Allochronic speciation

914:

time—giving rise to adaptive temporal clines in phenotypic traits that are heritable. Isolation by time effectively allows adaptive temporal clines to evolve as long as the reproductive season has selective variation. Evidence for adaptation by time demands four factors: 1) time restricts gene flow, 2) the reproductive season expresses variations in phenotypic traits, 3) temporal variation is controlled genetically (it is not plastic), and 4) temporal variation is adaptive. ABT increases, "as (i) selection on the trait increases; (ii) environmental influences on reproductive time decrease; (iii) the heritability of reproductive time increases; and (iv) the temporal distribution of reproductive activity becomes increasingly uniform."

828: 923: 36: 695: 868:. Two explanations exist for the existence of these clines: phenotypic plasticity or phenotypic heritability (or possibly a combination of both). If plastic, the clines arise when certain phenotypic traits influence breeding time—such as reproducing at times when their traits are best suited or if conditions drive the expression of traits. If heritable, the same factors may be expressed as they are in a plastic explanation; however, gene flow limitations allow for 8976: 7653: 591: 8986: 7677: 578: 7689: 7665: 746:). Even migratory patterns can play a role, as species may become isolated due to migrating at different times and to different locations. Climate change is considered to have a significant impact on allochrony—in particular, seasonal breeding species. Modeling changes in species breeding patterns due to climate as well as understanding the genetic mechanisms that control it has proven to be important. 2235:. It is thought that one contributing factor is that rates of speciation are higher in these regions across the planet. The Asynchrony of Seasons Hypothesis is proposed to be a contributing factor to higher speciation rates as it relates directly to that of allochronic speciation. The hypothesis proposes that the pattern is a result of a lack of synchrony with seasonal variations in tropical regions. 754:, started breeding at different times, it would prevent members of each population from exchanging genes with one another. Over time, if genes are not exchanged, genetic differences arise in each population. If natural selection acts strongly on the two populations, they may become reproductively isolated, unable to reproduce viable, fertile offspring. 880:(IBD) wherein genetic differences between populations increase with spatial distance. When IBT is present in a population, the variation of natural selection during a breeding season causes adaptation by time (ABT) generating adaptive temporal variation in phenotypic traits. These two concepts are described in the following sections. Studies of 979:

longer incipient). Determining how important allochrony is as a historical cause of speciation can be tested by: 1) comparative studies that show the young pairs of sister taxa are temporally isolated and 2) testing cases of incipient species in sympatry where reproductive isolation is incomplete without temporal isolation.

975:

fortunately, lake of mate tests do not necessarily indicate temporal isolation is not at play. As stated prior, one of the necessary criteria is that the species in question must be sister taxa (or demonstrably incipient). This means that accurate phylogenies are vital to determining the initial stage of a speciation event.

1080:

of Sockeye salmon occur during two periods in the year (late and early) have caused genetic isolation of incipient populations. Salmon breeding is known to be genetic but no specific genes are known for this species. Even and odd two-year life cycles in conjunction with seasonal breeding runs of pink

2277:

bird species across South, Central, and North America. The findings, using DNA, geographic and ecological distances, as well as climatic data, indicated that genetic differentiation increased in species populations where asynchrony in precipitation was present. A similar pattern was found in another

982:

Determining if allochrony is the source of divergence require a key pattern to be measured: isolation (and subsequently speciation) should correlate with a decrease in overlapping breeding times. This pattern indicates that daily allochrony is more prone to gene flow (closeness of breeding times can

978:

Despite the multitude of studies, it is not always evident whether allochrony is the sole driver of speciation or if other factors acting simultaneously are responsible. This can be more challenging when speciation has already occurred (in that the taxa in question are reproductively isolated and no

831:

A three-dimensional space representing speciation with axes representing the factors involved in the process. The temporal dimension indicates allochrony. The ecological axis correlates with adaptation by time (ABT) whereas the mating axis corresponds to isolation by time (IBT). Breeding time create

2269:

patterns, as they can be sporadic, scattered, and vary over very short distances. This pattern causes asynchrony in the phenologies of species populations that can ultimately act as a temporally isolating barrier to reproduction. This prevents gene flow between populations and can drive divergence,

685:

Scientists have developed models to explain how this process occurs and how it is detected in natural populations. A wealth of studies exist regarding species in allochrony, with a select few that strongly suggest species are speciating or already have speciated as a direct consequence of this mode

913:

Adaptation by time is an extension of divergence due to limited gene flow between populations experiencing different selective pressures. Typically this is limited to spatial variation such as in ecological speciation; however, in allochrony, selection varies not just in space, but in reproductive

783:

Allochrony is thought to evolve more easily the greater the heritability of reproductive timing—that is, the greater the link between genes and the timing of reproduction—the more likely speciation will occur. Allochrony can be non-genetic; however genetic factors must be involved for isolation to

991:

