chun Zhang; Qiao-Ping Xiang (2012), "The rise of the Himalaya enforced the diversification of SE Asian ferns by altering the monsoon regimes",
3688:
5837:
Santorelli Jr, Sergio; Magnusson, William E.; Deus, Claudia P. (2018), "Most species are not limited by an Amazonian river postulated to be a border between endemism areas",
1165:
Peripatric speciation is a mode of speciation in which a new species is formed from an isolated peripheral population. If a small population of a species becomes isolated (
994:
10309:
10109:
1600:, is often a consequence of rapid allopatric speciation among populations. However, in the case of the finches of the Galapagos, among other island radiations such as the
813:) by the formation of an extrinsic barrier to the exchange of genes: that is, a barrier arising externally to a species. These extrinsic barriers often arise from various
6465:
Carla Hurt; Arthur Anker; Nancy Knowlton (2008), "A Multilocus Test of Simultaneous Divergence Across the Isthmus of Panama Using Snapping Shrimp in the Genus Alpheus",
1366:
As allopatric speciation is widely accepted as a common mode of speciation, the scientific literature is abundant with studies documenting its existence. The biologist
3734:
1960:
is often invoked for instances of isolation in glaciation refugia as small populations become isolated due to habitat fragmentation such as with North American red (
1739:
958:
7541:
C. R. B. Boake; K. Mcdonald; S. Maitra; R. Ganguly (2003), "Forty years of solitude: life-history divergence and behavioural isolation between laboratory lines of
3146:
1624:(red circle). With the closure, North and South America became connected, allowing the exchange of species (purple). Grey arrows indicate the gradual movement of
912:
11453:
10356:
1697:
1641:) occurring in three major pulses, to and from North and South America. Further, the changes in terrestrial biotic distributions of both continents such as with
1505:âthough this hypothesis has been disputed. Dispersal-mediated allopatric speciation is also thought to be a significant driver of diversification throughout the
314:
6651:
Max E. Winston; Daniel J. C. Kronauer; Corrie S. Moreau (2017), "Early and dynamic colonization of Central America drives speciation in Neotropical army ants",
2647:
2627:
2607:
2587:
2567:
2543:
2523:
2499:
2479:
2286:
2266:
932:
10361:
6406:
Terry A. Gates; Albert Prieto-MĂĄrquez; Lindsay E. Zanno (2012), "Mountain Building Triggered Late Cretaceous North American Megaherbivore Dinosaur Radiation",
3434:
2044:
in North America reside in dry western and wet eastern geographic regions with rare occurrences of hybridization, most of which results in infertile offspring.
1817:
1406:
Measures of reproductive isolation increase with the greater geographic distance of separation between two species pairs. (This has been often referred to as
10346:
1721:
1657:
have provided direct evidence of an allopatric speciation event, as phylogenetic reconstructions support the relationships of 15 pairs of sister species of
1429:
Allopatric speciation has resulted in many of the biogeographic and biodiversity patterns found on Earth: on islands, continents, and even among mountains.
10351:
1732:
1493:. The pattern indicates repeated vicariant speciation events among these groups. It is thought that rivers may play a role as the geographic barriers to
1463:
5988:
C. K. Ghalambor; R. B. Huey; P. R. Martin; J. T. Tewksbury; G. Wang (2014), "Are mountain passes higher in the tropics? Janzen's hypothesis revisited",
4031:
Panbiogeography or An Introductory Synthesis of Zoogeography, Phytogeography, Geology; with notes on evolution, systematics, ecology, anthropology, etc.
3746:
1387:
Closely related species pairs, more often than not, reside in geographic ranges adjacent to one another, separated by a geographic or climatic barrier.
1126:
can experience increasing reproductive isolation that correlates directly with physical, geographical distance. This has been exemplified in models of
2208:
birds grouped into 169 superspecies. Australia has numerous bird superspecies as well, with 34 percent of all bird species grouped into superspecies.
1228:
1403:
Correlation of genetic differences between an array of distantly related species that correspond to known current or historical geographic barriers.
1170:
the isolated population, 2) the strong selection imposed by the dispersal and colonization into novel environments, and 3) the potential effects of
1246:
881:) through changing environmental conditions may also play a role in isolating populations from one another, driving the evolution of new lineages.
9808:
Matthew T. Webster (2009), "Patterns of autosomal divergence between the human and chimpanzee genomes support an allopatric model of speciation",
3709:(who coined the term "Jordan's Law", whereby closely related, geographically isolated species are often found divided by a physical barrier) and
8202:
Mooers, A. Ă.; Rundle, H. D.; Whitlock, M. C. (1999), "The effects of selection and bottlenecks on male mating success in peripheral isolates",
6356:
Jason T. Weir; Momoko Price (2011), "Andean uplift promotes lowland speciation through vicariance and dispersal in Dendrocincla woodcreepers",
629:
7645:
Stella A. Crossley (1974), "Changes in Mating Behavior Produced by Selection for Ethological Isolation Between Ebony and Vestigial Mutants of
1648:
events, the closure was unlikely to have occurred rapidly, but instead dynamicallyâa gradual shallowing of sea water over millions of years.
11202:
9254:
Takahisa Miyatake; Toru Shimizu (1999), "Genetic correlations between life-history and behavioral traits can cause reproductive isolation",
10502:
6247:
Wei-Wei Zhou; Yang Wen; Jinzhong Fu; Yong-Biao Xu; Jie-Qiong Jin; Li Ding; Mi-Sook Min; Jing Che; Ya-Ping Zhang (2012), "Speciation in the
5573:
Carlos Daniel Cadena; Robert E. Ricklefs; Ivån Jiménez; Eldredge Bermingham (2005), "Ecology: Is speciation driven by species diversity?",
1283:
to describe a level of geographic resolution. A sympatric population may exist in low resolution, whereas viewed with a higher resolution (
237:
9136:
A. Benedict Soans; David Pimentel; Joyce S. Soans (1974), "Evolution of Reproductive Isolation in Allopatric and Sympatric Populations",
8417:
T. Dobzhansky; O. Pavlovsky; J. R. Powell (1976), "Partially Successful Attempt to Enhance Reproductive Isolation Between Semispecies of
4762:
Lucinda P. Lawson; et al. (2015), "Divergence at the edges: peripatric isolation in the montane spiny throated reed frog complex",
1393:
In occurrences where several pairs of related species share a range, they are distributed in abutting patterns, with borders exhibiting
10438:
7589:
J. S. F. Barker; L. J. E. Karlsson (1974), "Effects of population size and selection intensity on responses to disruptive selection in
2649:
denotes negative assortive mating, a positive value denotes positive assortive mating (i. e. expressing reproductive isolation), and a
2293:
1673:
Similar patterns of relatedness and distribution across the Pacific and Atlantic sides have been found in other species pairs such as:
548:
9696:
C. Yesson; N.H. Toomey; A. Culham (2009), "Cyclamen: time, sea and speciation biogeography using a temporally calibrated phylogeny",
5322:
Timothy G. Barraclough; Alfried P. Vogler (2000), "Detecting the Geographical Pattern of Speciation from Species-Level Phylogenies",
679:
that occurs when biological populations become geographically isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with
714:. If the two populations come into contact they will be unable to reproduceâeffectively speciating. Other isolating factors such as
11706:
11161:
10319:
1085:
356:
9897:
H. Allen Orr; Michael Turelli (2001), "The evolution of postzygotic isolation: Accumulating Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities",
9204:
Meffert, L. M.; Bryant, E. H. (1991), "Mating propensity and courtship behavior in serially bottlenecked lines of the housefly",
8152:
Rundle, H. D.; Mooers, A. Ă.; Whitlock, M. C. (1998), "Single founder-flush events and the evolution of reproductive isolation",
6695:
Nancy Knowlton (1993), "Divergence in Proteins, Mitochondrial DNA, and Reproductive Compatibility Across the Isthmus of Panama",
5091:
Gustav Paulay (1985), "Adaptive radiation on an isolated oceanic island: the Cryptorhynchinae (Curculionidae)of Rapa revisited",
6101:
Yaowu Xing; Richard H. Ree (2017), "Uplift-driven diversification in the Hengduan Mountains, a temperate biodiversity hotspot",
10512:
6203:"The uplift of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau and the vicariance speciation of glyptosternoid fishes (Siluriformes: Sisoridae)"
5795:
Jason P. W. Hall; Donald J. Harvey (2002), "The Phylogeography of Amazonia Revisited: New Evidence from Riodinid Butterflies",
2676:
in nature are thought to be much larger. Furthermore, rates specifically concerning the evolution of reproductive isolation in
62:
11469:
11229:
9943:
H. Allen Orr; Lynne H. Orr (1996), "Waiting for Speciation: The Effect of Population Subdivision on the Time to Speciation",
7063:
6959:
5682:
5508:
4536:
3897:
3682:
1462:
Islands are not the only geographic locations that have endemic species. South America has been studied extensively with its
1440:
with a species on the nearest continent. Not without challenge, there is typically a correlation between island endemics and
1113:
543:
10194:
4477:
Conrad J. Hoskin; Megan Higgie; Keith R. McDonald; Craig Moritz (2005), "Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation",
10826:
10119:
10089:
9488:
7966:
Koref Santibañez, S.; Waddington, C. H. (1958), "The origin of sexual isolation between different lines within a species",
5379:
Hong Qian; Robert E. Ricklefs (2000), "Large-scale processes and the Asian bias in species diversity of temperate plants",
4098:
John J. Wiens; Catherine H. Graham (2005), "Niche Conservatism: Integrating Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation Biology",
2217:
490:
8098:
Markow, T. A. (1981), "Mating preferences are not predictive of the direction of evolution in experimental populations of
8000:
Barker, J. S. F.; Cummins, L. J. (1969), "The effect of selection for sternopleural bristle number in mating behaviour in
7078:
François Vuilleumier (1985), "Forest Birds of Patagonia: Ecological Geography, Speciation, Endemism, and Faunal History",
5935:
11552:
10472:
1616:
5750:
Jonathan P. Price; Warren L. Wagner (2004), "Speciation in Hawaiian Angiosperm Lineages: Cause, Consequence, and Mode",
2200:
is home to 17 superspecies of forest birds, while North America has 127 superspecies of both land and freshwater birds.
11214:
10874:
9596:
6988:
5215:
4441:
4014:
3973:
3714:
3698:
2243:
by-product from this adaptive divergence. This form of pre-zygotic isolation is a prerequisite for speciation to occur.
622:
351:
182:
9559:
Joel Asaph Allen (1907), "Mutations and the Geographic Distribution of Nearly Related Species in Plants and Animals",
865:
of the populations, (b) they become subjected to different selective pressures, and/or (c) they independently undergo
9652:
8623:
Eduardo del Solar (1966), "Sexual isolation caused by selection for positive and negative phototaxis and geotaxis in
6067:
Jon FjeldsÄ; Rauri C.K. Bowie; Carsten Rahbek (2012), "The Role of Mountain Ranges in the Diversification of Birds",
4374:
William R. Rice; Ellen E. Hostert (1993), "Laboratory Experiments on Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years?",
4056:
John J. Wiens (2004), "Speciation and Ecology Revisited: Phylogenetic Niche Conservatism and the Origin of Species",
1011:
Reproductive isolation acts as the primary mechanism driving genetic divergence in allopatry and can be amplified by
11281:
10198:
9344:
Anders Ădeen; Ann-Britt Florin (2002), "Sexual selection and peripatric speciation: the Kaneshiro model revisited",
8383:
John Ringo; David Wood; Robert Rockwell; Harold Dowse (1985), "An Experiment Testing Two Hypotheses of Speciation",
7495:
G. Kilias; S. N. Alahiotis; M. Pelecanos (1980), "A Multifactorial Genetic Investigation of Speciation Theory Using
5438:
1196:
11286:
10884:
84:
1473:
are a primary example, confined to specific regions corresponding to phylogenies of other species of butterflies,
11531:
11521:
11445:
10720:
8845:
Rundle, H. D. (2003), "Divergent environments and population bottlenecks fail to generate premating isolation in
7277:
Mark Kirkpatrick; Virginie Ravigné (2002), "Speciation by Natural and Sexual Selection: Models and Experiments",
6785:
H. A. Lessios. (1998). The first stage of speciation as seen in organisms separated by the Isthmus of Panama. In
3718:
2923:
2809:
878:
341:
309:
9920:
5808:
2685:
experiments have shown pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation in vicariance, some in less than 100 generations.
1279:
region have likely speciated microallopatrically within a 3.5 km area. The term was originally proposed by
11659:
11526:
11306:
11050:
10848:
10752:
10641:
2389:
1665:
dating supports their separation between 3 and 15 million years ago. Recently diverged species live in shallow
1424:
1176:
563:
346:
8733:
Diane M. B. Dodd; Jeffrey R. Powell (1985), "Founder-Flush Speciation: An Update of Experimental Results with
7238:
Ann-Britt Florin; Anders Ădeen (2002), "Laboratory environments are not conducive for allopatric speciation",
6025:
4842:
2167:. All of these species pairs connect at zones of hybridization that correspond with major geographic barriers.
1100:
Developed in the context of the genetic basis of reproductive isolation, mathematical scenarios model both pre
11765:
11724:
11311:
11055:
10794:
6883:
4622:
Andrew Pomiankowski and Yoh Iwasa (1998), "Runaway ornament diversity caused by Fisherian sexual selection",
3765:
1753:
615:
602:
11256:
6750:
Nancy Knowlton; Lee A. Weigt (1998), "New dates and new rates for divergence across the Isthmus of Panama",
4192:
Hannes Schuler; Glen R. Hood; Scott P. Egan; Jeffrey L. Feder (2016), "Modes and Mechanisms of Speciation",
2029:(an informal rank referring to a complex of closely related allopatrically distributed species, also called
1620:
A conceptual representation of species populations becoming isolated (blue and green) by the closure of the
1436:âexisting only on an island and nowhere else in the worldâwith nearly all taxa residing on isolated islands
11664:
11166:
2088:
1799:
533:
5031:
C. Rico; G. F. Turner (2002), "Extreme microallopatric divergence in a cichlid species from Lake Malawi",
1752:
Ice ages have played important roles in facilitating speciation among vertebrate species. This concept of
11734:
11328:
10426:
10414:
5932:
589:
1028:
researcher's perspective, the current isolating mechanism may not reflect the past isolating mechanism.
768:
and other animal and plant species have confirmed that reproductive isolation evolves as a byproduct of
11430:
10604:
10315:
6607:
SeĂ n Brady (2017), "Army ant invasions reveal phylogeographic processes across the Isthmus of Panama",
5523:
Xiao-Yong Chen; Fangliang He (2009), "Speciation and Endemism under the Model of Island Biogeography",
3630:
2192:
In birds, some areas are prone to high rates of superspecies formation such as the 105 superspecies in
1638:
1304:
1037:
797:
by deducing that they had originally been a single population before the two continents drifted apart.
89:
6551:
4987:
B. M. Fitzpatrick; A. A. Fordyce; S. Gavrilets (2008), "What, if anything, is sympatric speciation?",
3705:
Other scientists noted the existence of allopatrically distributed pairs of species in nature such as
1316:
11224:
11021:
10831:
10599:
10492:
9504:
Sulloway FJ (1979). "Geographic isolation in Darwin's thinking: the vicissitudes of a crucial idea".