The following table documents cases of allochronic speciation. Varying degrees of certainty exist as not all cases strongly meet the three primary criteria necessitated by allochronic speciation. Species marked with an asterisk (*) indicate stronger confidence assessed by Rebecca Taylor and Vicki

900:

The concept of IBT warrants two probabilities: in the event that heritability in reproductive timing exists among populations that breed during different seasons, probability of mating will be, "inversely proportional to the difference in the heritable component of their reproductive times." The

2026:

Some genetic differentiation exists between blackcap populations that migrate to the United Kingdom and Ireland versus those that migrate to Iberia. The birds breed in sympatry in Germany; however, the UK and Ireland populations migrate back earlier causing assortive mating. Hybrids end up with

749:

Because of these many factors, slight to major changes in phenology can drive divergence between two populations. For example, a species with multiple breeding seasons in a year may shift those times depending on external conditions such as temperature or predation. In the event the populations

1655:

Genetic variation is detected in three sunflower maggot fly variants that inhabit the same host plant. Their larval emergence occurs in three distinct periods of the summer keeping them partially isolated. Experimental manipulation suggests allochrony will increase as they continue to diverge.

1342:

A phytophagous example of two moth larvae strains breeding on either corn or rice at different times of the night. Other causes of isolation may be acting on the species. The population in the United States appears to be speciating via allochrony; however the population in Columbia does not.

974:

Testing whether or not allochrony prevents gene flow can be difficult due to the multitude of unknown variables in wild populations and the inability to replicate and manipulate it in laboratory settings. Producing viable, and fertile offspring (or the lack thereof) is not always possible;

3394:

Pimentel, C.; Calvão, T.; Santos, M.; Ferreira, C.; Neves, M.; Nilsson, J.Å. (2006), "Establishment and expansion of a Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Den. & Schiff.) (Lep. Notodontidae) population with a shifted life cycle in a production pine forest, Central-Coastal Portugal",

892:, and rates of development) and flowering plants (involving plant size, duration of flowing time, the number of flowers, the number of fruits, the timing of fruiting, and leaf size) have provided strong evidence of IBT leading to ABT as well as studies of yearly allochrony. 1891:) can be prevented from hybridizing by inducing asynchrony in flowering time. This study is unique in that it is not an example of allochronic speciation, but instead an experiment demonstrating that allochrony can be experimentally applied to induce isolation. 2195:

Corn borer moth strains breed at differing times of the night are considered to be incipient, however it is unclear if allochrony is exclusively causing isolation. Seasonal breeding may keep North American populations isolated as the number of yearly broods

6089:

Scott P Egan, Gregory J Ragland, Lauren Assour, Thomas H Q Powell, Glen R Hood, Scott Emrich, Patrik Nosil, and Jeffrey L Feder (2015), "Experimental evidence of genome-wide impact of ecological selection during early stages of speciation-with-gene-flow",

1283:

Groups of 13- and 17-year life cycle species pairs (seven species total) of cicada emerge to reproduce separated by large time frames between breeding seasons. Only every 221 years do the 13 and 17 year cycles align where both pairs emerge simultaneously.

2200:) between the two strains. Sympatric to each other, Z strain is monovoltine (having a single brood in a year) and the E strain is divoltine (having two broods in a year). In Europe, there is a correlation between larval emergence time and the host plant. 4650:

Susan E Johnston, Panu Orell, Victoria L Pritchard, Matthew P Kent, Sigbjørn Lien, Eero Niemelä, Jaakko Erkinaro, and Craig R Primmer (2014), "Genome-wide SNP analysis reveals a genetic basis for sea-age variation in a wild population of Atlantic salmon

3996:

Simon, C.; Tang, J.; Dalwadi, S.; Staley, G.; Deniega, J.; Unnasch, T. R. (2000), "Genetic evidence for assortative mating between 13-year cicadas and sympatric "17-year cicadas with 13-year life cycles" provides support for allochronic speciation",

3838:

Savolainen, Vincent; Anstett, Marie-Charlotte; Lexer, Christian; Hutton, Ian; Clarkson, James J; Norup, Maria V; Powell, Martyn P; Springate, David; Salamin, Nicolas; Baker, William J (2006), "Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island",

4187:

Anelena L. de Carvalho, Bruce W. Nelson, Milton C. Bianchini, Daniela Plagnol, Tatiana M. Kuplich, and Douglas C. Daly (2013), "Bamboo-Dominated Forests of the Southwest Amazon: Detection, Spatial Extent, Life Cycle Length and Flowering Waves",

6891:

Valentina Gómez-Bahamón, Roberto Márquez, Alex E.Jahn, Cristina Yumi Miyaki, Diego T. Tuero, Oscar Laverde-R, Silvia Restrepo, and Carlos Daniel Cadena (2020), "Speciation Associated with Shifts in Migratory Behavior in an Avian Radiation",

962:

Because allochronic speciation can occur in conjunction with other modes and forms of speciation, researchers must attempt to determine if the initial stages of isolation were the result of allochrony. The speciation continuum of allopatry,

717:, single or multiple reproductive cycles in a lifetime) that can result in different outcomes for allochrony. Many organisms also breed at different times of the day, different seasons in the year, and even over multiple years or decades. 7060:

Ignacio Quintero, Sebastián González-Caro, Paul-Camilo Zalamea, and Carlos Daniel Cadena (2014), "Asynchrony of seasons: genetic differentiation associated with geographic variation in climatic seasonality and reproductive phenology",

784:

lead to complete reproductive isolation and subsequent speciation. The time frames involving allochrony are typically divided into three categories (prevalence in nature as well as examples are provided alongside each category):

7239:

Paul R. Martin, Frances Bonier, Ignacio T. Moore, and Joshua J. Tewksbury (2009), "Latitudinal variation in the asynchrony of seasons: implications for higher rates of population differentiation and speciation in the tropics",

3811:

Bolton, Mark; Smith, Andrea L.; Gómez-díaz, Elena; Friesen, Vicki L.; Medeiros, Renata; Bried, Joël; Roscales, Jose L.; Furness, Robert W. (2008), "Monteiro's Storm-petrel Oceanodroma monteiroi: a new species from the Azores",

3118:

Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; Gharrett, A. J.; McGregor, A. J.; Glubokovsky, M. K.; Feldman, Marcus W. (1994), "Gene differentiation in Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus Sp.): facts and models with reference to pink salmon (O. Gorbuscha)",

6435:

Claudia Hermes, Raeann Mettler, Diego Santiago-Alarcon, Gernot Segelbacher, and H. Martin Schaefer (2015), "Spatial Isolation and Temporal Variation in Fitness and Condition Facilitate Divergence in a Migratory Divide",

1805:

grows on soil contaminated with high levels of lead and zinc leached from an unused mine. Adjacent is the non-contaminated soil. The populations are evolving reproductive isolation due to differences in flowering time.

2593:

Knowlton, N.; Maté, J. L.; Guzmán, H. M.; Rowan, R.; Jara, J. (1997), "Direct evidence for reproductive isolation among the three species of the Montastraea annularis complex in Central America (Panamá and Honduras)",

673:

Environmental changes acting on a species population or populations can drive isolation. An important form of isolation is when populations are separated, not geographically, but temporally (by time). Genetic changes

3889:

Montarry, Josselin; Cartolaro, Philippe; Richard-Cervera, Sylvie; Delmotte, François (2009), "Spatio-temporal distribution of Erysiphe necator genetic groups and their relationship with disease levels in vineyards",

3473:

Branco, Manuela; Paiva, Maria-Rosa; Santos, Helena Maria; Burban, Christian; Kerdelhué, Carole (2017), "Experimental evidence for heritable reproductive time in 2 allochronic populations of pine processionary moth",

1416:

The age at full maturation as well as genetic differentiation varies between one- and three-year Atlantic salmon (these are the years in which the young fish leave to the ocean and return to their breeding grounds).

1771:

Sympatric populations of genetically differentiated plants flower at different times preventing hybridization. It is unclear if speciation is occurring by allochrony as reinforcement may be a stronger explanation.

1788:

grows on soil contaminated with high levels of copper leached from an unused mine. Adjacent is the non-contaminated soil. The populations are evolving reproductive isolation due to differences in flowering time.

1569:

The green algae reproduces by releasing gametes at different times. This is thought to have driven reproductive isolation, but it is unclear if it is genetically controlled or based purely on environmental cues.

5952: 1442:

Allochrony likely plays a role in the Cuckoo bird as they depend on host species for rearing their young. Hosts lay eggs at different times, and cuckoos depend on these timeframes to replace a host bird's eggs.

872:

to the specific conditions of the reproductive time. This means that, "an individual with a heritable tendency to reproduce early that instead reproduced late might express traits typical of early reproducers".

2170:

The two butterfly species have hybridized creating a hybrid population that breeds during a different time than the parent populations. Genetic evidence indicates that genes control the timing of reproduction.

1429:

European eels have varying rates that they mature based on environmental factors. This creates separated breeding populations that show some genetic differentiation—notably between 2–3 year breeding intervals.

3195:

Limborg, Morten T.; Waples, Ryan K.; Seeb, James E.; Seeb, Lisa W. (2014), "Temporally Isolated Lineages of Pink Salmon Reveal Unique Signatures of Selection on Distinct Pools of Standing Genetic Variation",

6024:

Ohigashi K, Mizuguti A, Yoshimura Y, Matsuo K, and Miwa T (2014), "A new method for evaluating flowering synchrony to support the temporal isolation of genetically modified crops from their wild relatives",

1669:

The phenology of members in the treehopper species complex is correlated with their host plants—when changing host species in experiment, the treehopper egg hatching time changes promoting assortive mating.