9033:. IV. Correlated responses in behavioral isolation to artificial selection on a life-history trait",
7428:
B. S. Grant; L. E. Mettler (1969), "Disruptive and stabilizing selection on the" escape" behavior of
5572:
1925:
1871:
1835:
1042:
455:
430:
410:
390:
67:
11353:
9029:
Etges, W. J. (1998), "Premating isolation is determined by larval rearing substrates in cactophilis
5435:
4463:
1347:
11647:
11511:
11483:
11458:
11415:
11318:
11251:
11126:
10999:
10967:
10940:
10930:
10269:
10082:
10020:
Masatoshi Nei; Takeo Maruyama; Chung-i Wu (1983), "Models of Evolution of Reproductive Isolation",
5697:
Jonathan B. Losos; Dolph Schluter (2000), "Analysis of an evolutionary species±area relationship",
4833:
4720:
Montgomery Slatkin (1993), "Isolation by distance in equilibrium and non-equilibrium populations",
3710:
3660:
3217:
2668:
indirect selection acting on genes that code for more than one trait)âwhat has been referred to as
2067:
1913:
1865:
1768:
1498:
967:
445:
440:
415:
370:
336:
330:
319:
11131:
8349:
Lee Ehrman (1983), "Fourth report on natural selection for the origin of reproductive isolation",
5889:
Luciano N. Naka and Maria W. Pil (2020), "Moving beyond the riverine barrier vicariant paradigm",
2012:). This is an example of allopatric speciation because they are divided by a natural barrier (the
1538:
for example have driven the speciation and diversification of numerous plants and animals such as
710:. The barriers prevent the exchange of genetic information between the two populations leading to
11652:
11582:
11491:
11219:
11101:
10869:
10465:
3742:
2736:
2227:
558:
465:
460:
405:
366:
167:
11691:
11340:
11209:
11171:
11072:
11043:
11016:
11011:
10609:
10374:
10330:
10263:
10232:
10150:
10124:
9296:
Paterniani, E. (1969), "Selection for Reproductive Isolation between Two Populations of Maize,
8315:
Lee Ehrman (1979), "Still more on natural selection and the origin of reproductive isolation",
4828:
3648:
2148:
1907:
1776:
1390:
Young species pairs (or sister species) often occur in allopatry, even without a known barrier.
1383:. They list six mainstream arguments that lend support to the concept of vicariant speciation:
1359:
group superimposed over a map of South America showing the biogeographic ranges or each species
1080:
1073:
1024:
1006:
870:
785:
759:
711:
646:
470:
425:
247:
142:
20:
11197:
9098:
J. N. Ahearn (1980), "Evolution of behavioral reproductive isolation in a laboratory stock of
11755:
11632:
11506:
11425:
11420:
11405:
11390:
11296:
11271:
11106:
11062:
11026:
10994:
10935:
10913:
10894:
10757:
10710:
10661:
10656:
10614:
10255:
10208:
10190:
10170:
10114:
6023:
4111:
3693:
3623:
3458:
3389:
3345:
3187:
3098:
3093:
2989:
2690:
2144:
2092:
1957:
1811:
1787:
1715:
1605:
1601:
1512:
1456:
1407:
1297:
1160:
961:
846:
810:
719:
568:
450:
395:
361:
274:
9982:(1995), "The Population Genetics of Speciation: The Evolution of Hybrid Incompatibilities",
9766:
R. T. Chesser; R. M. Zink (1994), "Modes of speciation in birds: a test of Lynch's method",
7185:
Diane M. B. Dodd (1989), "Reproductive Isolation as a Consequence of Adaptive Divergence in
11606:
11501:
11435:
11236:
11151:
11067:
10979:
10962:
10889:
10879:
10589:
10497:
10481:
10222:
9705:
9396:
8681:
Jeffrey R. Powell (1978), "The Founder-Flush Speciation Theory: An Experimental Approach",
8636:
8476:
8111:
7021:
6704:
6660:
6616:
6562:
6517:
6415:
6365:
6311:
6260:
6110:
6040:
5947:
5898:
5846:
5706:
5632:
5582:
5532:
5453:
5388:
5240:
5129:
5040:
4917:
4771:
4631:
4486:
4283:
4230:
3773:
3750:
3595:
2063:
2059:
1980:
1943:
1691:
1653:
1420:
1052:
937:
715:
420:
192:
77:
34:
11241:
11111:
9075:
Lorna H. Arita; Kenneth Y. Kaneshiro (1979), "Ethological Isolation Between Two Stocks of
6080:
5439:"Topography-driven isolation, speciation and a global increase of endemism with elevation"
8:
11770:
11669:
11627:
11577:
11496:
11344:
11336:
11266:
11246:
11192:
11036:
10789:
10732:
10594:
10577:
10555:
10402:
10259:
10075:
9841:
8281:
Lee Ehrman (1973), "More on natural selection and the origin of reproductive isolation",
7138:
amylase. IV. Selection in laboratory populations maintained on different carbohydrates",
4476:
4218:
3087:
2669:
2156:
1949:
1772:
1704:
1593:
1233:
1221:
1012:
891:
510:
500:
435:
400:
284:
187:
112:
47:
10947:
9709:
9400:
8640:
8480:
8115:
7025:
6708:
6664:
6620:
6566:
6521:
6419:
6369:
6315:
6264:
6114:
6044:
5951:
5902:
5850:
5710:
5636:
5586:
5536:
5457:
5392:
5244:
5133:
5044:
4921:
4775:
4635:
4490:
4433:
4287:
4234:
3764:). Other techniques used today have employed measures of gene flow between populations,
11642:
11594:
11587:
11184:
11096:
10957:
10918:
10742:
10686:
10676:
10636:
10550:
10545:
10540:
10458:
10274:
10042:
10004:
9960:
9932:
9906:
9868:
9783:
9721:
9679:
9633:
9457:
9363:
9327:
9314:
9271:
9237:
9221:
9217:
9187:
9153:
9119:
9058:
9004:
8983:
H. Roberta Koepfer (1987), "Selection for Sexual Isolation Between Geographic Forms of
8958:
8916:
8874:
8828:
8812:
8807:
8772:
8756:
8751:
8716:
8700:
8695:
8606:
8463:
T. Dobzhansky; O. Pavlovsky (1966), "Spontaneous origin of an incipient species in the
8438:
8400:
8366:
8332:
8298:
8264:
8227:
8185:
8169:
8165:
8135:
8076:
8026:
7983:
7949:
7936:
7825:
7820:
7766:
7720:
7674:
7662:
7623:
7610:
7572:
7516:
7454:
7411:
7398:
7355:
7294:
7257:
7206:
7160:
7091:
6828:
6806:
Jason T. Weir; Dolph Schluter (2004), "Ice Sheets Promote Speciation in Boreal Birds",
6772:
6728:
6585:
6490:
6438:
6389:
6334:
6284:
6230:
6179:
6133:
6084:
5971:
5867:
5820:
5775:
5730:
5656:
5606:
5556:
5412:
5339:
5263:
5189:
5153:
5105:
5074:
5014:
4967:
4933:
4888:
4854:
4794:
4737:
4698:
4605:
4510:
4451:
4407:
4391:
4387:
4307:
4246:
4191:
4115:
4081:
3947:
3665:
2650:
2632:
2612:
2592:
2572:
2552:
2528:
2508:
2484:
2464:
2271:
2251:
2201:
2047:
2041:
2037:
1678:
1589:
1467:
1400:
In regions where geographic isolation is doubtful, species do not exhibit sister pairs.
1355:
1117:
1051:
Reinforcement has been a contentious factor in speciation. It is more often invoked in
917:
553:
485:
269:
197:
162:
9437:
8659:
8499:
4346:
4160:
1756:
has been applied to numerous groups of species and their biogeographic distributions.
1530:) is directly correlated withâand directly affects biodiversity. The formation of the
23:, the related form of speciation where species become isolated by reproductive timing.
11730:
11684:
11410:
11358:
11136:
10952:
10853:
10816:
10811:
10767:
10762:
10715:
10681:
10421:
10325:
10297:
10279:
10245:
10047:
10009:
9968:
9936:
9924:
9873:
9825:
9791:
9717:
9683:
9671:
9628:
9592:
9513:
9412:
9358:
9319:
9279:
9229:
9050:
9012:
8966:
8866:
8820:
8764:
8708:
8664:
8504:
8446:
8219:
8177:
8127:
8081:
8031:
7941:
7905:
7865:
7806:
G. R. Knight; et al. (1956), "Selection for sexual isolation within a species",
7758:
7712:
7666:
7628:
7564:
7559:
7524:
7459:
7403:
7360:
7252:
7214:
7165:
7059:
7037:
6984:
6955:
6906:
6867:
6833:
6720:
6678:
6634:
6590:
6535:
6482:
6478:
6443:
6381:
6377:
6339:
6276:
6272:
6222:
6184:
6154:
6138:
6007:
5963:
5916:
5872:
5824:
5812:
5779:
5767:
5722:
5678:
5648:
5598:
5548:
5504:
5404:
5347:
5302:
5298:
5268:
5211:
5145:
5141:
5118:
5066:
5052:
5006:
5001:
4929:
4892:
4858:
4846:
4799:
4745:
4703:
4659:
4654:
4571:
4532:
4502:
4437:
4399:
4350:
4333:
Michael Turelli; Nicholas H. Barton; Jerry A. Coyne (2001), "Theory and speciation",
4299:
4295:
4164:
4085:
4073:
4010:
3969:
3939:
3935:
3893:
3112:
2764:
2546:
2502:
2113:
2005:
1974:
1895:
1889:
1859:
1823:
1684:
1633:
1621:
1604:
of Hawaii represent cases of limited geographic separation and were likely driven by
1550:
1506:
1280:
1122:
1069:
1061:
1057:
888:
continuum. As such, the level of gene flow between populations in allopatry would be
834:
769:
695:
687:
254:
132:
122:
117:
9725:
9637:
9461:
9367:
9331:
9241:
9191:
9157:
9123:
9062:
8832:
8776:
8720:
8404:
8370:
8336:
8302:
8268:
8189:
8139:
7953:
7829:
7770:
7737:
F. R. van Dijken; W. Scharloo (1979), "Divergent selection on locomotor activity in
7724:
7691:
F. R. van Dijken; W. Scharloo (1979), "Divergent selection on locomotor activity in
7678:
7576:
7415:
7261:
6732:
6494:
6393:
6288:
6251:
species complex and its relationship to the uplift of the QinghaiâTibetan Plateau",
6234:
6088:
5987:
5560:
5157:
5078:
4971:
4937:
4609:
4411:
4311:
4250:
3951:
2680:
are significantly higher than what is practiced in laboratory settings. Using index
1371:
thorough treatment of allopatric speciation (and speciation research in general) is
1326:
11760:
11276:
10843:
10821:
10629:
10289:
10250:
10037:
10029:
9999:
9991:
9952:
9916:
9863:
9855:
9817:
9775:
9747:
9713:
9663:
9623:
9568:
9540:
9449:
9404:
9353:
9309:
9263:
9213:
9179:
9145:
9111:
9042:
8996:
8950:
8908:
8878:
8858:
8802:
8746:
8690:
8654:
8644:
8598:
8585:
L. Ehrman (1969), "Genetic divergence in M. Vetukhiv's experimental populations of
8566:
8553:
L. Ehrman (1964), "Genetic divergence in M. Vetukhiv's experimental populations of
8534:
8494:
8484:
8430:
8392:
8358:
8324:
8290:
8256:
8231:
8211:
8161:
8119:
8071:
8061:
8021:
8013:
7975:
7931:
7922:
Ellen E. Hostert (1997), "Reinforcement: a new perspective on an old controversy",
7895:
7855:
7815:
7750:
7704:
7658:
7618:
7602:
7554:
7508:
7449:
7441:
7393:
7350:
7342:
7286:
7247:
7198:
7155:
7147:
7083:
7029:
6932:
6898:
6859:
6823:
6815:
6767:
6759:
6712:
6668:
6650:
6624:
6580:
6570:
6525:
6474:
6433:
6423:
6405:
6373:
6329:
6319:
6268:
6214:
6174:
6164:
6128:
6118:
6076:
6048:
5997:
5975:
5955:
5906:
5862:
5854:
5804:
5759:
5734:
5714:
5660:
5640:
5610:
5590:
5540:
5469:
5461:
5416:
5396:
5331:
5294:
5258:
5248:
5179:
5137:
5100:
5056:
5048:
5018:
4996:
4959:
4925:
4880:
4838:
4789:
4779:
4729:
4693:
4685:
4649:
4639:
4597:
4561:
4514:
4494:
4429:
4383:
4342:
4291:
4238:
4221:(2009), "Inverting the null-hypothesis of speciation: a marine snail perspective",
4201:
4156:
4119:
4107:
4065:
4002:
3931:
3793:
3777:
3706:
3658:
recognized a true geographical-based model of speciation in his publication of the
2222:
2152:
2140:
2127:
1931:
1841:
1575:
1250:
1216:
1201:
1105:
1104:
and postzygotic isolation with respect to the effects of genetic drift, selection,
1016:
874:
289:
11121:
9995:
8520:
8123:
3966:
Populations, Species, and Evolution: An Abridgment of Animal Species and Evolution
3702:
in 1937 where he formulated the genetic framework for how speciation could occur.
1151:
780:
11637:
11261:
11088:
11077:
11031:
10974:
10923:
10703:
10507:
10370:
10212:
10144:
10033:
8933:
Seymour Kessler (1966), "Selection For and Against Ethological Isolation Between
7151:
7033:
6428:
4950:
Jennifer K. Frey (1993), "Modes of Peripheral Isolate Formation and Speciation",
3754:
3645:
speciation as it focused primarily on small geographically isolated populations.
2742:
2051:
2026:
1883:
1662:
1625:
1579:
1535:
1131:
838:
806:
755:
743:
242:
232:
94:
10058:
Masatoshi Nei (1976), "Mathematical Models of Speciation and Genetic Distance",
8066:
8017:
7445:
7346:
6902:
5623:
Brent C. Emerson; Niclas Kolm (2005), "Species diversity can drive speciation",
5363:
5285:
Guy L. Bush (1994), "Sympatric speciation in animals: new wine in old bottles",
4689:
4147:
Sara Via (2001), "Sympatric speciation in animals: the ugly duckling grows up",
793:
11477:
11349:
11291:
10651:
10646:
10584:
10562:
10378:
10202:
9821:
9738:
Robert M. Zink (2012), "The Geography of Speciation: Case Studies from Birds",
9408:
8382:
7109:
Species taxa of North American birds: a contribution to comparative systematics
5858:
4552:
Mohamed A. F. Noor (1999), "Reinforcement and other consequences of sympatry",
4332:
3769:
3655:
3642:
3317:
2164:
2160:
2084:
1992:
1793:
1597:
1437:
1276:
826:
324:
227:
9752:
9453:
8891:
Karl F. Koopman (1950), "Natural Selection for Reproductive Isolation Between
8571:
7900:
7860:
6936:
4963:
4784:
4274:
Kerstin Johannesson (2010), "Are we analyzing speciation without prejudice?",
4242:
42:
11749:
11679:
11557:
11516:
11362:
11116:
10784:
10779:
10382:
9135:
7311:
6300:
6169:
3789:
3738:
1968:
1523:
1332:
1171:
1109:
1089:
866:
699:
475:
147:
9438:"Why was Darwin's view of species rejected by twentieth century biologists?"
8521:
Alice Kalisz de Oliveira; Antonio Rodrigues Cordeiro (1980), "Adaptation of
7540:
6716:
6575:
6530:
6324:
6123:
6024:
Carina Hoorn; Volker Mosbrugger; Andreas Mulch; Alexandre Antonelli (2013),
5253:
4588:
Christopher J. Wills (1977), "A Mechanism for Rapid Allopatric Speciation",
4006:
1188:
provide the strongest empirical evidence that peripatric speciation occurs.
11674:
11622:
11567:
11400:
11395:
10989:
10747:
10216:
10165:
10160:
9979:
9972:
9928:
9877:
9843:
9842:
Taylor Edwards; Marc Tollis; PingHsun Hsieh; Ryan N. Gutenkunst; Zhen Liu;
9829:
9795:
9675:
9517:
9416:
9323:
9283:
9233:
9054:
9016:
8970:
8870:
8824:
8768:
8712:
8450:
8223:
8181:
8131:
8035:
7945:
7670:
7568:
7528:
7463:
7407:
7381:
7364:
7218:
7041:
6910:
6871:
6863:
6837:
6819:
6763:
6682:
6638:
6594:
6539:
6486:
6447:
6385:
6343:
6280:
6246:
6226:
6188:
6142:
6011:
5967:
5920:
5876:
5816:
5771:
5726:
5652:
5602:
5552:
5408:
5351:
5306:
5272:
5149:
5070:
5010:
4850:
4819:
Sergey Gavrilets; et al. (2000), "Patterns of Parapatric Speciation",
4803:
4749:
4707:
4644:
4575:
4566:
4506:
4403:
4354:
4303:
4168:
4077:
3943:
3885:
3785:
3223:
2185:
2099:
1962:
1566:
1502:
1441:
1376:
1205:
1127:
735:
495:
480:
264:
259:
177:
10051:
10013:
8668:
8649:
8508:
8489:
7909:
7869:
7632:
7310:
7169:
6724:
4986:
4663:
11701:
11572:
11301:
10836:
10666:
10572:
10530:
8789:
Galiana, A.; Moya, A.; Ayala, F. J. (1993), "Founder-flush speciation in
8201:
8151:
8085:
7762:
7716:
7377:
6202:
6066:
6002:
3881:
2120:
2013:
1853:
1805:
1561:
1394:
1372:
1242:
1185:
1065:
830:
505:
222:
172:
11141:
8539:
7095:
5959:
5644:
5594:
4498:
3683:
Systematics and the Origin of Species, from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist
1076:, under which most definitions is the completion of a speciation event.
11562:
11463:
11385:
11372:
11006:
10806:
10693:
10671:
10624:
10619:
10567:
10535:
10450:
10301:
10240:
10155:
10098:
9964:
9787:
9275:
9225:
9115:
9008:
8962:
8920:
8816:
8760:
8704:
8610:
8442:
8244:
8173:
7987:
7754:
7708:
7614:
7520:
7329:
H. D. Stalker (1942), "Sexual isolation studies in the species complex
7298:
7210:
6506:
6218:
5343:
5321:
5193:
5061:
4908:
John C. Briggs (2000), "Centrifugal speciation and centres of origin",
4741:
4395:
4205:
3638:
3116:
3012:
2732:
2661:
2240:
2180:
2055:
1847:
1466:
representing assemblages of allopatrically distributed species groups.
1452:
1367:
1272:
1262:
854:
842:
818:
764:
676:
279:
202:
157:
137:
51:
9859:
8247:(1971), "Natural selection and the origin of reproductive isolation",
6673:
6629:
5911:
5544:
5474:
5465:
2699:
experiments withinâa resolution of which this table does not reflect.
11696:
11547:
11156:
10774:
10522:
10019:
8416:
8048:
Markow, T. A. (1975), "A genetic analysis of phototactic behavior in
7965:
7087:
6849:
6053:
5718:
5400:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4177:
3544:
3102:
2205:
2197:
2193:
2103:
2079:
2074:
1901:
1829:
1781:
1764:
1556:
1545:
1540:
1531:
1478:
1474:
1020:
885:
862:
850:
707:
680:
538:
152:
72:
9956:
9779:
9384:
9267:
9000:
8954:
8912:
8602:
8434:
7979:
7606:
7512:
7494:
7290:
7202:
6464:
5335:
5184:
4733:
1064:
hybrids. Traits of the hybrids drive individuals to discriminate in
11599:
10801:
9667:
9573:
9545:
9183:
9149:
9046:
8862:
8396:
8362:
8328:
8294:
8260:
8215:
5763:
4884:
4601:
4069:
3760:
3571:
3481:
3016:
2787:
2654:
2132:
1937:
1666:
1583:
1433:
1336:
1267:
1254:
858:
748:
739:
703:
691:
528:
127:
9911:
9074:
7882:
Forbes W. Robertson (1966), "The ecological genetics of growth in
7783:
B. Wallace (1953), "Genetic divergence of isolated populations of
5231:
Sara Via (2009), "Natural selection in action during speciation",
4174:
3671:
2184:
may be a superspecies that arose by the refugia hypothesis in the
16:
Speciation that occurs between geographically isolated populations
10984:
10698:
10305:
10140:
8732:
7476:
B. Burnet; K. Connolly (1974), "Activity and sexual behaviour in
5749:
4621:
3781:
3106:
2378:{\displaystyle Y={{\sqrt {(AD/BC)}}-1 \over {\sqrt {(AD/BC)+1}}}}
2231:
2171:
1919:
1527:
1486:
1482:
822:
814:
7588:
7276:
5888:
5794:
4097:
1554:
species complex. Uplift has also driven vicariant speciation in
8788:
7741:. II. Test for reproductive isolation between selected lines",
6200:
5696:
4373:
3796:
3633:
was the first to propose the concept of which he used the term
2964:
2235:
2226:
A simplification of an experiment where two vicariant lines of
2109:
1997:
1643:
1490:
1180:
1101:
584:
7999:
7012:
JĂŒrgen Haffer (1969), "Speciation in Amazonian Forest Birds",
3776:
or the environmentally-mediated speciation taking place among
10905:
10067:
9695:
9253:
9169:
7134:
J. R. Powell; M. Andjelkovic (1983), "Population genetics of
6843:
1877:
1760:
1571:
1258:
884:
Allopatric speciation can be represented as the extreme on a
802:
9343:
7384:(1997), ""Patterns of Speciation in Drosophila" Revisited",
7237:
1759:
Glaciation and subsequent retreat caused speciation in many
9921:
10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[1085:teopia]2.0.co;2
9896:
9203:
7842:
Forbes W. Robertson (1966), "A test of sexual isolation in
7789:
Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Genetics
7736:
7690:
6805:
6789:(ed. D. Howard & S. Berlocher). Oxford University Press
5809:
10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[1489:tpoarn]2.0.co;2
5622:
5378:
5364:
Robert J. Whittaker; JosĂ© MarĂa FernĂĄndez-Palacios (2007),
3122:
2196:, comprising 66 percent of all bird species in the region.
9531:
David Starr Jordan (1908), "The Law of Geminate Species",
7376:
7133:
6749:
5836:
5522:
3922:
Richard G. Harrison (2012), "The Language of Speciation",
8462:
6355:
5366:
Island Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation
4843:
10.1554/0014-3820(2000)054[1126:pops]2.0.co;2
2175:
flatworms in Europe, Asia, and the Mediterranean regions.
1455:
appear to have speciated predominately in allopatric and
792:
The notion of vicariant evolution was first developed by
9942:
8589:. 5. A further study of rudiments of sexual isolation",
7427:
6100:
5317:
5315:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4320:
784:
A population becomes separated by a geographic barrier;
9765:
7053:
6949:
3193:
1632:
Geological evidence supports the final closure of the
873:. Furthermore, a species' proclivity to remain in its
5312:
4317:
2635:
2615:
2595:
2575:
2555:
2531:
2511:
2487:
2467:
2392:
2296:
2274:
2254:
970:
940:
920:
894:
7475:
7077:
6745:
6743:
6741:
6069:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
5677:, Roberts and Company Publishers, pp. 141â155,
4587:
4100:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
3997:
Howard, Daniel J. (2003). "Speciation: Allopatric".
3917:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3909:
7881:
7841:
7316:
Discrete Multivariate Analysis: Theory and Practice
7124:. Trustees of the British museum (Natural history).
6801:
6799:
6797:
6795:
5170:Hobart M. Smith (1965), "More Evolutionary Terms",
5030:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4273:
4217:
3921:
1582:even caused vicariant speciation and radiations of
1501:used to explain the high rates of diversity in the
9807:
9614:James Mallet (2001), "The speciation revolution",
9530:
9382:
8982:
7644:
5745:
5743:
4871:W. L. Brown Jr. (1957), "Centrifugal speciation",
4719:
4551:
4531:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 232.
4269:
4267:
4265:
4263:
4261:
4259:
3617:
2641:
2621:
2601:
2581:
2561:
2537:
2517:
2493:
2473:
2451:
2377:
2280:
2260:
988:
952:
926:
906:
8680:
8622:
7233:
7231:
7229:
7227:
7122:An atlas of speciation in African passerine birds
6738:
5790:
5788:
5503:, Roberts and Company Publishers, pp. 1â64,
4761:
3906:
2653:(of zero) means the populations are experiencing
686:Various geographic changes can arise such as the
11747:
9558:
8525:experimental populations to extreme pH medium",
7921:
7272:
7270:
7184:
6792:
5210:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 280.
4949:
4818:
4360:
4131:
663: 'fatherland') – also referred to as
9648:
9646:
8932:
8890:
8629:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6460:
6458:
6456:
5740:
5169:
4870:
4676:Sewall Wright (1943), "Isolation by distance",
4256:
2004:). The blue shading indicates the range of the
1291:
825:); the formation of rivers or bodies of water;
9892:Mathematical models of reproductive isolation
9737:
9609:
9607:
9591:, Harvard University Press, pp. 561â566,
9431:
9429:
9427:
9425:
9378:
9376:
9295:
8987:. I Interactions Between the Selected Forms",
7224:
6983:, Harvard University Press, pp. 488â515,
6923:Amadon D. (1966). "The superspecies concept".
6694:
5785:
5431:
5429:
5427:
5425:
4907:
4470:
4194:Reviews in Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine
2629:is the second population. A negative value of
934:equals the rate of gene exchange. In sympatry
694:changes as they become subjected to different
10466:
10083:
10057:
8844:
8097:
8047:
7328:
7267:
7011:
5494:
5492:
5490:
5488:
5486:
5484:
5090:
4675:
4055:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3844:
3842:
3840:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3792:advances have allowed for large scale, multi-
3125:height, clumped egg laying, general activity
1249:found evidence that species in the subfamily
821:changes such as: the formation of mountains (
623:
9978:
9643:
9613:
9435:
9097:
9028:
7805:
6453:
6201:Shunping He; Wenxuan Cao; Yiyu Chen (2001),
5672:
5666:
5498:
4814:
4812:
4134:Fitness landscapes and the origin of species
4033:. Caracas: Published by the author, 2755 pp.
3830:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3816:
3814:
3812:
2703:Laboratory studies of allopatric speciation
1956:As a special case of allopatric speciation,
1079:Research has well established the fact that
788:develops, resulting in two separate species.
9604:
9503:
9477:. Columbia University Press, New York. p148
9422:
9373:
7180:
7178:
6974:
6972:
6970:
6916:
5422:
5284:
4046:. Caracas: Published by the author. p. 676.
4044:Space, Time, Form: The Biological Synthesis
1996:The red shading indicates the range of the
1661:, each pair divided across the isthmus and
1112:and colleagues were the first to develop a
809:, is split into discontinuous populations (
10473:
10459:
10090:
10076:
9586:
8348:
8314:
8280:
8243:
7782:
7314:; Fienberg, S. E.; Holland, P. W. (1975),
6978:
6606:
5481:
4982:
4980:
4276:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
3963:
630:
616:
10041:
10003:
9910:
9867:
9751:
9627:
9572:
9544:
9385:"The Origin of Species Through Isolation"
9357:
9313:
8806:
8750:
8694:
8658:
8648:
8584:
8570:
8552:
8538:
8498:
8488:
8075:
8065:
8025:
7935:
7899:
7859:
7819:
7622:
7558:
7453:
7397:
7354:
7251:
7159:
7120:Hall, B. P., & Moreau, R. E. (1970).
6922:
6827:
6771:
6672:
6628:
6584:
6574:
6529:
6437:
6427:
6333:
6323:
6178:
6168:
6132:
6122:
6052:
6001:
5910:
5866:
5473:
5262:
5252:
5183:
5104:
5093:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
5060:
5000:
4903:
4901:
4832:
4809:
4793:
4783:
4697:
4653:
4643:
4565:
4423:
3992:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3968:, Harvard University Press, p. 279,
3809:
2452:{\displaystyle I={A+D-B-C \over A+D+B+C}}
1310:
1261:. A sympatrically distributed triplet of
1000:
758:, defining isolating barriers, measuring
11707:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
10480:
7175:
7058:, Oxford University Press, p. 127,
6967:
6954:, Oxford University Press, p. 143,
6207:Science in China Series C: Life Sciences
5230:
4146:
4136:, Princeton University Press, p. 13
4112:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102803.095431
3880:
3670:
2221:
1991:
1651:Studies of snapping shrimp in the genus
1615:
1511:
1215:
1150:
1108:, or various combinations of the three.
1086:evidence for speciation by reinforcement
1041:
779:
6877:
4977:
4417:
3686:and in his subsequent 1963 publication
2070:monarchs and their related subspecies).
2016:) and have no habitat in common. Other
11748:
9486:
4898:
4755:
4526:
4520:
4424:Hvala, John A.; Wood, Troy E. (2012).
3996:
3981:
3892:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 1â545.
3713:; however, it is thought that Wagner,
2211:
2130:in the mountains of New Guinea (genus
1253:have microallopatrically speciated on
1095:
1060:, individuals reproduce, creating low-
11470:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
10454:
10071:
7107:Mayr, E., & Short, L. L. (1970).
6891:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
6787:Endless forms: species and speciation
6081:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102710-145113
6026:"Biodiversity from mountain building"
5368:(2 ed.), Oxford University Press
5205:
1317:Peripatric speciation § Evidence
738:to describe the relationship between
10409:
5936:"The drivers of tropical speciation"
3637:. His idea was later interpreted by
2218:Laboratory experiments of speciation
1611:
1339:; separated largely by major rivers.
10433:
5990:Integrative and Comparative Biology
4529:Natural Hybridization and Evolution
4434:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001709.pub3
2178:Dichromatic toucanets of the genus
2054:; a complex of several species and
1763:birds, such as with North American
1570:woodcreepers in the South American
1074:reproductive character displacement
775:
13:
10875:Evolutionary developmental biology
9886:
9315:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1969.tb03539.x
9218:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04404.x
8808:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02104.x
8752:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1985.tb05704.x
8696:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1978.tb04589.x
8166:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1998.tb02263.x
7937:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb03653.x
7821:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1956.tb02825.x
7663:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1974.tb00795.x
7399:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb02412.x
7054:Ernst Mayr; Jared Diamond (2001),
6950:Ernst Mayr; Jared Diamond (2001),
5106:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb01554.x
4388:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb01257.x
3699:Genetics and the Origin of Species
2098:Sixty-six subspecies in the genus
1432:Islands are often home to species
1408:reproductive isolation by distance
1211:
841:); or island formation, including
829:; the formation or elimination of
14:
11782:
9740:Evolution: Education and Outreach
9506:Studies in the History of Biology
9475:Systematics and origin of species
5287:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4335:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4149:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3654:Controversy exists as to whether
3096:, development speed, wing width;
11729:
11720:
11719:
10432:
10420:
10408:
10397:
10396:
9835:
9801:
9759:
9731:
9718:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01971.x
9689:
9629:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00342.x
9589:The Growth of Biological Thought
9580:
9552:
9524:
9497:
9480:
9467:
9359:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00378.x
9337:
9289:
9247:
9197:
9163:
9129:
9091:
9068:
9022:
8976:
8926:
8884:
8838:
8782:
8726:
8674:
8616:
8578:
8546:
8514:
8456:
8410:
8376:
8342:
8308:
8274:
8237:
8195:
8145:
8091:
8041:
7993:
7959:
7915:
7875:
7560:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00505.x
7253:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00356.x
6808:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
6479:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00566.x
6378:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05294.x
6273:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05411.x
5142:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04296.x
5053:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01537.x
5002:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01611.x
4930:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00459.x
4296:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05701.x
3936:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01785.x
2124:tree creeper birds in Australia.
1346:
1325:
1031:
597:
596:
583:
41:
11532:Extended evolutionary synthesis
10721:Gene-centered view of evolution
10060:Population Genetics and Ecology
9616:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
9346:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
7835:
7799:
7776:
7730:
7684:
7638:
7582:
7547:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
7534:
7488:
7469:
7421:
7370:
7322:
7304:
7240:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
7127:
7114:
7101:
7071:
7056:The Birds of Northern Melanesia
7047:
7005:
6996:
6952:The Birds of Northern Melanesia
6943:
6779:
6688:
6644:
6600:
6545:
6500:
6399:
6349:
6294:
6240:
6194:
6148:
6094:
6060:
6017:
5981:
5926:
5882:
5830:
5690:
5616:
5566:
5516:
5446:Global Ecology and Biogeography
5372:
5357:
5278:
5224:
5199:
5163:
5112:
5084:
5024:
4989:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
4943:
4864:
4713:
4669:
4615:
4581:
4545:
4211:
4140:
3618:History and research techniques
2139:Red-shafted and yellow-shafted
1987:
1137:
1023:, reproduction will occur, but
879:phylogenetic niche conservatism
590:Evolutionary biology portal
11660:Hologenome theory of evolution
11527:History of molecular evolution
10753:Evolutionarily stable strategy
10642:Last universal common ancestor
10097:
7886:8. Adaptation to a New Diet",
4125:
4091:
4049:
4036:
4023:
3957:
3784:), and statistical testing of
2362:
2342:
2328:
2308:
1544:ferns; glyptosternoid fishes (
1425:Elevational diversity gradient
1353:A cladogram of species in the
1191:
706:in the separated populations'
549:Creationâevolution controversy
303:History of evolutionary theory
1:
11454:Renaissance and Enlightenment
8793:: a large scale experiment",
8124:10.1126/science.213.4514.1405
4347:10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02177-2
4161:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02188-7
3999:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
3803:
3719:modern evolutionary synthesis
2020:subspecies are shown as well.