6256:

Glen R Hood, Andrew A Forbes, Thomas H Q Powell, Scott P Egan, Gabriela Hamerlinck, James J Smith, and Jeffrey L Feder (2015), "Sequential divergence and the multiplicative origin of community diversity",

905:(more than one gene controls the phenotypic trait). In a population, offspring will inherit the traits for reproductive time causing a decrease in gene flow while reproductive timing differences increase. 3339:

Brieuc, MSO; Ono, K; Drinan, DP; Naish, KA (2015), "Integration of Random Forest with population-based outlier analyses provides insight on the genomic basis and evolution of run timing in Chinook salmon

741:

disperse pollen relying on wind to direct pollen to female cones), or the overall timing of flowering (based on possible environmental cues such as moisture levels, soil type or quality, temperature, or

5459:

Hippee AC, Elnes ME, Armenta JS, Condon MA, and Forbes AA (2016), "Divergence before the host shift? Prezygotic reproductive isolation among three varieties of a specialist fly on a single host plant",

3068:

Fillatre, E. K.; Etherton, P.; Heath, D. D. (2003), "Bimodal run distribution in a northern population of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka): life history and genetic analysis on a temporal scale",

3421:

Santos, Helena M; Paiva, Maria-Rosa; Rocha, Susana; Kerdelhué, Carole; Branco, Manuela (2013), "Phenotypic divergence in reproductive traits of a moth population experiencing a phenological shift",

2684:

Sota, Teiji; Yamamoto, Satoshi; Cooley, John R.; Hill, Kathy B. R.; Simon, Chris; Yoshimura, Jin (2013), "Independent divergence of 13- and 17-y life cycles among three periodical cicada lineages",

6188:

Thomas H Q Powell, Andrew A Forbes, Glen R Hood, and Jeffrey L Feder (2014), "Ecological adaptation and reproductive isolation in sympatry: Genetic and phenotypic evidence for native host races of

4041:

D. P. Logan, P. G. Allsopp, and M. P. Zalucki (2003), "Overwintering, soil distribution and phenology of Childers canegrub, Antitrogus parvulus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Queensland sugarcane",

698:

Breeding seasons of three populations of a species shift over time eventually causing the isolation of their genes from the other populations. This reproductive isolation can lead to speciation.

5367:

Harrison RG, Bogdanowicz SM, and Hall C (1995), "Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of North American field crickets: perspectives on the evolution of life cycles, songs, and habitat associations",

3664:

Bird, Christopher E.; Holland, Brenden S.; Bowen, Brian W; Toonen, Robert J (2011), "Diversification of sympatric broadcast-spawning limpets (Cellana spp.) within the Hawaiian archipelago",

710:

to act on both populations independently. Over time, this gives rise to a new species. Allochronic speciation is a form of isolation that can involve allopatry; however, it is not required.

5953:

Levente Kiss, Alexandra Pintye, Gábor M Kovács, Tünde Jankovics, Michael C Fontaine, Nick Harvey, Xiangming Xu, Philippe C Nicot, Marc Bardin, Jacqui A Shykoff, and Tatiana Giraud (2011),

3297:

Quinn, TP; Unwin, MJ; Kinnison, MT (2000), "Evolution of temporal isolation in the wild: genetic divergence in timing of migration and breeding by introduced chinook salmon populations",

2639:

Hendry, Andrew P.; Berg, Ole K.; Quinn, Thomas P. (1999), "Condition dependence and adaptation-by-time: breeding date, life history, and energy allocation within a population of salmon",

983:

allow accidental intermixing of populations) while yearly allochrony is the least prone to gene flow (accidental intermixing is rare if large time frames exist between mating periods).

6890: 6506:"Reproductive allochrony in seasonally sympatric populations maintained by differential response to photoperiod: implications for population divergence and response to climate change" 2254:—generating seasons that are not found at the equator. Because of this, populations of a species have phenologies that are generally synchronous across a range allowing for unimpeded 4089:

A. E. Gradish, N. Keyghobadi, and G. W. Otis (2015), "Population genetic structure and genetic diversity of the threatened White Mountain arctic butterfly (Oeneis melissa semidea)",

7621: 6385:

Anderson AM, Novak SJ, Smith JF, Steenhof K, Heath JA (2016), "Nesting phenology, mate choice, and genetic divergence within a partially migratory population of American Kestrels",

4779:

A P Møller, A Antonov, B G Stokke, F Fossøy, A Moksnes, E Røskaft, and F Takasu (2011), "Isolation by time and habitat and coexistence of distinct host races of the common cuckoo",

3942:

D. C. Marshall and J. R. Cooley (2000), "Reproductive character displacement and speciation in periodical cicadas, with description of new species, 13-year Magicicada neotredecem",

3232:

Smoker, WW; Gharrett, AJ; Stekoll, MS (1998), "Genetic variation of return date in a population of pink salmon: a consequence of fluctuating environment and dispersive selection?",

901:

probability of mating can also be proportional to breeding values (phenotypic trait expressed as the trait of tis offspring) for reproductive time in the event the heritability is

2548:

Fukami, H.; Omori, M.; Shimoike, K.; Hayashibara, T.; Hatta, M. (2003), "Ecological and genetic aspects of reproductive isolation by different spawning times in Acropora corals",

1387:

Only laboratory hybridization has been observed between the two Queensland fruit flies, the latter of which mates only during the day time, while the former mates only at night.