1972:) spruce or the prairie dogs
1779:); the warblers in the genus
1628:that resulted in the closure.
1245:separated only by 35 meters.
1146:
989:{\displaystyle 0<m<0.5}
857:divergence as: (a) different
11665:Missing heritability problem
11292:Gamete differentiation/sexes
7034:10.1126/science.165.3889.131
6981:Animal Species and Evolution
6429:10.1371/journal.pone.0042135
5299:10.1016/0169-5347(94)90031-0
3768:(such as in the case of the
3689:Animal Species and Evolution
2089:black-throated green warbler
1845:now classified in the genus
1292:Modes with secondary contact
1021:chromosome duplication event
534:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
10427:Evolutionary biology Portal
9996:10.1093/genetics/139.4.1805
9383:David Starr Jordan (1905),
9081:Proc. Hawaii. Entomol. Soc.
8591:American Midland Naturalist
7318:, MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.
6903:10.1016/j.ympev.2015.08.027
4873:Quarterly Review of Biology
2834:17, 9, 9, 1, 1, 7, 7, 7, 7
2503:matings in heterogameticity
1639:American biotic interchange
1414:
702:, and accumulate different
10:
11787:
11297:Life cycles/nuclear phases
10849:TriversâWillard hypothesis
10034:10.1093/genetics/103.3.557
9822:10.1016/j.gene.2009.05.006
9409:10.1126/science.22.566.545
7695:. I. Selection response",
7152:10.1093/genetics/103.4.675
6852:American Journal of Botany
5859:10.1038/s41598-018-20596-7
3766:ecological niche modelling
3753:within geographic ranges.
3621:
2815:600 (25 years, +15 years)
2730:
2215:
1747:
1560:daisies in South Africa's
1418:
1314:
1295:
1158:
1123:Fisherian sexual selection
1038:Reinforcement (speciation)
1035:
1004:
671:, or its earlier name the
656: 'other' and
569:Nature-nurture controversy
18:
11715:
11615:
11540:
11444:
11371:
11327:
11182:
11086:
10903:
10862:
10795:Parentâoffspring conflict
10731:
10600:Earliest known life forms
10521:
10488:
10392:
10339:
10288:
10231:
10179:
10133:
10105:
9753:10.1007/s12052-012-0411-4
9454:10.1007/s10539-010-9213-7
8572:10.1017/s0016672300001099
8067:10.1093/genetics/79.3.527
8018:10.1093/genetics/61.3.713
7901:10.1017/s0016672300010028
7861:10.1017/s001667230001003x
7482:The Genetics of Behaviour
7446:10.1093/genetics/62.3.625
7347:10.1093/genetics/27.2.238
7080:Ornithological Monographs
4785:10.1186/s12862-015-0384-3
4690:10.1093/genetics/28.2.114
4243:10.1007/s10682-007-9225-1
4132:Sergey Gavrilets (2004),
3479:
3387:
3339:
3215:
3144:
2077:and members of the genus
1231:allopatric divergence of
1222:cobalt blue zebra cichlid
456:Evolutionary neuroscience
431:Evolutionary epistemology
411:Evolutionary anthropology
391:Applications of evolution
11648:Cultural group selection
11512:The eclipse of Darwinism
11484:On the Origin of Species
11459:Transmutation of species
10270:Nonecological speciation
9490:On the Origin of Species
9487:Darwin, Charles (1859).
9442:Biology & Philosophy
8935:Drosophila pseudoobscura
8893:Drosophila pseudoobscura
8847:Drosophila pseudoobscura
8791:Drosophila pseudoobscura
8625:Drosophila pseudoobscura
8587:Drosophila pseudoobscura
8555:Drosophila pseudoobscura
7187:Drosophila pseudoobscura
6304:BMC Evolutionary Biology
6170:10.1186/1471-2229-12-210
4764:BMC Evolutionary Biology
4426:Speciation: Introduction
3711:Robert Greenleaf Leavitt
2714:~Generations (duration)
2501:represent the number of
1499:river barrier hypothesis
1234:Pseudotropheus callainos
747:distribution opposed to
446:Evolutionary linguistics
441:Evolutionary game theory
416:Evolutionary computation
19:Not to be confused with
11653:Dual inheritance theory
11492:History of paleontology
9698:Journal of Biogeography
9172:The American Naturalist
9138:The American Naturalist
8385:The American Naturalist
8050:Drosophila melanogaster
8002:Drosophila melanogaster
7785:Drosophila melanogaster
7739:Drosophila melanogaster
7693:Drosophila melanogaster
7647:Drosophila melanogaster
7591:Drosophila melanogaster
7543:Drosophila melanogaster
7497:Drosophila melanogaster
7478:Drosophila melanogaster
7430:Drosophila melanogaster
7279:The American Naturalist
6937:10.2307/sysbio/15.3.245
6717:10.1126/science.8503007
6576:10.1073/pnas.1423853112
6531:10.1126/science.aaa2815
6325:10.1186/1471-2148-14-27
6124:10.1073/pnas.1616063114
5254:10.1073/pnas.0901397106
4964:10.1093/sysbio/42.3.373
4910:Journal of Biogeography
4590:The American Naturalist
4007:10.1038/npg.els.0001748
3735:vicariance biogeography
3372:4 experiments, 18 each
3246:Temperature adaptation
2948:8 experiments, 25 each
2929:3 experiments, 25 each
2723:Reproductive isolation
2149:rose-breasted grosbeaks
1740:Excirolana braziliensis
1536:QinghaiâTibetan Plateau
1438:sharing common ancestry
559:Objections to evolution
466:Evolutionary psychology
461:Evolutionary physiology
406:Evolutionary aesthetics
385:Fields and applications
367:History of paleontology
11341:Punctuated equilibrium
10662:Non-adaptive radiation
10610:Evolutionary arms race
10375:Punctuated equilibrium
10331:Character displacement
10151:Reproductive isolation
10120:Laboratory experiments
9493:. Murray. p. 347.
8465:Drosophila paulistorum
8419:Drosophila paulistorum
6864:10.3732/ajb.90.12.1801
6820:10.1098/rspb.2004.2803
6764:10.1098/rspb.1998.0568
5239:(Suppl 1): 9939â9946,
4645:10.1073/pnas.95.9.5106
4567:10.1038/sj.hdy.6886320
3676:
3649:Edward Bagnall Poulton
3099:desiccation resistance
2643:
2623:
2603:
2589:is one population and
2583:
2563:
2539:
2519:
2495:
2475:
2453:
2379:
2282:
2262:
2244:
2145:black-headed grosbeaks
2021:
1629:
1564:mountains, along with
1518:
1395:zones of hybridization
1311:Observational evidence
1224:
1197:Centrifugal speciation
1156:
1048:
1007:Reproductive isolation
1001:Reproductive isolation
990:
954:
928:
908:
871:reproductive isolation
835:movement of continents
811:disjunct distributions
789:
786:reproductive isolation
760:reproductive isolation
712:reproductive isolation
688:movement of continents
491:Speciation experiments
471:Experimental evolution
426:Evolutionary economics
248:Recent human evolution
106:Processes and outcomes
21:allochronic speciation
11633:Evolutionary medicine
11507:Mendelian inheritance
11215:Biological complexity
11203:Programmed cell death
10895:Phenotypic plasticity
10615:Evolutionary pressure
10605:Evidence of evolution
10503:Timeline of evolution
10256:Ecological speciation
10171:Evidence of evolution
9848:Ecology and Evolution
9436:James Mallet (2010),
9100:Drosophila silvestris
9031:Drosophila mojavensis
8985:Drosophila mojavensis
8939:Drosophila persimilis
8897:Drosophila persimilis
8650:10.1073/pnas.56.2.484
8523:Drosophila willistoni
8490:10.1073/pnas.55.4.727
6752:Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B
5673:Trevor Price (2008),
5499:Trevor Price (2008),
5208:Ecological Speciation
4527:Arnold, M.L. (1996).
3694:Theodosius Dobzhansky
3674:
3624:History of speciation
3545:Bactrocera cucurbitae
3341:D.pseudoobscura &
3264:Phototaxis, geotaxis
2726:Year & Reference
2644:
2624:
2604:
2584:
2564:
2540:
2520:
2496:
2476:
2454:
2380:
2283:
2263:
2230:were raised on harsh
2225:
1995:
1958:peripatric speciation
1860:P. (i.) unalaschensis
1716:Bathygobius soporator
1698:Echinometra vanbrunti
1619:
1606:ecological speciation
1515:
1298:Ecological speciation
1219:
1161:Peripatric speciation
1154:
1045:
991:
962:parapatric speciation
960:(panmixis), while in
955:
953:{\displaystyle m=0.5}
929:
909:
847:habitat fragmentation
783:
720:peripatric speciation
675:– is a mode of
665:geographic speciation
643:Allopatric speciation
451:Evolutionary medicine
396:Biosocial criminology
362:History of speciation
275:Evolutionary taxonomy
238:Timeline of evolution
11766:Evolutionary biology
11607:Teleology in biology
11502:Blending inheritance
10880:Genetic assimilation
10743:Artificial selection
10482:Evolutionary biology
9077:Drosophila Adiastola
4223:Evolutionary Ecology
3202:Indirect; divergent
3081:1971 1973 1979 1983
2795:Indirect; divergent
2772:Indirect; divergent
2750:Indirect; divergent
2633:
2613:
2593:
2573:
2553:
2529:
2509:
2485:
2465:
2390:
2294:
2272:
2252:
1692:Echinometra lucunter
1421:Insular biogeography
1379:'s 2004 publication
1257:and its surrounding
1053:sympatric speciation
968:
938:
918:
892:
716:population dispersal
669:vicariant speciation
421:Evolutionary ecology
35:Evolutionary biology
11670:Molecular evolution
11628:Ecological genetics
11497:Transitional fossil
11287:Sexual reproduction
11127:endomembrane system
11056:pollinator-mediated
11012:dolphins and whales
10790:Parental investment
10260:Parallel speciation
9710:2009JBiog..36.1234Y
9587:Ernst Mayr (1982),
9561:American Naturalist
9533:American Naturalist
9401:1905Sci....22..545S
9035:American Naturalist
8641:1966PNAS...56..484D
8540:10.1038/hdy.1980.11
8481:1966PNAS...55..727D
8351:American Naturalist
8317:American Naturalist
8283:American Naturalist
8249:American Naturalist
8204:American Naturalist
8116:1981Sci...213.1405M
8110:(4514): 1405â1407,
7026:1969Sci...165..131H
6979:Ernst Mayr (1963),
6814:(1551): 1881â1887,
6758:(1412): 2257â2263,
6709:1993Sci...260.1629K
6703:(5114): 1629â1632,
6665:2017MolEc..26..859W
6621:2017MolEc..26..703B
6567:2015PNAS..112.6110B
6522:2015Sci...348..226M
6420:2012PLoSO...742135G
6370:2011MolEc..20.4550W
6316:2014BMCEE..14...27B
6265:2012MolEc..21..960Z
6115:2017PNAS..114E3444X
6045:2013NatGe...6..154H
5960:10.1038/nature13687
5952:2014Natur.515..406S
5903:2020MolEc..29.2129N
5851:2018NatSR...8.2294S
5711:2000Natur.408..847L
5675:Speciation in Birds
5645:10.1038/nature03450
5637:2005Natur.434.1015E
5631:(7036): 1015â1017,
5595:10.1038/nature04308
5587:2005Natur.438E...1C
5537:2009Ecol...90...39C
5501:Speciation in Birds
5458:2016GloEB..25.1097S
5393:2000Natur.407..180Q
5324:American Naturalist
5245:2009PNAS..106.9939V
5134:2009MolEc..18.3683G
5045:2002MolEc..11.1585R
4922:2000JBiog..27.1183B
4776:2015BMCEE..15..128L
4636:1998PNAS...95.5106P
4499:10.1038/nature04004
4491:2005Natur.437.1353H
4485:(7063): 1353â1356,
4288:2010NYASA1206..143J
4235:2009EvEco..23....5J
4219:Kerstin Johannesson
3964:Ernst Mayr (1970),
3115:, re-mating speed,
2704:
2674:rates of speciation
2670:genetic hitchhiking
2547:homogametic matings
2212:Laboratory evidence
2048:Monarch flycatchers
2042:Eastern meadowlarks
1866:P. (i.) megarhyncha
1722:Bathygobius ramosus
1705:Echinometra viridis
1239:Maylandia callainos
1096:Mathematical models
1047:speciation process.
1013:divergent selection
907:{\displaystyle m=0}
696:selective pressures
523:Social implications
511:Universal Darwinism
501:Island biogeography
436:Evolutionary ethics
401:Ecological genetics
347:Molecular evolution
285:Transitional fossil
113:Population genetics
29:Part of a series on
11643:Cultural evolution
10758:Fisher's principle
10687:Handicap principle
10677:Parallel evolution
10541:Adaptive radiation
10340:Speciation in taxa
10275:Assortative mating
9473:Mayr, Ernst 1942.
9116:10.1007/BF02003975
8559:Genetical Research
7888:Genetical Research
7848:Genetical Research
7755:10.1007/BF01067351
7709:10.1007/BF01067350
7331:Drosophila virilis
6925:Systematic Biology
6219:10.1007/bf02879359
6003:10.1093/icb/icj003
5839:Scientific Reports
5206:Nosil, P. (2012).
5172:Systematic Biology
4952:Systematic Biology
4206:10.1002/3527600906
4042:Croizat L (1964).
3774:Audubon's warblers
3677:
3675:Ernst Mayr in 1994
3666:David Starr Jordan
3635:Separationstheorie
3582:Direct; divergent
3513:Direct; divergent
3357:Direct; divergent
3094:Scutellar bristles
3073:Direct; divergent
2910:Direct; divergent
2892:Direct; divergent
2874:Direct; divergent
2855:Direct; divergent
2837:Direct, divergent
2702:
2639:
2619:
2599:
2579:
2559:
2535:
2515:
2491:
2471:
2449:
2375:
2278:
2258:
2245:
2202:Sub-Saharan Africa
2093:Townsend's warbler
2022:
1902:tyrant flycatchers
1872:P. (i.) schistacea
1743:and variant morphs
1733:Bathygobius andrei
1679:Diadema antillarum
1630:
1590:Adaptive radiation
1586:in North America.
1534:mountains and the
1519:
1273:living in aquifers
1225:
1157:
1049:
986:
950:
924:
904:
790:
734:are often used in
554:Theistic evolution
486:Selective breeding
198:Parallel evolution
163:Adaptive radiation
11743:
11742:
11359:Uniformitarianism
11312:Sex-determination
10817:Sexual dimorphism
10812:Natural selection
10716:Unit of selection
10682:Signalling theory
10448:
10447:
10326:Secondary contact
10298:Hybrid speciation
10246:Natural selection
10233:Isolating factors
9860:10.1002/ece3.1865
8857:(11): 2557â2565,
7743:Behavior Genetics
7697:Behavior Genetics
7065:978-0-19-514170-2
7020:(3889): 131â137,
6961:978-0-19-514170-2
6897:(Pt A): 171â181,
6887:Cynomys mexicanus
6858:(12): 1801â1806,
6674:10.1111/mec.13846
6653:Molecular Ecology
6630:10.1111/mec.13981
6609:Molecular Ecology
6516:(6231): 226â229,
6364:(21): 4550â4563,
6358:Molecular Ecology
6253:Molecular Ecology
6249:Rana chensinensis
6157:BMC Plant Biology
6109:(17): 3444â3451,
6033:Nature Geoscience
5946:(7527): 406â409,
5912:10.1111/mec.15465
5897:(12): 2129â2132,
5891:Molecular Ecology
5758:(10): 2185â2200,
5705:(6814): 847â850,
5684:978-0-9747077-8-5
5545:10.1890/08-1520.1
5510:978-0-9747077-8-5
5466:10.1111/geb.12469
5387:(6801): 180â182,
5128:(17): 3683â3698,
5122:Molecular Ecology
5033:Molecular Ecology
4538:978-0-19-509975-1
4029:Croizat L (1958).
3930:(12): 3643â3657,
3899:978-0-87893-091-3
3778:dendrobatid frogs
3751:species movements
3661:Origin of Species
3615:
3614:
3550:Development time
3413:Development time
3113:courtship display
2642:{\displaystyle Y}
2622:{\displaystyle C}
2602:{\displaystyle D}
2582:{\displaystyle B}
2562:{\displaystyle A}
2538:{\displaystyle C}
2518:{\displaystyle B}
2494:{\displaystyle D}
2474:{\displaystyle A}
2447:
2373:
2371:
2331:
2281:{\displaystyle I}
2261:{\displaystyle Y}
2157:Bullock's orioles
2153:Baltimore orioles
2128:Birds-of-paradise
2006:Common chimpanzee
1975:Cynomys mexicanus
1685:Diadema mexicanum
1634:isthmus of Panama
1622:Isthmus of Panama
1612:Isthmus of Panama
1594:Galapagos finches
1551:Rana chensinensis
1497:, not unlike the
1464:areas of endemism
1206:Indo-West Pacific
1070:hybrid speciation
1058:secondary contact
927:{\displaystyle m}
770:natural selection
640:
639:
331:Origin of Species
133:Natural selection
11778:
11733:
11723:
11722:
11522:Modern synthesis
11282:Multicellularity
11277:Mosaic evolution
11162:auditory ossicle
10844:Social selection
10827:Flowering plants
10822:Sexual selection
10475:
10468:
10461:
10452:
10451:
10436:
10435:
10424:
10412:
10411:
10400:
10399:
10251:Sexual selection
10180:Geographic modes
10092:
10085:
10078:
10069:
10068:
10063:
10054:
10045:
10016:
10007:
9990:(4): 1805â1813,
9975:
9951:(5): 1742â1749,
9939:
9914:
9905:(6): 1085â1094,
9881:
9880:
9871:
9839:
9833:
9832:
9805:
9799:
9798:
9763:
9757:
9756:
9755:
9735:
9729:
9728:
9704:(7): 1234â1252,
9693:
9687:
9686:
9662:(8): 1781â1793,
9650:
9641:
9640:
9631:
9611:
9602:
9601:
9584:
9578:
9577:
9576:
9567:(490): 653â655,
9556:
9550:
9549:
9548:
9528:
9522:
9521:
9501:
9495:
9494:
9484:
9478:
9471:
9465:
9464:
9433:
9420:
9419:
9395:(566): 545â562,
9380:
9371:
9370:
9361:
9341:
9335:
9334:
9317:
9293:
9287:
9286:
9251:
9245:
9244:
9201:
9195:
9194:
9178:(967): 353â358,
9167:
9161:
9160:
9144:(959): 117â124,
9133:
9127:
9126:
9095:
9089:
9088:
9072:
9066:
9065:
9026:
9020:
9019:
8980:
8974:
8973:
8930:
8924:
8923:
8888:
8882:
8881:
8842:
8836:
8835:
8810:
8786:
8780:
8779:
8754:
8745:(6): 1388â1392,
8730:
8724:
8723:
8698:
8678:
8672:
8671:
8662:
8652:
8620:
8614:
8613:
8582:
8576:
8575:
8574:
8550:
8544:
8543:
8542:
8518:
8512:
8511:
8502:
8492:
8460:
8454:
8453:
8414:
8408:
8407:
8380:
8374:
8373:
8346:
8340:
8339:
8312:
8306:
8305:
8289:(954): 318â319,
8278:
8272:
8271:
8255:(945): 479â483,
8241:
8235:
8234:
8199:
8193:
8192:
8160:(6): 1850â1855,
8149:
8143:
8142:
8095:
8089:
8088:
8079:
8069:
8045:
8039:
8038:
8029:
7997:
7991:
7990:
7963:
7957:
7956:
7939:
7919:
7913:
7912:
7903:
7879:
7873:
7872:
7863:
7839:
7833:
7832:
7823:
7803:
7797:
7796:
7780:
7774:
7773:
7734:
7728:
7727:
7688:
7682:
7681:
7642:
7636:
7635:
7626:
7586:
7580:
7579:
7562:
7538:
7532:
7531:
7492:
7486:
7485:
7473:
7467:
7466:
7457:
7425:
7419:
7418:
7401:
7374:
7368:
7367:
7358:
7326:
7320:
7319:
7308:
7302:
7301:
7274:
7265:
7264:
7255:
7235:
7222:
7221:
7197:(6): 1308â1311,
7182:
7173:
7172:
7163:
7131:
7125:
7118:
7112:
7105:
7099:
7098:
7088:10.2307/40168287
7075:
7069:
7068:
7051:
7045:
7044:
7009:
7003:
7000:
6994:
6993:
6976:
6965:
6964:
6947:
6941:
6940:
6920:
6914:
6913:
6881:
6875:
6874:
6847:
6841:
6840:
6831:
6803:
6790:
6783:
6777:
6776:
6775:
6747:
6736:
6735:
6692:
6686:
6685:
6676:
6648:
6642:
6641:
6632:
6604:
6598:
6597:
6588:
6578:
6561:(9): 6110â6115,
6549:
6543:
6542:
6533:
6504:
6498:
6497:
6462:
6451:
6450:
6441:
6431:
6403:
6397:
6396:
6353:
6347:
6346:
6337:
6327:
6298:
6292:
6291:
6244:
6238:
6237:
6198:
6192:
6191:
6182:
6172:
6152:
6146:
6145:
6136:
6126:
6098:
6092:
6091:
6064:
6058:
6057:
6056:
6054:10.1038/ngeo1742
6030:
6021:
6015:
6014:
6005:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5930:
5924:
5923:
5914:
5886:
5880:
5879:
5870:
5834:
5828:
5827:
5803:(7): 1489â1497,
5792:
5783:
5782:
5747:
5738:
5737:
5719:10.1038/35048558
5694:
5688:
5687:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5620:
5614:
5613:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5520:
5514:
5513:
5496:
5479:
5478:
5477:
5452:(9): 1097â1107,
5443:
5433:
5420:
5419:
5401:10.1038/35025052
5376:
5370:
5369:
5361:
5355:
5354:
5319:
5310:
5309:
5282:
5276:
5275:
5266:
5256:
5228:
5222:
5221:
5203:
5197:
5196:
5187:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5116:
5110:
5109:
5108:
5088:
5082:
5081:
5064:
5039:(8): 1585â1590,
5028:
5022:
5021:
5004:
4995:(6): 1452â1459,
4984:
4975:
4974:
4947:
4941:
4940:
4916:(5): 1183â1188,
4905:
4896:
4895:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4836:
4827:(4): 1126â1134,
4816:
4807:
4806:
4797:
4787:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4717:
4711:
4710:
4701:
4673:
4667:
4666:
4657:
4647:
4630:(9): 5106â5111,
4619:
4613:
4612:
4596:(979): 603â605,
4585:
4579:
4578:
4569:
4549:
4543:
4542:
4524:
4518:
4517:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4461:
4457:
4455:
4447:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4382:(6): 1637â1653,
4371:
4358:
4357:
4330:
4315:
4314:
4271:
4254:
4253:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4189:
4172:
4171:
4144:
4138:
4137:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4053:
4047:
4040:
4034:
4027:
4021:
4020:
3994:
3979:
3978:
3961:
3955:
3954:
3919:
3904:
3903:
3878:
3790:Biotechnological
3747:Mark V. Lomolino
3707:Joel Asaph Allen
3218:D. pseudoobscura
2705:
2701:
2691:Direct selection
2648:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2588:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2458:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2423:
2400:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2355:
2341:
2339:
2332:
2321:
2307:
2304:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2102:residing on the
2068:chestnut-bellied
1576:Laramide orogeny
1350:
1329:
1251:Cryptorhynchinae
1202:center of origin
1106:sexual selection
995:
993:
992:
987:
959:
957:
956:
951:
933:
931:
930:
925:
913:
911:
910:
905:
875:ecological niche
776:Vicariance model
756:defining species
632:
625:
618:
605:
600:
599:
592:
588:
587:
564:Level of support
357:Current research
342:Modern synthesis
337:Before synthesis
290:Extinction event
48:Darwin's finches
45:
26:
25:
11786:
11785:
11781:
11780:
11779:
11777:
11776:
11775:
11746:
11745:
11744:
11739:
11711:
11638:Group selection
11611:
11536:
11440:
11367:
11329:Tempo and modes
11323:
11178:
11082:
10899:
10858:
10734:
10727:
10704:Species complex
10517:
10508:History of life
10484:
10479:
10449:
10444:
10388:
10371:Paleopolyploidy
10335:
10290:Hybrid concepts
10284:
10227:
10175:
10145:Species complex
10129:
10101:
10096:
10066:
9957:10.2307/2410732
9889:
9887:Further reading
9884:
9840:
9836:
9806:
9802:
9780:10.2307/2410107
9764:
9760:
9736:
9732:
9694:
9690:
9651:
9644:
9612:
9605:
9599:
9585:
9581:
9557:
9553:
9529:
9525:
9502:
9498:
9485:
9481:
9472:
9468:
9434:
9423:
9381:
9374:
9342:
9338:
9294:
9290:
9268:10.2307/2640932
9252:
9248:
9202:
9198:
9168:
9164:
9134:
9130:
9096:
9092:
9073:
9069:
9027:
9023:
9001:10.2307/2408971
8981:
8977:
8955:10.2307/2406597
8931:
8927:
8913:10.2307/2405390
8889:
8885:
8843:
8839:
8787:
8783:
8731:
8727:
8679:
8675:
8621:
8617:
8603:10.2307/2423835
8583:
8579:
8551:
8547:
8519:
8515:
8461:
8457:
8435:10.2307/2407696
8415:
8411:
8381:
8377:
8347:
8343:
8313:
8309:
8279:
8275:
8242:
8238:
8200:
8196:
8150:
8146:
8096:
8092:
8046:
8042:
7998:
7994:
7980:10.2307/2405959
7964:
7960:
7920:
7916:
7880:
7876:
7840:
7836:
7804:
7800:
7781:
7777:
7735:
7731:
7689:
7685:
7643:
7639:
7607:10.2307/2407287
7587:
7583:
7539:
7535:
7513:10.2307/2408027
7493:
7489:
7474:
7470:
7426:
7422:
7375:
7371:
7327:
7323:
7309:
7305:
7291:10.2307/3078919
7275:
7268:
7236:
7225:
7203:10.2307/2409365
7183:
7176:
7132:
7128:
7119:
7115:
7106:
7102:
7082:(36): 255â304,
7076:
7072:
7066:
7052:
7048:
7010:
7006:
7001:
6997:
6991:
6977:
6968:
6962:
6948:
6944:
6921:
6917:
6882:
6878:
6848:
6844:
6804:
6793:
6784:
6780:
6748:
6739:
6693:
6689:
6649:
6645:
6605:
6601:
6550:
6546:
6505:
6501:
6463:
6454:
6404:
6400:
6354:
6350:
6299:
6295:
6245:
6241:
6199:
6195:
6153:
6149:
6099:
6095:
6065:
6061:
6028:
6022:
6018:
5986:
5982:
5931:
5927:
5887:
5883:
5835:
5831:
5793:
5786:
5748:
5741:
5695:
5691:
5685:
5671:
5667:
5621:
5617:
5581:(7064): E1âE2,
5571:
5567:
5521:
5517:
5511:
5497:
5482:
5441:
5434:
5423:
5377:
5373:
5362:
5358:
5336:10.2307/3078926
5320:
5313:
5283:
5279:
5229:
5225:
5218:
5204:
5200:
5185:10.2307/2411904
5168:
5164:
5117:
5113:
5089:
5085:
5029:
5025:
4985:
4978:
4948:
4944:
4906:
4899:
4869:
4865:
4817:
4810:
4760:
4756:
4734:10.2307/2410134
4718:
4714:
4674:
4670:
4620:
4616:
4586:
4582:
4550:
4546:
4539:
4525:
4521:
4475:
4471:
4459:
4458:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4422:
4418:
4372:
4361:
4331:
4318:
4272:
4257:
4216:
4212:
4190:
4175:
4145:
4141:
4130:
4126:
4096:
4092:
4054:
4050:
4041:
4037:
4028:
4024:
4017:
3995:
3982:
3976:
3962:
3958:
3920:
3907:
3900:
3882:Coyne, Jerry A.