6697:

Leppänen SA, Altenhofer E, Liston AD, and Nyman T (2012), "Phylogenetics and evolution of host-plant use in leaf-mining sawflies (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae: Heterarthrinae)",

1616:

The spring field crickets have been described as speciating in allochrony due to their maturation timing. However more recent studies indicate that they are not sister species.

864:

are often found to co-occur with reproductive timing such as flowering number, egg-clutch sizes, reproductive lifespans, or body size—what can be defined as temporal phenotypic

1533:

Himalayan poppy are a fully reproductively isolated species thought to have speciated through allochrony as they exist in sympatry and flower at different times in the season.

7564: 7364: 2265:) experience asynchrony in seasonal variation in that the regions receive similar amounts of solar radiation and maintain consistence temperature. What does change is 4649: 4374:

Saldamando-Benjumea CI, Estrada-Piedrahíta K, Velásquez-Vélez MI, and Bailey RI (2014), "Assortative mating and lack of temporality between corn and rice strains of

1381: 5147:

Devries PJ, Austin GT, and Martin NH (2008), "Diel activity and reproductive isolation in a diverse assemblage of Neotropical skippers (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)",

4434:

Samuel S C Rund, Samuel J Lee, Brian R Bush, and Giles E Duffield (2012), "Strain- and sex-specific differences in daily flight activity and the circadian clock of

702:

Speciation ultimately results due to the reproductive isolation between two populations. This can happen in a multitude of ways, a common mode of which is known as

2183:

Fork-tailed flycatcher populations are diverging due to isolation by a change in breeding times and breeding grounds as a result of a loss of migratory behavior.

1330:

at once. This can happen in different years and different locations. Allochronic patches are thought to have driven the diversification of global bamboo species.

8708: 7611: 4837:

McAllan BM, Dickman CR, and Crowther MS (2006), "Photoperiod as a reproductive cue in the marsupial genus Antechinus: Ecological and evolutionary consequences",

3010:

Andrew P Hendry, Yolanda E Morbey, Ole K Berg, and John K Wenburg (2004), "Adaptive variation in senescence: reproductive lifespan in a wild salmon population",

1812: 1527: 678:) over time can cause the two populations to differ—notably in phenology (events in a species life dictated by time such as breeding seasons); exhibiting unique 307: 4256:

Schöfl G, Dill A, Heckel DG, and Groot AT (2011), "Allochronic separation versus mate choice: nonrandom patterns of mating between fall armyworm host strains",

944: 7616: 6088: 2140: 1922: 2434:

Turbek, Sheela P.; Scordato, Elizabeth S.C.; Safran, Rebecca J. (2018), "The Role of Seasonal Migration in Population Divergence and Reproductive Isolation",

832:

a fourth dimension expressed as asynchrony in breeding as opposed to synchrony. Speciation events are indicated by the varying colored paths that are taken.

7601: 1688: 1484: 1290: 6505: 2212:(North and South America) were found to express increased genetic differentiation in correlation with living in areas that have asynchronous precipitation. 7606: 3145:

D. Churikov and A. J. Gharrett (2002), "Comparative phylogeography of the two pink salmon broodlines: an analysis based on a mitochondrial DNA genealogy",

2146: 3526:

Yamamoto, Satoshi; Sota, Teiji (2012), "Parallel allochronic divergence in a winter moth due to disruption of reproductive period by winter harshness",

2908:

Dopman, EB; Robbins, PS; Seaman, A (2010), "Components of reproductive isolation between North American pheromone strains of the European corn borer",

6615:

Jérôme Sueur and Stéphane Puissant (2002), "Spatial and ecological isolation in cicadas: first data from Tibicina (Hemiptera: Cicadoidea) in France",

6255: 4186: 1759:). Hybrids are not known outside of laboratory settings and exhibit intermediate flowering times. All seven species exist in sympatric distributions. 6827:

Ording GJ, Mercader RJ, Aardema ML, and Scriber JM (2010), "Allochronic isolation and incipient hybrid speciation in tiger swallowtail butterflies",

3251:

Gharrett, AJ; Lane, S; McGregor, AJ; Taylor, SG (2001), "Use of a genetic marker to examine genetic interaction among subpopulations of pink salmon (

1598:

with larval emergence occurring in conjunction with flowering time. It is thought that morphology and host-shifting contribute alongside allochrony.

1123:

Breeding is prevented in areas where mid-winter temperatures are unsuitable for the moth species. This has given rise to late and early populations.

6651:

Komatsu T and Akimoto S (1995), "Genetic differentiation as a result of adaptation to the phenologies of individual host trees in the galling aphid

713:

Allochrony can involve a number of factors that induce the formation of a new species. Organisms have evolved various reproductive strategies (e.g.