3879:
3810:
3806:
3755:Molecular clock
3626:
3620:
3482:Musca domestica
2743:Escape response
2735:
2717:Selection type
2634:
2631:
2630:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2424:
2401:
2399:
2391:
2388:
2387:
2351:
2340:
2317:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2220:
2214:
2165:indigo buntings
2073:North American
2052:Solomon Islands
2050:endemic to the
2010:Pan troglodytes
1990:
1981:C. ludovicianus
1908:E. occidentalis
1842:O. philadelphia
1794:S. occidentalis
1750:
1663:molecular clock
1626:tectonic plates
1614:
1580:Late Cretaceous
1427:
1417:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1351:
1342:
1341:
1340:
1330:
1319:
1313:
1300:
1294:
1281:Hobart M. Smith
1275:of Australia's
1229:intralacustrine
1214:
1212:Microallopatric
1194:
1163:
1149:
1140:
1098:
1040:
1034:
1009:
1003:
969:
966:
965:
939:
936:
935:
919:
916:
915:
893:
890:
889:
839:tectonic plates
778:
636:
595:
582:
581:
574:
573:
524:
516:
515:
386:
378:
377:
376:
304:
296:
295:
294:
243:Human evolution
233:History of life
217:
216:Natural history
209:
208:
207:
107:
99:
54:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
11784:
11774:
11773:
11768:
11763:
11758:
11741:
11740:
11738:
11737:
11727:
11716:
11713:
11712:
11710:
11709:
11704:
11699:
11694:
11689:
11688:
11687:
11677:
11672:
11667:
11662:
11657:
11656:
11655:
11650:
11645:
11635:
11630:
11625:
11619:
11617:
11613:
11612:
11610:
11609:
11604:
11603:
11602:
11597:
11592:
11591:
11590:
11580:
11575:
11570:
11565:
11560:
11550:
11544:
11542:
11538:
11537:
11535:
11534:
11529:
11524:
11519:
11514:
11509:
11504:
11499:
11494:
11489:
11488:
11487:
11478:Charles Darwin
11475:
11474:
11473:
11461:
11456:
11450:
11448:
11442:
11441:
11439:
11438:
11433:
11428:
11423:
11418:
11416:Non-ecological
11413:
11408:
11403:
11398:
11393:
11388:
11383:
11377:
11375:
11369:
11368:
11366:
11365:
11356:
11347:
11333:
11331:
11325:
11324:
11322:
11321:
11316:
11315:
11314:
11309:
11304:
11299:
11294:
11284:
11279:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11259:
11254:
11249:
11244:
11239:
11234:
11233:
11232:
11222:
11217:
11212:
11207:
11206:
11205:
11200:
11189:
11187:
11180:
11179:
11177:
11176:
11175:
11174:
11169:
11167:nervous system
11164:
11159:
11154:
11146:
11145:
11144:
11139:
11134:
11129:
11124:
11119:
11109:
11104:
11099:
11093:
11091:
11084:
11083:
11081:
11080:
11075:
11070:
11065:
11060:
11059:
11058:
11048:
11047:
11046:
11041:
11040:
11039:
11034:
11024:
11019:
11014:
11009:
11004:
11003:
11002:
10997:
10987:
10977:
10972:
10971:
10970:
10960:
10955:
10950:
10945:
10944:
10943:
10933:
10928:
10927:
10926:
10916:
10910:
10908:
10901:
10900:
10898:
10897:
10892:
10887:
10882:
10877:
10872:
10866:
10864:
10860:
10859:
10857:
10856:
10851:
10846:
10841:
10840:
10839:
10834:
10829:
10819:
10814:
10809:
10804:
10799:
10798:
10797:
10792:
10782:
10777:
10772:
10771:
10770:
10760:
10755:
10750:
10745:
10739:
10737:
10729:
10728:
10726:
10725:
10724:
10723:
10713:
10708:
10707:
10706:
10701:
10691:
10690:
10689:
10679:
10674:
10669:
10667:Origin of life
10664:
10659:
10654:
10652:Microevolution
10649:
10647:Macroevolution
10644:
10639:
10634:
10633:
10632:
10622:
10617:
10612:
10607:
10602:
10597:
10592:
10587:
10585:Common descent
10582:
10581:
10580:
10570:
10565:
10563:Baldwin effect
10560:
10559:
10558:
10553:
10543:
10538:
10533:
10527:
10525:
10519:
10518:
10516:
10515:
10510:
10505:
10500:
10495:
10489:
10486:
10485:
10478:
10477:
10470:
10463:
10455:
10446:
10445:
10443:
10442:
10430:
10418:
10406:
10393:
10390:
10389:
10387:
10386:
10379:Macroevolution
10364:
10359:
10354:
10349:
10343:
10341:
10337:
10336:
10334:
10333:
10328:
10323:
10313:
10294:
10292:
10286:
10285:
10283:
10282:
10280:Haldane's rule
10277:
10272:
10267:
10253:
10248:
10243:
10237:
10235:
10229:
10228:
10226:
10225:
10220:
10206:
10203:Founder effect
10183:
10181:
10177:
10176:
10174:
10173:
10168:
10163:
10158:
10153:
10148:
10137:
10135:
10134:Basic concepts
10131:
10130:
10128:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10112:
10106:
10103:
10102:
10095:
10094:
10087:
10080:
10072:
10065:
10064:
10055:
10028:(3): 557â579,
10017:
9976:
9940:
9890:
9888:
9885:
9883:
9882:
9854:(2): 379â396,
9834:
9816:(1â2): 70â75,
9800:
9774:(2): 490â497,
9758:
9746:(4): 541â546,
9730:
9688:
9668:10.1554/03-274
9642:
9622:(6): 887â888,
9603:
9598:978-0674364462
9597:
9579:
9574:10.1086/278852
9551:
9546:10.1086/278905
9539:(494): 73â80,
9523:
9496:
9479:
9466:
9448:(4): 497â527,
9421:
9372:
9352:(2): 301â306,
9336:
9308:(4): 534â547,
9288:
9262:(1): 201â208,
9246:
9212:(2): 293â306,
9196:
9184:10.1086/283002
9162:
9150:10.1086/282889
9128:
9090:
9067:
9047:10.1086/286154
9041:(1): 129â144,
9021:
8975:
8949:(4): 634â645,
8925:
8907:(2): 135â148,
8883:
8863:10.1554/02-717
8837:
8801:(2): 432â444,
8781:
8725:
8689:(3): 465â474,
8673:
8635:(2): 484â487,
8615:
8597:(1): 272â276,
8577:
8545:
8513:
8475:(4): 723â733,
8455:
8429:(2): 201â212,
8409:
8397:10.1086/284445
8391:(5): 642â661,
8375:
8363:10.1086/284059
8357:(3): 290â293,
8341:
8329:10.1086/283371
8307:
8295:10.1086/282835
8273:
8261:10.1086/282739
8236:
8216:10.1086/303186
8210:(4): 437â444,
8194:
8144:
8090:
8060:(3): 527â534,
8040:
8012:(3): 713â719,
7992:
7974:(4): 485â493,
7958:
7930:(3): 697â702,
7914:
7894:(2): 165â179,
7874:
7854:(2): 181â187,
7834:
7798:
7775:
7749:(6): 555â561,
7729:
7703:(6): 543â553,
7683:
7657:(4): 631â647,
7637:
7601:(2): 715â735,
7581:
7533:
7507:(4): 730â737,
7487:
7468:
7440:(3): 625â637,
7420:
7392:(1): 295â303,
7378:Jerry A. Coyne
7369:
7341:(2): 238â257,
7321:
7303:
7266:
7223:
7174:
7146:(4): 675â689,
7126:
7113:
7100:
7070:
7064:
7046:
7004:
6995:
6990:978-0674037502
6989:
6966:
6960:
6942:
6931:(3): 245â249.
6915:
6876:
6842:
6791:
6778:
6737:
6687:
6659:(3): 859â870,
6643:
6615:(3): 703â705,
6599:
6544:
6499:
6473:(2): 514â530,
6452:
6398:
6348:
6293:
6259:(4): 960â973,
6239:
6213:(6): 644â651,
6193:
6147:
6093:
6059:
6016:
5980:
5925:
5881:
5845:(2294): 2294,
5829:
5784:
5764:10.1554/03-498
5739:
5689:
5683:
5665:
5615:
5565:
5515:
5509:
5480:
5421:
5371:
5356:
5330:(4): 419â434,
5311:
5293:(8): 285â288,
5277:
5223:
5217:978-0199587117
5216:
5198:
5162:
5111:
5083:
5023:
4976:
4958:(3): 373â381,
4942:
4897:
4885:10.1086/401875
4879:(3): 247â277,
4863:
4834:10.1.1.42.6514
4808:
4754:
4728:(1): 264â279,
4712:
4684:(2): 114â138,
4668:
4614:
4602:10.1086/283191
4580:
4560:(5): 503â508,
4544:
4537:
4519:
4469:
4460:|journal=
4443:978-0470016176
4442:
4416:
4359:
4341:(7): 330â343,
4316:
4282:(1): 143â149,
4255:
4210:
4173:
4155:(1): 381â390,
4139:
4124:
4090:
4070:10.1554/03-447
4064:(1): 193â197,
4048:
4035:
4022:
4016:978-0470016176
4015:
3980:
3975:978-0674690134
3974:
3956:
3905:
3898:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3656:Charles Darwin
3643:founder effect
3622:Main article:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3602:
3600:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3567:
3566:
3563:
3560:
3557:
3554:
3551:
3548:
3540:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3438:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3321:
3313:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3221:
3213:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3191:
3183:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:D. paulistorum
3142:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3091:
3083:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3009:
3008:
3005:
3002:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2992:chaeta number
2986:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2960:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2939:
2936:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2920:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2783:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2740:
2728:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2720:Studied Drift
2718:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2638:
2618:
2598:
2578:
2558:
2534:
2514:
2490:
2470:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2398:
2395:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2338:
2335:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2302:
2299:
2277:
2257:
2213:
2210:
2190:
2189:
2176:
2168:
2137:
2125:
2117:
2107:
2096:
2085:hermit warbler
2071:
2045:
1989:
1986:
1824:O. ruficapilla
1769:Yellow-bellied
1749:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1736:
1725:
1712:
1701:
1688:
1613:
1610:
1598:Charles Darwin
1517:a new species.
1447:Dispersal and
1416:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1391:
1388:
1356:Charis cleonus
1352:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1331:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1312:
1309:
1293:
1290:
1247:Gustave Paulay
1213:
1210:
1193:
1190:
1159:Main article:
1148:
1145:
1139:
1136:
1097:
1094:
1036:Main article:
1033:
1030:
1005:Main article:
1002:
999:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
949:
946:
943:
923:
903:
900:
897:
837:over time (by
777:
774:
673:dumbbell model
638:
637:
635:
634:
627:
620:
612:
609:
608:
607:
606:
593:
576:
575:
572:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
544:Social effects
541:
536:
531:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
514:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
375:
374:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
327:
322:
317:
312:
306:
305:
302:
301:
298:
297:
293:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
270:Classification
267:
262:
257:
252:
251:
250:
240:
235:
230:
228:Common descent
225:
223:Origin of life
219:
218:
215:
214:
211:
210:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
109:
108:
105:
104:
101:
100:
98:
97:
92:
87:
81:
80:
75:
70:
65:
59:
56:
55:
46:
38:
37:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11783:
11772:
11769:
11767:
11764:
11762:
11759:
11757:
11754:
11753:
11751:
11736:
11732:
11728:
11726:
11718:
11717:
11714:
11708:
11705:
11703:
11700:
11698:
11695:
11693:
11690:
11686:
11683:
11682:
11681:
11680:Phylogenetics
11678:
11676:
11673:
11671:
11668:
11666:
11663:
11661:
11658:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11644:
11641:
11640:
11639:
11636:
11634:
11631:
11629:
11626:
11624:
11621:
11620:
11618:
11614:
11608:
11605:
11601:
11598:
11596:
11593:
11589:
11586:
11585:
11584:
11583:Structuralism
11581:
11579:
11576:
11574:
11571:
11569:
11566:
11564:
11561:
11559:
11558:Catastrophism
11556:
11555:
11554:
11551:
11549:
11546:
11545:
11543:
11539:
11533:
11530:
11528:
11525:
11523:
11520:
11518:
11517:Neo-Darwinism
11515:
11513:
11510:
11508:
11505:
11503:
11500:
11498:
11495:
11493:
11490:
11486:
11485:
11481:
11480:
11479:
11476:
11472:
11471:
11467:
11466:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11457:
11455:
11452:
11451:
11449:
11447:
11443:
11437:
11434:
11432:
11431:Reinforcement
11429:
11427:
11424:
11422:
11419:
11417:
11414:
11412:
11409:
11407:
11404:
11402:
11399:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11378:
11376:
11374:
11370:
11364:
11363:Catastrophism
11360:
11357:
11355:
11354:Macromutation
11351:
11350:Micromutation
11348:
11346:
11342:
11338:
11335:
11334:
11332:
11330:
11326:
11320:
11317:
11313:
11310:
11308:
11305:
11303:
11300:
11298:
11295:
11293:
11290:
11289:
11288:
11285:
11283:
11280:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11263:
11260:
11258:
11257:Immune system
11255:
11253:
11250:
11248:
11245:
11243:
11240:
11238:
11235:
11231:
11228:
11227:
11226:
11223:
11221:
11218:
11216:
11213:
11211:
11208:
11204:
11201:
11199:
11196:
11195:
11194:
11191:
11190:
11188:
11186:
11181:
11173:
11170:
11168:
11165:
11163:
11160:
11158:
11155:
11153:
11150:
11149:
11147:
11143:
11140:
11138:
11135:
11133:
11130:
11128:
11125:
11123:
11120:
11118:
11117:symbiogenesis
11115:
11114:
11113:
11110:
11108:
11105:
11103:
11100:
11098:
11095:
11094:
11092:
11090:
11085:
11079:
11076:
11074:
11071:
11069:
11066:
11064:
11061:
11057:
11054:
11053:
11052:
11049:
11045:
11042:
11038:
11035:
11033:
11030:
11029:
11028:
11025:
11023:
11020:
11018:
11015:
11013:
11010:
11008:
11005:
11001:
10998:
10996:
10993:
10992:
10991:
10988:
10986:
10983:
10982:
10981:
10978:
10976:
10973:
10969:
10966:
10965:
10964:
10961:
10959:
10956:
10954:
10951:
10949:
10946:
10942:
10939:
10938:
10937:
10934:
10932:
10929:
10925:
10922:
10921:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10911:
10909:
10907:
10902:
10896:
10893:
10891:
10888:
10886:
10883:
10881:
10878:
10876:
10873:
10871:
10868:
10867:
10865:
10861:
10855:
10852:
10850:
10847:
10845:
10842:
10838:
10835:
10833:
10830:
10828:
10825:
10824:
10823:
10820:
10818:
10815:
10813:
10810:
10808:
10805:
10803:
10800:
10796:
10793:
10791:
10788:
10787:
10786:
10785:Kin selection
10783:
10781:
10780:Genetic drift
10778:
10776:
10773:
10769:
10766:
10765:
10764:
10761:
10759:
10756:
10754:
10751:
10749:
10746:
10744:
10741:
10740:
10738:
10736:
10730:
10722:
10719:
10718:
10717:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10696:
10695:
10692:
10688:
10685:
10684:
10683:
10680:
10678:
10675:
10673:
10670:
10668:
10665:
10663:
10660:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10638:
10635:
10631:
10628:
10627:
10626:
10623:
10621:
10618:
10616:
10613:
10611:
10608:
10606:
10603:
10601:
10598:
10596:
10593:
10591:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10579:
10576:
10575:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10557:
10554:
10552:
10549:
10548:
10547:
10544:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10528:
10526:
10524:
10520:
10514:
10511:
10509:
10506:
10504:
10501:
10499:
10496:
10494:
10491:
10490:
10487:
10483:
10476:
10471:
10469:
10464:
10462:
10457:
10456:
10453:
10441:
10440:
10431:
10429:
10428:
10423:
10419:
10417:
10416:
10407:
10405:
10404:
10395:
10394:
10391:
10384:
10383:Chronospecies
10380:
10376:
10372:
10368:
10365:
10363:
10360:
10358:
10355:
10353:
10350:
10348:
10345:
10344:
10342:
10338:
10332:
10329:
10327:
10324:
10321:
10317:
10316:Reinforcement
10314:
10311:
10310:Recombination
10307:
10303:
10299:
10296:
10295:
10293:
10291:
10287:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10265:
10261:
10257:
10254:
10252:
10249:
10247:
10244:
10242:
10239:
10238:
10236:
10234:
10230:
10224:
10221:
10218:
10214:
10210:
10207:
10204:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10188:
10185:
10184:
10182:
10178:
10172:
10169:
10167:
10164:
10162:
10159:
10157:
10154:
10152:
10149:
10146:
10142:
10139:
10138:
10136:
10132:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10107:
10104:
10100:
10093:
10088:
10086:
10081:
10079:
10074:
10073:
10070:
10061:
10056:
10053:
10049:
10044:
10039:
10035:
10031:
10027:
10023:
10018:
10015:
10011:
10006:
10001:
9997:
9993:
9989:
9985:
9981:
9977:
9974:
9970:
9966:
9962:
9958:
9954:
9950:
9946:
9941:
9938:
9934:
9930:
9926:
9922:
9918:
9913:
9908:
9904:
9900:
9895:
9894:
9893:
9879:
9875:
9870:
9865:
9861:
9857:
9853:
9849:
9845:
9838:
9831:
9827:
9823:
9819:
9815:
9811:
9804:
9797:
9793:
9789:
9785:
9781:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9762:
9754:
9749:
9745:
9741:
9734:
9727:
9723:
9719:
9715:
9711:
9707:
9703:
9699:
9692:
9685:
9681:
9677:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9649:
9647:
9639:
9635:
9630:
9625:
9621:
9617:
9610:
9608:
9600:
9594:
9590:
9583:
9575:
9570:
9566:
9562:
9555:
9547:
9542:
9538:
9534:
9527:
9519:
9515:
9511:
9507:
9500:
9492:
9491:
9483:
9476:
9470:
9463:
9459:
9455:
9451:
9447:
9443:
9439:
9432:
9430:
9428:
9426:
9418:
9414:
9410:
9406:
9402:
9398:
9394:
9390:
9386:
9379:
9377:
9369:
9365:
9360:
9355:
9351:
9347:
9340:
9333:
9329:
9325:
9321:
9316:
9311:
9307:
9303:
9299:
9292:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9273:
9269:
9265:
9261:
9257:
9250:
9243:
9239:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9223:
9219:
9215:
9211:
9207:
9200:
9193:
9189:
9185:
9181:
9177:
9173:
9166:
9159:
9155:
9151:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9132:
9125:
9121:
9117:
9113:
9109:
9105:
9101:
9094:
9086:
9082:
9078:
9071:
9064:
9060:
9056:
9052:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9032:
9025:
9018:
9014:
9010:
9006:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8990:
8986:
8979:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8956:
8952:
8948:
8944:
8940:
8936:
8929:
8922:
8918:
8914:
8910:
8906:
8902:
8898:
8894:
8887:
8880:
8876:
8872:
8868:
8864:
8860:
8856:
8852:
8848:
8841:
8834:
8830:
8826:
8822:
8818:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8800:
8796:
8792:
8785:
8778:
8774:
8770:
8766:
8762:
8758:
8753:
8748:
8744:
8740:
8736:
8729:
8722:
8718:
8714:
8710:
8706:
8702:
8697:
8692:
8688:
8684:
8677:
8670:
8666:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8634:
8630:
8626:
8619:
8612:
8608:
8604:
8600:
8596:
8592:
8588:
8581:
8573:
8568:
8564:
8560:
8556:
8549:
8541:
8536:
8532:
8528:
8524:
8517:
8510:
8506:
8501:
8496:
8491:
8486:
8482:
8478:
8474:
8470:
8466:
8459:
8452:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8424:
8420:
8413:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8390:
8386:
8379:
8372:
8368:
8364:
8360:
8356:
8352:
8345:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8326:
8322:
8318:
8311:
8304:
8300:
8296:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8277:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8240:
8233:
8229:
8225:
8221:
8217:
8213:
8209:
8205:
8198:
8191:
8187:
8183:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8155:
8148:
8141:
8137:
8133:
8129:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8094:
8087:
8083:
8078:
8073:
8068:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8051:
8044:
8037:
8033:
8028:
8023:
8019:
8015:
8011:
8007:
8003:
7996:
7989:
7985:
7981:
7977:
7973:
7969:
7962:
7955:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7929:
7925:
7918:
7911:
7907:
7902:
7897:
7893:
7889:
7885:
7878:
7871:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7838:
7831:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7802:
7794:
7790:
7786:
7779:
7772:
7768:
7764:
7760:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7733:
7726:
7722:
7718:
7714:
7710:
7706:
7702:
7698:
7694:
7687:
7680:
7676:
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7656:
7652:
7648:
7641:
7634:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7585:
7578:
7574:
7570:
7566:
7561:
7556:
7552:
7548:
7544:
7537:
7530:
7526:
7522:
7518:
7514:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7491:
7483:
7479:
7472:
7465:
7461:
7456:
7451:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7424:
7417:
7413:
7409:
7405:
7400:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7383:
7379:
7373:
7366:
7362:
7357:
7352:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7325:
7317:
7313:
7312:Bishop, Y. M.