7312: 7268: 7143: 7103: 7043: 6946: 6877: 6779: 6731: 6561: 6490: 6421: 6371: 6311: 6242: 6134: 6075: 6010: 5939: 5680: 5624: 5566: 5504: 5403: 5269: 5175: 5133: 5027: 4971: 4865: 4823: 4765: 4697: 4600: 4472: 4420: 4360: 4298: 4242: 4131: 4075: 3054: 2258:

and subsequent gene flow. This results in less divergence between populations; ultimately reducing rates of speciation (and overall biodiversity).

5518:

Forbes AA, Kelly PH, Middleton KA, and Condon MA (2013), "Genetically differentiated races and speciation-with-gene-flow in the sunflower maggot,

5231:

Ueno H, Furukawa S, and Tsuchida K (2006), "Difference in the time of mating activity between host-associated populations of the rice stem borer,

1085:) has driven genetic differentiation between the two populations. Breeding run times also vary across the population range of the Chinook salmon ( 3576:

Patrick Abbot and James H Withgott (2004), "Phylogenetic and molecular evidence for allochronic speciation in gall-forming aphids (Pemphigus)",

2960:

Natalie L Rosser (2015), "Asynchronous spawning in sympatric populations of a hard coral reveals cryptic species and ancient genetic lineages",

6745:

MacQuarrie CJK, Langor DW, and Sperling FAH (2007), "Mitochondrial DNA variation in two invasive birch leaf-mining sawflies in North America",

5772:

Stefan G Michalski and Walter Durka (2015), "Separation in flowering time contributes to the maintenance of sympatric cryptic plant lineages",

1932:(one of the most researched, model organisms), genetic data indicates heritability of emergence and its associated flight time. In commercial 622: 2741:

Donald C. Franklin (2004), "Synchrony and asynchrony: observations and hypotheses for the flowering wave in a long-lived semelparous bamboo",

2152:

The leaf-mining sawflies, despite being very similar, show some evidence of divergence due to seasonal flying (fall and spring respectively).

799:

Seasonally (considered to be the most common), seasonal breeding times often coincide with winter, spring, fall, or summer; examples include

8457: 5637: 4985:

Barat M, Tarayre M, and Atlan A (2007), "Plant phenology and seed predation: Interactions between gorses and weevils in Brittany (France)",

7757: 7207:

Schemske, Doug (2009). "Biotic interactions and speciation in the tropics". In Butlin, Roger K.; Bridle, Jon & Schluter, Dolph (eds.).

6793:

Scriber JM (2011), "Impacts of climate warming on hybrid zone movement: geographically diffuse and biologically porous 'species borders'",

3714:

L. R. Monteiro (1998), "Speciation through temporal segregation of Madeiran storm petrel (Oceanodroma castro) populations in the Azores?",

2014:

Kestrels of Idaho have both migrating and year-round residents with the year-round population nesting earlier generating assortive mating.

1639:

genus exhibit mating activity in sympatry during three seasonal periods, late fall, late spring, and early spring. Two tick species in the

230: 2493:

Hendry, Andrew P.; Day, Troy (2005), "Population structure attributable to reproductive time: isolation by time and adaptation by time",

7693: 2224: 541: 7117:

M.R. Willig, D.M. Kaufman, and R.D. Stevens (2003), "Latitudinal Gradients of Biodiversity: Pattern, Process, Scale, and Synthesis",

8961: 8416: 7574: 349: 6434: 1472:

The lake whitefish has two known forms, normal and dwarf. They have different spawning times but may have diverged in allopatry.

7767: 5189:

Clifton K and Clifton L (1999), "The phenology of sexual reproduction by green algae (Bryopsidales) on Caribbean coral reefs",

4145:

Madhav Gadgil and S. Narendra Prasad (1984), "Ecological Determinants of Life History Evolution of Two Indian Bamboo Species",

55: 2208:

In an experiment testing the Asynchrony of Seasons Hypothesis (see section below), 57 different bird species found across the

8724: 8484: 3620:

Jeffrey B Joy and Bernard J Crespi (2007), "Adaptive radiation of gall-inducing insects within a single host-plant species",

967:, and sympatry have all been implicated in studies of temporal isolation. Allochrony can also facilitate reinforcement after 536: 7449: 2090:

Habitat isolation, allochrony, and allopatry were identified in various pairs of seven species and subspecies of the genus (

1404:

The fruit flies mate during morning and afternoon respectively. Courtship behavior could also be isolating the two species.

8081: 7374: 7344: 5827:

Thomas McNeilly and Janis Antonovics (1968), "Evolution in Closely Adjacent Plant Populations. IV. Barriers to Gene Flow",

483: 1556:

It is thought that temporal isolation is responsible for speciation in many of the 400 skipper butterfly species studied.