7307:
7300:
7296:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7273:
7271:
7263:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7245:
7241:
7234:
7232:
7230:
7228:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7181:
7179:
7171:
7167:
7162:
7157:
7153:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7130:
7123:
7117:
7110:
7104:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7074:
7067:
7061:
7057:
7050:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7008:
6999:
6992:
6986:
6982:
6975:
6973:
6971:
6963:
6957:
6953:
6946:
6938:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6919:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6880:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6846:
6839:
6835:
6830:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6802:
6800:
6798:
6796:
6788:
6782:
6774:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6746:
6744:
6742:
6734:
6730:
6726:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6710:
6706:
6702:
6698:
6691:
6684:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6647:
6640:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6603:
6596:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6548:
6541:
6537:
6532:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6503:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6472:
6468:
6461:
6459:
6457:
6449:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6414:(8): e42135,
6413:
6409:
6402:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6352:
6345:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6297:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6243:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6197:
6190:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6162:
6158:
6151:
6144:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6097:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6063:
6055:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6027:
6020:
6013:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5984:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5929:
5922:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5885:
5878:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5833:
5826:
5822:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5791:
5789:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5746:
5744:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5693:
5686:
5680:
5676:
5669:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5569:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5519:
5512:
5506:
5502:
5495:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5487:
5485:
5476:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5440:
5432:
5430:
5428:
5426:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5375:
5367:
5360:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5318:
5316:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5281:
5274:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5227:
5219:
5213:
5209:
5202:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5166:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5115:
5107:
5102:
5099:(2): 95â187,
5098:
5094:
5087:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5027:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4994:
4990:
4983:
4981:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4946:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4902:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4867:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4815:
4813:
4805:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4758:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4716:
4709:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4672:
4665:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4618:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4584:
4577:
4573:
4568:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4548:
4540:
4534:
4530:
4523:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4473:
4465:
4453:
4445:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4420:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4270:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4214:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4178:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4143:
4135:
4128:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4052:
4045:
4039:
4032:
4026:
4018:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3993:
3991:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3977:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3901:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3886:Orr, H. Allen
3883:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3815:
3813:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3762:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3739:Joel Cracraft
3737:developed by
3736:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3695:
3691:
3690:
3685:
3684:
3673:
3669:
3667:
3663:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3650:
3646:
3644:
3641:as a form of
3640:
3636:
3632:
3631:Moritz Wagner
3625:
3611:
3609:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3568:
3564:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3541:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3459:D. silvestris
3456:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3390:D. mojavensis
3386:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3368:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3346:D. persimilis
3342:
3338:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3314:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3207:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3188:D. willistoni
3185:
3184:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3139:
3137:Post-zygotic
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2990:Sternopleural
2988:
2987:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2940:
2938:Post-zygotic
2937:
2934:
2931:
2928:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:Temperature,
2785:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2700:
2697:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2656:
2655:random mating
2652:
2636:
2616:
2596:
2576:
2556:
2548:
2532:
2512:
2504:
2488:
2468:
2459:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2385:
2368:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2336:
2333:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2300:
2297:
2289:
2275:
2255:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1985:
1983:
1982:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1969:Picea mariana
1966:) and black (
1965:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1952:
1951:
1946:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1932:P. hudsonicus
1928:
1927:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1914:E. difficilis
1910:
1909:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1896:V. solitarius
1892:
1891:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1857:(sub species
1856:
1855:
1850:
1849:
1844:
1843:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1819:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1788:S. townsendii
1784:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1761:boreal forest
1757:
1755:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1675:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1627:
1623:
1618:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1602:honeycreepers
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1514:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1358:
1357:
1349:
1338:
1334:
1333:South America
1328:
1318:
1308:
1306:
1305:reinforcement
1299:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1269:
1264:
1263:diving beetle
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1223:
1218:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1189:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1172:genetic drift
1168:
1162:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1110:Masatoshi Nei
1107:
1103:
1093:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1081:interspecific
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1044:
1039:
1032:Reinforcement
1029:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1008:
998:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
963:
947:
944:
941:
921:
901:
898:
895:
887:
882:
880:
876:
872:
868:
867:genetic drift
864:
861:arise in the
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
805:, or a whole
804:
798:
795:
787:
782:
773:
771:
767:
766:
761:
757:
752:
750:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
700:genetic drift
698:, experience
697:
693:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
655:
651:
648:
647:Ancient Greek
644:
633:
628:
626:
621:
619:
614:
613:
611:
610:
604:
594:
591:
586:
580:
579:
578:
577:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
526:
520:
519:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
476:Phylogenetics
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
388:
382:
381:
372:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
332:
328:
326:
323:
321:
320:Before Darwin
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
307:
300:
299:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
249:
246:
245:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
220:
213:
212:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
148:Genetic drift
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
110:
103:
102:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
82:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
60:
58:
57:
53:
49:
44:
40:
39:
36:
33:
32:
28:
27:
22:
11756:Biogeography
11692:Polymorphism
11675:Astrobiology
11623:Biogeography
11578:Saltationism
11568:Orthogenesis
11553:Alternatives
11482:
11468:
11401:Cospeciation
11396:Cladogenesis
11380:
11345:Saltationism
11302:Mating types
11225:Color vision
11210:Avian flight
11132:mitochondria
10870:Canalisation
10748:Biodiversity
10493:Introduction
10437:
10425:
10413:
10401:
10217:Ring species
10186:
10166:Cospeciation
10161:Cladogenesis
10110:Introduction
10059:
10025:
10021:
9987:
9983:
9980:H. Allen Orr
9948:
9944:
9902:
9898:
9891:
9851:
9847:
9844:Kenro Kusumi
9837:
9813:
9809:
9803:
9771:
9767:
9761:
9743:
9739:
9733:
9701:
9697:
9691:
9659:
9655:
9619:
9615:
9588:
9582:
9564:
9560:
9554:
9536:
9532:
9526:
9509:
9505:
9499:
9489:
9482:
9474:
9469:
9445:
9441:
9392:
9388:
9349:
9345:
9339:
9305:
9301:
9297:
9291:
9259:
9255:
9249:
9209:
9205:
9199:
9175:
9171:
9165:
9141:
9137:
9131:
9110:(1): 63â64,
9107:
9103:
9099:
9093:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9070:
9038:
9034:
9030:
9024:
8995:(1): 37â48,
8992:
8988:
8984:
8978:
8946:
8942:
8938:
8934:
8928:
8904:
8900:
8896:
8892:
8886:
8854:
8850:
8846:
8840:
8798:
8794:
8790:
8784:
8742:
8738:
8734:
8728:
8686:
8682:
8676:
8632:
8628:
8624:
8618:
8594:
8590:
8586:
8580:
8562:
8558:
8554:
8548:
8530:
8526:
8522:
8516:
8472:
8468:
8464:
8458:
8426:
8422:
8418:
8412:
8388:
8384:
8378:
8354:
8350:
8344:
8320:
8316:
8310:
8286:
8282:
8276:
8252:
8248:
8239:
8207:
8203:
8197:
8157:
8153:
8147:
8107:
8103:
8099:
8093:
8057:
8053:
8049:
8043:
8009:
8005:
8001:
7995:
7971:
7967:
7961:
7927:
7923:
7917:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7877:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7837:
7811:
7807:
7801:
7792:
7788:
7784:
7778:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7732:
7700:
7696:
7692:
7686:
7654:
7650:
7646:
7640:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7584:
7553:(1): 83â90,
7550:
7546:
7542:
7536:
7504:
7500:
7496:
7490:
7481:
7477:
7471:
7437:
7433:
7429:
7423:
7389:
7385:
7382:H. Allen Orr
7372:
7338:
7334:
7330:
7324:
7315:
7306:
7282:
7278:
7243:
7239:
7194:
7190:
7186:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7129:
7121:
7116:
7108:
7103:
7079:
7073:
7055:
7049:
7017:
7013:
7007:
6998:
6980:
6951:
6945:
6928:
6924:
6918:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6879:
6855:
6851:
6845:
6811:
6807:
6786:
6781:
6755:
6751:
6700:
6696:
6690:
6656:
6652:
6646:
6612:
6608:
6602:
6558:
6554:
6547:
6513:
6509:
6502:
6470:
6466:
6411:
6407:
6401:
6361:
6357:
6351:
6310:(27): 1â16,
6307:
6303:
6296:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6242:
6210:
6206:
6196:
6163:(210): 1â9,
6160:
6156:
6150:
6106:
6102:
6096:
6072:
6068:
6062:
6036:
6032:
6019:
5993:
5989:
5983:
5943:
5939:
5928:
5894:
5890:
5884:
5842:
5838:
5832:
5800:
5796:
5755:
5751:
5702:
5698:
5692:
5674:
5668:
5628:
5624:
5618:
5578:
5574:
5568:
5531:(1): 39â45,
5528:
5524:
5518:
5500:
5449:
5445:
5384:
5380:
5374:
5365:
5359:
5327:
5323:
5290:
5286:
5280:
5236:
5232:
5226:
5207:
5201:
5178:(1): 57â58,
5175:
5171:
5165:
5125:
5121:
5114:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5036:
5032:
5026:
4992:
4988:
4955:
4951:
4945:
4913:
4909:
4876:
4872:
4866:
4824:
4820:
4770:(128): 128,
4767:
4763:
4757:
4725:
4721:
4715:
4681:
4677:
4671:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4593:
4589:
4583:
4557:
4553:
4547:
4528:
4522:
4482:
4478:
4472:
4425:
4419:
4379:
4375:
4338:
4334:
4279:
4275:
4226:
4222:
4213:
4200:(3): 60â93,
4197:
4193:
4152:
4148:
4142:
4133:
4127:
4103:
4099:
4093:
4061:
4057:
4051:
4043:
4038:
4030:
4025:
3998:
3965:
3959:
3927:
3923:
3889:
3786:monophyletic
3759:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3704:
3697:
3687:
3681:
3678:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3634:
3627:
3597:D. grimshawi
3596:
3587:Pre-zygotic
3570:
3562:Pre-zygotic
3543:
3519:Pre-zygotic
3499:Pre-zygotic
3480:
3457:
3449:Pre-zygotic
3435:D. adiastola
3433:
3405:Pre-zygotic
3388:
3380:Pre-zygotic
3362:Pre-zygotic
3344:
3343:
3340:
3316:Temperature
3292:Pre-zygotic
3276:Pre-zygotic
3238:Pre-zygotic
3224:Carbohydrate
3216:
3208:Pre-zygotic
3186:
3162:Pre-zygotic
3145:
3121:
3117:lek behavior
3111:
3109:resistance;
3097:
3086:
3078:Pre-zygotic
2967:
2915:Pre-zygotic
2897:Pre-zygotic
2860:Pre-zygotic
2842:Pre-zygotic
2824:Pre-zygotic
2801:Pre-zygotic
2778:Pre-zygotic
2756:Pre-zygotic
2737:melanogaster
2731:
2695:
2687:
2681:
2677:
2665:
2659:
2460:
2386:
2290:
2246:
2191:
2186:Amazon basin
2179:
2170:
2131:
2119:
2100:Pachycephala
2078:
2064:white-capped
2060:Bougainville
2030:
2027:superspecies
2023:
2017:
2009:
2002:Pan paniscus
2001:
1988:Superspecies
1979:
1973:
1967:
1963:Picea rubens
1961:
1955:
1948:
1944:C. bicknelli
1942:
1936:
1930:
1926:P. rufescens
1924:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1888:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1854:Fox sparrows
1852:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1812:O. virginiae
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1777:Red-breasted
1758:
1751:
1738:
1731:
1728:B. soporator
1727:
1720:
1714:
1710:E. vanbrunti
1709:
1703:
1696:
1690:
1683:
1677:
1672:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1642:
1631:
1596:observed by
1588:
1567:Dendrocincla
1565:
1555:
1549:
1539:
1520:
1503:Amazon basin
1494:
1468:
1461:
1448:
1446:
1431:
1428:
1380:
1377:H. Allen Orr
1365:
1354:
1335:'s areas of
1301:
1284:
1266:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1195:
1186:archipelagos
1184:islands and
1166:
1164:
1141:
1138:Other models
1128:ring species
1099:
1090:phylogenetic
1078:
1050:
1010:
883:
831:land bridges
799:
794:LĂ©on Croizat
791:
763:
753:
736:biogeography
731:
727:
724:
685:
672:
668:
664:
660:
657:
653:
650:
642:
641:
496:Sociobiology
481:Paleontology
329:
265:Biogeography
260:Biodiversity
178:Coextinction
168:Co-operation
143:Polymorphism
68:Introduction
11702:Systematics
11573:Mutationism
11391:Catagenesis
11319:Snake venom
11252:Eusociality
11230:in primates
11220:Cooperation
11148:In animals
10968:butterflies
10941:Cephalopods
10931:Brachiopods
10863:Development
10837:Mate choice
10590:Convergence
10573:Coevolution
10531:Abiogenesis
10439:WikiProject
10199:Centrifugal
9104:Experientia
8565:: 150â157,
8533:: 123â130,
8323:: 148â150,
6075:: 249â265,
5062:10261/59425
4229:(1): 5â16,
4106:: 519â539,
3743:James Brown
3715:Karl Jordan
3318:photoperiod
3196:adaptation
3088:D. simulans
2926:adaptation
2868:Locomotion
2812:adaptation
2241:pleiotropic
2228:fruit flies
2121:Climacteris
2114:chimpanzees
2033:) include:
2031:allospecies
2014:Congo River
1890:V. cassinii
1884:V. plumbeus
1818:O. ridgwayi
1806:Oreothlypis
1592:, like the
1578:during the
1562:Drakensberg
1548:); and the
1471:butterflies
1453:angiosperms
1373:Jerry Coyne
1243:Lake Malawi
1192:Centrifugal
1066:mate choice
843:sky islands
819:topographic
506:Systematics
315:Renaissance
193:Convergence
183:Contingency
173:Coevolution
11771:Speciation
11750:Categories
11563:Lamarckism
11541:Philosophy
11464:David Hume
11426:Peripatric
11421:Parapatric
11406:Ecological
11386:Anagenesis
11381:Allopatric
11373:Speciation
11337:Gradualism
11262:Metabolism
11122:chromosome
11112:Eukaryotes
10890:Modularity
10807:Population
10733:Population
10694:Speciation
10672:Panspermia
10625:Extinction
10620:Exaptation
10595:Divergence
10568:Cladistics
10556:Reciprocal
10536:Adaptation
10302:Polyploidy
10264:Allochrony
10241:Adaptation
10209:Parapatric
10191:Peripatric
10187:Allopatric
10156:Anagenesis
10099:Speciation
8735:Drosophila
8467:complex",
8245:Lee Ehrman
8100:Drosophila
7884:Drosophila
7844:Drosophila
7285:(3): S22,
7136:Drosophila
6039:(3): 154,
5996:(1): 5â7,
5475:1893/23221
3890:Speciation
3804:References
3696:published
3639:Ernst Mayr
3556:Divergent
3419:Divergent
3354:22; 16; 9
3326:Divergent
3295:1978 1985
3259:1964 1969
3032:1975 1981
3013:Phototaxis
2963:Abdominal
2765:Locomotion
2733:Drosophila
2678:Drosophila
2662:pleiotropy
2651:null value
2545:represent
2268:and index
2216:See also:
2181:Selenidera
2159:; and the
2104:Melanesian
2075:sapsuckers
2056:subspecies
1950:C. minimus
1920:chickadees
1848:Geothlypis
1836:O. tolmiei
1765:sapsuckers
1507:Neotropics
1479:marsupials
1475:amphibians
1457:parapatric
1419:See also:
1381:Speciation
1368:Ernst Mayr
1315:See also:
1296:See also:
1271:) species
1147:Peripatric
1118:stochastic
863:gene pools
855:phenotypic
827:glaciation
765:Drosophila
732:vicariance
708:gene pools
677:speciation
645:(from
280:Cladistics
203:Extinction
188:Divergence
158:Speciation
138:Adaptation
52:John Gould
11697:Protocell
11548:Darwinism
11436:Sympatric
11185:processes
11073:Tetrapods
11022:Kangaroos
10948:Dinosaurs
10885:Inversion
10854:Variation
10775:Gene flow
10768:Inclusive
10578:Mutualism
10523:Evolution
10223:Sympatric
10062:: 723â766
9945:Evolution
9937:198153495
9912:0904.3308
9899:Evolution
9768:Evolution
9684:198157565
9656:Evolution
9512:: 23â65.