8807: 7727: 7059: 5694:

Tabuchi K, Amano H (2003), "Host-associated differences in emergence pattern, reproductive behavior and life history of

1865:

fungus that infects apple powdery mildew completes their lifecycle before other strains that infect other mildew hosts.

757:

For allochronic speciation to be considered to have actually occurred, the model necessitates three major requirements:

8469: 8129: 971:. The frequency of allochronic speciation is thought to common but understudied as allochrony is widespread in nature. 615: 344: 175: 6960:

Liebherr J. and Roelofs W. (1975), "Laboratory hybridization and mating period studies using two pheromone strains of

3750:

Friesen, V. L.; Smith, A. L.; Gómez-Díaz, E.; Bolton, M.; Furness, R. W.; González-Solís, J.; Monteiro, L. R. (2007),

1970:

has been induced by host-shifts caused by various factors such as timing of its egg hatching, fruit smell preference,

1023:

Japanese corals found to be reproductively isolated by the timing of their spawning. Sympatric species populations of

7216: 5638:

Kasso Daïnou, Eric Laurenty, Grégory Mahy, Olivier J Hardy, Yves Brostaux, Nikki Tagg, and Jean-Louis Doucet (2012),

2797: 2336: 8536: 7453: 8541: 8139: 5954: 77: 6991: 5283:

Groman JD and Pellmyr O (2000), "Rapid evolution and specialization following host colonization in a yucca moth",

8786: 8776: 8700: 7975: 6544: 4711:

Maes GE, Pujolar JM, Hellemans B, and Volckaert FAM (2006), "Evidence for isolation by time in the European eel (

2784: 1682:

With flowering time of the African teak thought to be genetically controlled, the population exhibits isolation.

334: 302: 6342: 6166: 4312:

Schöfl G, Heckel DG, and Groot AT (2009), "Time-shifted reproductive behaviours among fall armyworm (Noctuidae:

8914: 8781: 8561: 8305: 8103: 8007: 7896: 5955:"Temporal isolation explains host-related genetic differentiation in a group of widespread mycoparasitic fungi" 4778: 4373: 2890: 1027:

coral spawn separately in the fall and spring with spawning being a heritable, likely involving the PaxC gene.

761:

Phylogenetic analysis must indicate that the two taxa in question are incipient species or clearly sister taxa.

556: 339: 1836:

Differences in courtship behavior as well as morphology are found in populations that infect different hosts (

1361:

Controlled by circadian rhythms that stimulate mating, the mosquitos swarm at slightly different times during

670:

that arise between two or more species—speciation caused by allochrony is effectively allochronic speciation.

8979: 8566: 8310: 8049: 7281: 2131: 1366: 608: 595: 8511: 8919: 8421: 4879:

Kirkpatrick M, and Selander RK (1979), "Genetics of speciation in lake whitefishes in the Allegash Basin",

526: 8989: 8583: 7681: 7669: 7238: 1323: 827: 714: 706:. The geographic mode, where two species become physically isolated and unable to interbreed, allows for 582: 5580:

Wood TK, Olmstead KL, and Guttman SI (1990), "Insect phenology mediated by host-plant water relations",

1102: 725:(in aquatic animals) times. In plants, breeding in regards to time could involve the receptivity of the 8685: 7859: 7570: 5049:(Papaveraceae), two new species of Himalayan poppy endemic to central Nepal with sympatric congeners", 1588: 776: 82: 5742:

A. Mosseler and C. S. Papadopol (1989), "Seasonal isolation as a reproductive barrier among sympatric

5639: 8479: 8276: 8086: 7854: 7747: 1460:

and in sympatric populations, reproductively isolated species are found to breed at different times.

1297:

Two beetle cohorts express genetic differentiation from life cycles separated by two-year intervals.

448: 423: 403: 383: 60: 8608: 6187: 5644:(Moraceae): Evidence of isolation by time and its interaction with feeding strategies of dispersers" 4923:

Rogers SM, Isabel N, and Bernatchez L (2007), "Linkage maps of the dwarf and normal lake whitefish (

3912: 1109:

stages of this moth species. Winter and summer larval populations are in the process of speciating.

8902: 8766: 8738: 8713: 8670: 8573: 8506: 8381: 8254: 8222: 8195: 8185: 7524: 7337: 2812:

Montgomery Slatkin (1993). "Isolation by Distance in Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Populations".

2134:

to hatch. Incipient populations have arisen due to changes in the budding times of the host plant.

2124: 1582:

Mate timing occurs at different intervals at night as well as dependence on different host plants.

1311:

Two-year life cycles of the butterfly species breeding groups have caused genetic differentiation.

902: 846:

Starts with geographic separation, mate choice furthers isolation, and is completed by allochrony.