9302:Evolution
9256:Evolution
9206:Evolution
8989:Evolution
8943:Evolution
8901:Evolution
8851:Evolution
8795:Evolution
8739:Evolution
8683:Evolution
8423:Evolution
8154:Evolution
7968:Evolution
7924:Evolution
7814:: 14â22,
7808:Evolution
7795:: 761â764
7651:Evolution
7501:Evolution
7484:: 201â258
7386:Evolution
7246:: 10â19,
7191:Evolution
6467:Evolution
5825:198157398
5797:Evolution
5780:198157925
5752:Evolution
4893:225071133
4859:198153997
4829:CiteSeerX
4821:Evolution
4722:Evolution
4462:ignored (
4452:cite book
4376:Evolution
4086:198159058
4058:Evolution
3924:Evolution
3507:Geotaxis
3493:Indirect
3487:Geotaxis
3270:Indirect
3232:Indirect
3154:131; 131
3103:fecundity
2932:Indirect
2418:−
2412:−
2334:−
2206:passerine
2198:Patagonia
2194:Melanesia
2080:Setophaga
1830:Oporornis
1800:S. virens
1782:Setophaga
1773:Red-naped
1584:dinosaurs
1557:Macowania
1546:Sisoridae
1541:Lepisorus
1532:Himalayan
1477:, birds,
1442:diversity
1241:) within
1220:A female
886:gene flow
859:mutations
851:genotypic
817:-caused,
740:organisms
728:allopatry
704:mutations
681:gene flow
539:Dysgenics
255:Phylogeny
153:Gene flow
123:Diversity
118:Variation
11725:Category
11600:Vitalism
11595:Theistic
11588:Spandrel
11272:Morality
11267:Monogamy
11142:plastids
11107:Flagella
11063:Reptiles
11044:sea cows
11027:primates
10936:Molluscs
10914:Bacteria
10802:Mutation
10735:genetics
10711:Taxonomy
10657:Mismatch
10637:Homology
10551:Cheating
10546:Altruism
10403:Category
10320:evidence
10125:Glossary
10022:Genetics
9984:Genetics
9973:28565607
9929:11475044
9878:26843925
9830:19463924
9796:28568302
9726:85573501
9676:15446430
9638:36627140
9518:11610987
9462:38621736
9417:17832412
9368:82095639
9332:38650254
9324:28562870
9298:Zea mays
9284:28565193
9242:13379387
9234:28567864
9192:85084378
9158:84913547
9124:43809774
9079:Hardy",
9063:17689372
9055:18811406
9017:28563762
8971:28562900
8871:14686531
8833:42232235
8825:28568735
8777:34137489
8769:28564258
8721:30943286
8713:28567948
8527:Heredity
8451:28563045
8405:84819968
8371:83654887
8337:85237458
8303:83780632
8269:85401244
8224:29586617
8190:24502821
8182:28565304
8140:15497733
8132:17732575
8054:Genetics
8036:17248436
8006:Genetics
7954:21054233
7946:28568598
7830:87729275
7771:40169222
7725:39352792
7679:35867118
7671:28564833
7595:Genetics
7577:24040182
7569:14635883
7529:28563991
7464:17248452
7434:Genetics
7416:40390753
7408:28568795
7365:17247038
7335:Genetics
7262:85410953
7219:28564510
7140:Genetics
7096:40168287
7042:17834730
6911:26343460
6872:21653356
6838:15347509
6733:31875676
6683:27778409
6639:28177197
6595:25918375
6540:25859042
6495:11820649
6487:19154357
6448:22876302
6408:PLOS ONE
6394:33626056
6386:21981112
6344:24524661
6289:37992915
6281:22221323
6235:22432209
6227:18763106
6189:23140168
6143:28373546
6089:85868089
6012:21672718
5968:25209666
5934:(2014),
5921:32392379
5877:29396491
5817:12206248
5772:15562684
5727:11130721
5653:15846345
5603:16267504
5561:24127933
5553:19294911
5409:11001054
5352:10753072
5307:21236856
5273:19528641
5158:25821896
5150:19674311
5079:16543963
5071:12144678
5011:18823452
4972:32546573
4938:86734208
4851:11005282
4804:26126573
4750:28568097
4708:17247074
4678:Genetics
4610:84293637
4576:10620021
4554:Heredity
4507:16251964
4412:42100751
4404:28568007
4355:11403865
4312:41791817
4304:20860687
4251:23644576
4169:11403871
4078:15058732
3952:31893065
3944:23206125
3888:(2004).
3788:groups.
3761:Cyclamen
3572:Zea mays
3172:5 years
3129:3 years
3123:pupation
3017:geotaxis
2788:humidity
2708:Species
2204:has 486
2141:flickers
2133:Astrapia
2106:islands.
1938:thrushes
1667:mangrove
1487:reptiles
1483:primates
1434:endemics
1415:Endemism
1337:endemism
1268:Paroster
1177:fixation
914:, where
815:geologic
749:sympatry
661:(patrĂs)
603:Category
529:Eugenics
371:timeline
352:Evo-devo
310:Overview
128:Mutation
90:Evidence
85:Glossary
11761:Ecology
11616:Related
11446:History
11307:Meiosis
11242:Empathy
11237:Emotion
11137:nucleus
11078:Viruses
11068:Spiders
10980:Mammals
10963:Insects
10763:Fitness
10699:Species
10498:Outline
10415:Commons
10367:Fossils
10357:Insects
10306:Klepton
10195:Quantum
10141:Species
10115:History
10052:6840540
10043:1202040
10014:7789779
10005:1206504
9965:2410732
9869:4729248
9788:2410107
9706:Bibcode
9397:Bibcode
9389:Science
9276:2640932
9226:2409664
9087:: 31â34
9009:2408971
8963:2406597
8921:2405390
8879:6162106
8817:2410062
8761:2408795
8705:2407714
8669:5229969
8637:Bibcode
8611:2423835
8509:5219677
8477:Bibcode
8443:2407696
8232:4411105
8174:2411356
8112:Bibcode
8104:Science
8077:1213291
8027:1212235
7988:2405959
7910:5922517
7870:5922518
7633:4217303
7624:1213230
7615:2407287
7521:2408027
7455:1212303
7356:1209156
7299:3078919
7211:2409365
7170:6189764
7161:1202048
7022:Bibcode
7014:Science
6829:1691815
6773:1689526
6725:8503007
6705:Bibcode
6697:Science
6661:Bibcode
6617:Bibcode
6586:4434730
6563:Bibcode
6518:Bibcode
6510:Science
6439:3410882
6416:Bibcode
6366:Bibcode
6335:3927823
6312:Bibcode
6261:Bibcode
6180:3508991
6134:5410793
6111:Bibcode
6041:Bibcode
5976:1415798
5948:Bibcode
5899:Bibcode
5868:5797105
5847:Bibcode
5735:4400514
5707:Bibcode
5661:3195603
5633:Bibcode
5611:4418564
5583:Bibcode
5533:Bibcode
5525:Ecology
5454:Bibcode
5417:4416820
5389:Bibcode
5344:3078926
5264:2702801
5241:Bibcode
5194:2411904
5130:Bibcode
5041:Bibcode
5019:8721116
4918:Bibcode
4795:4487588
4772:Bibcode
4742:2410134
4699:1209196
4664:9560236
4632:Bibcode
4515:4417281
4487:Bibcode
4396:2410209
4284:Bibcode
4231:Bibcode
4120:3895737
3782:Ecuador
3400:Direct
3375:Direct
3320:; food
3252:Direct
3226:source
3199:34â122
3157:Direct
3107:ethanol
2998:Direct
2975:Direct
2968:number
2951:Direct
2907:36; 31
2852:40; 50
2818:Direct
2792:70â130
2232:maltose
2172:Dugesia
2110:Bonobos
2038:Western
1935:); and
1827:), and
1754:refugia
1748:Refugia
1659:Alpheus
1654:Alpheus
1528:orogeny
1491:rodents
1459:modes.
1449:in situ
1277:Yilgarn
1204:in the
1114:neutral
1102:zygotic
1062:fitness
1025:sterile
823:orogeny
692:genetic
654:(ĂĄllos)
95:History
78:Outline
11735:Portal
11411:Hybrid
11247:Ethics
11089:organs
11051:Plants
11037:lemurs
11032:humans
11017:horses
11007:hyenas
10995:wolves
10990:canids
10924:origin
10362:Plants
10213:Clines
10050:
10040:
10012:
10002:
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8660:224398
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8500:224220
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8086:805084
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5940:Nature
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5625:Nature
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3797:genome
3770:Myrtle
3553:40â51
3249:25â60
2972:21â31
2965:chaeta
2711:Trait
2505:where
2461:Here,
2236:starch
2161:lazuli
2091:, and
2066:, and
1998:bonobo
1893:, and
1869:, and
1821:, and
1797:, and
1775:, and
1644:Eciton
1574:. The
1524:graded
1495:Charis
1489:, and
1469:Charis
1259:islets
1181:allele
1179:of an
1017:hybrid
833:; the
744:ranges
742:whose
659:ÏαÏÏÎŻÏ
601:
325:Darwin
11198:Death
11193:Aging
11172:brain
10958:Fungi
10919:Birds
10832:Fungi
10630:Event
10513:Index
10347:Birds
9961:JSTOR
9933:S2CID
9907:arXiv
9784:JSTOR
9722:S2CID
9680:S2CID
9634:S2CID
9458:S2CID
9364:S2CID
9328:S2CID
9272:JSTOR
9238:S2CID
9222:JSTOR
9188:S2CID
9154:S2CID
9120:S2CID
9059:S2CID
9005:JSTOR
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8917:JSTOR
8875:S2CID
8829:S2CID
8813:JSTOR
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8717:S2CID
8701:JSTOR
8607:JSTOR
8439:JSTOR
8401:S2CID
8367:S2CID
8333:S2CID
8299:S2CID
8265:S2CID
8228:S2CID
8186:S2CID
8170:JSTOR
8136:S2CID
7984:JSTOR
7950:S2CID
7826:S2CID
7767:S2CID
7721:S2CID
7675:S2CID
7611:JSTOR
7573:S2CID
7517:JSTOR
7412:S2CID
7295:JSTOR
7258:S2CID
7207:JSTOR
7092:JSTOR
6729:S2CID
6491:S2CID
6390:S2CID
6285:S2CID
6231:S2CID
6085:S2CID
6029:(PDF)
5972:S2CID
5821:S2CID
5776:S2CID
5731:S2CID
5657:S2CID
5607:S2CID
5557:S2CID
5442:(PDF)
5413:S2CID
5340:JSTOR
5190:JSTOR
5154:S2CID
5075:S2CID
5015:S2CID
4968:S2CID
4934:S2CID
4889:S2CID
4855:S2CID
4738:JSTOR
4655:20221
4606:S2CID
4511:S2CID
4408:S2CID
4392:JSTOR
4308:S2CID
4247:S2CID
4116:S2CID
4082:S2CID
3948:S2CID
3794:locus
3590:1969
3579:6; 6
3565:1999
3538:1991
3522:1975
3502:1974
3475:1980
3452:1974
3428:1998
3425:None
3408:1987
3383:1966
3365:1950
3335:2003
3332:None
3311:1993
3279:1966
3267:5â11
3241:1989
3211:1980
3181:1966
3165:1976
3140:1985
3064:1999
3048:1998
3029:None
3007:1969
3004:None
2984:1958
2981:None
2958:1997
2941:1966
2918:1956
2900:1953
2883:1979
2880:None
2863:1974
2845:1974
2827:2003
2804:1980
2781:1974
2759:1969
2083:(the
1878:Vireo
1572:Andes
1132:cline
877:(see
807:biota
803:taxon
652:áŒÎ»Î»ÎżÏ
649:
63:Index
11685:Tree
11157:hair
11097:Cell
11000:dogs
10985:cats
10975:Life
10953:Fish
10906:taxa
10352:Fish
10048:PMID
10010:PMID
9969:PMID
9925:PMID
9874:PMID
9826:PMID
9810:Gene
9792:PMID
9672:PMID
9593:ISBN
9514:PMID
9413:PMID
9320:PMID
9300:L",
9280:PMID
9230:PMID
9051:PMID
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8967:PMID
8937:and
8895:and
8867:PMID
8821:PMID
8765:PMID
8709:PMID
8665:PMID
8505:PMID
8469:PNAS
8447:PMID
8220:PMID
8178:PMID
8128:PMID
8082:PMID
8032:PMID
7942:PMID
7906:PMID
7866:PMID
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7713:PMID
7667:PMID
7629:PMID
7565:PMID
7525:PMID
7460:PMID
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7215:PMID
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7060:ISBN
7038:PMID
6985:ISBN
6956:ISBN
6907:PMID
6889:)",
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6721:PMID
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6340:PMID
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4503:PMID
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4300:PMID
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3043:Yes
2978:Yes
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2798:Yes
2769:112
2753:Yes
2696:e.g.
2666:i.e.
2609:and
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2525:and
2481:and
2234:and
2163:and
2155:and
2147:and
2112:and
2040:and
1978:and
1947:and
1929:and
1911:and
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1708:and
1695:and
1682:and
1423:and
1375:and
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1255:Rapa
1167:e.g.
981:<
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730:and
73:Main
11183:Of
11152:eye
11102:DNA
11087:Of
10904:Of
10038:PMC
10030:doi
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9992:doi
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