438: 433: 408: 363: 329: 323: 312: 8386: 5319:

Alexander RD and Bigelow RS (1960), "Allochronic speciation in field crickets, and a new species,

1717:

The Canadian willow species are found to isolated by flowering time; three of which flower early (

8907: 8837: 8746: 8474: 8356: 8124: 7720: 6503: 4433: 3009: 2856: 551: 458: 453: 398: 359: 160: 7158: 5897:(Diptera: Tephritidae): biological and morphological adaptation on artichoke and milk thistle", 8946: 8595: 8464: 8426: 8327: 8298: 8271: 8266: 7864: 7629: 7585: 7487: 7405: 7379: 4927:) species complex and their hybrids reveal the genetic architecture of population divergence", 3907: 1916: 1604: 655: 463: 418: 240: 135: 8452: 6325:

Craig TP, Horner JD, and Itami JK (2001), "Genetics, experience, and host-plant preference in

8887: 8761: 8680: 8675: 8660: 8645: 8635: 8551: 8526: 8361: 8317: 8281: 8249: 8190: 8168: 8149: 8012: 7965: 7916: 7911: 7869: 7510: 7463: 7445: 7441: 7425: 7369: 7130: 6989: 4490:; Dabiré, Roch K (2013), "Differences in timing of mating swarms in sympatric populations of 1990:

Two populations of goldenrod gall fly differ in their emergence periods on their host plants

1795: 1521: 1213: 1204: 964: 951: 947: 877: 775:

The source of divergence can be determined to be explicitly allochrony and not the result of

769: 703: 651: 561: 443: 388: 354: 267: 8861: 8756: 8690: 8491: 8406: 8322: 8234: 8217: 8144: 8134: 7844: 7752: 7736: 7477: 6836: 6664: 6588: 6445: 6266: 6201: 6148:

Teixeira LAF and Polavarapu S (2003), "Evolution of phenologically distinct populations of

6034: 5969: 5906: 5781: 5715: 5531: 5469: 5198: 5100: 4994: 4724: 4387: 4197: 4154: 4098: 3899: 3848: 3766: 3673: 3535: 3483: 3430: 3353: 3154: 3077: 2969: 2750: 2693: 2648: 2603: 2557: 2502: 2391: 2255: 1898: 1830: 1649: 1174: 955: 751: 413: 185: 70: 27: 8496: 8366: 7284:

Allochronic Divergence Driven by Spatial Asynchrony in Precipitation in Neotropical Frogs?

3751: 8: 9010: 8924: 8882: 8832: 8751: 8599: 8591: 8521: 8501: 8447: 8291: 8044: 7987: 7849: 7832: 7810: 7657: 7514: 7330: 6023: 5458: 2189: 1984: 1551: 1515:. The timing in which they lay eggs on the plant occurs in fall and spring respectively. 1037: 1033: 889: 503: 493: 428: 393: 277: 180: 105: 40: 8202: 6840: 6668: 6592: 6449: 6270: 6205: 6038: 5973: 5910: 5785: 5719: 5535: 5473: 5202: 5104: 4998: 4728: 4391: 4201: 4158: 4102: 3903: 3852: 3770: 3716:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

3677: 3539: 3487: 3434: 3357: 3158: 3081: 2973: 2754: 2697: 2652: 2607: 2561: 2506: 2395: 8897: 8849: 8842: 8439: 8351: 8212: 8173: 7997: 7941: 7931: 7891: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7713: 7529: 7295: 7189: 7086: 7026: 7014: 6929: 6860: 6810: 6762: 6680: 6676: 6634: 6536: 6468: 6404: 6354: 6289: 6225: 6171: 6112: 6058: 5993: 5922: 5876: 5802: 5607: 5594: 5549: 5487: 5386: 5381: 5350: 5336: 5302: 5252: 5214: 5210: 5116: 5010: 4949: 4906: 4893: 4806: 4748: 4680: 4583: 4526: 4403: 4343: 4281: 4220: 4170: 4114: 4024: 4011: 3979: 3956: 3925: 3872: 3789: 3736: 3697: 3647: 3603: 3590: 3559: 3509: 3451: 3377: 3322: 3310: 3280: 3178: 3101: 3032: 2993: 2943: 2930: 2829: 2766: 2716: 2664: 2619: 2573: 2528: 2417: 2382:

Rebecca S. Taylor and Vicki L. Friesen (2017), "The role of allochrony in speciation",

2158: 2020: 1992: 1975: 1743: 1661: 1576: 1355: 1276: 1243:

Genetically controlled flowering times have caused (in conjunction with differing soil

1224:) and incipient species (other archipelagos) caused by cool and warm breeding seasons. 1095: 1010: 929: 884:(involving reproductive lifespans, size at adulthood, age, energy storage, the mass of 811: 546: 478: 262: 190: 155: 7282:

Carlos E. Guarnizo, Paola Montoya, Ignacio Quintero, and Carlos Daniel Cadena (2020),

2048:

of whom migrate to a different region to breed while only residing sympatrically with

8985: 8939: 8665: 8613: 8391: 8207: 8108: 8071: 8066: 8022: 8017: 7970: 7936: 7676: 7580: 7552: 7534: 7500: 7306: 7299: 7262: 7212: 7181: 7137: 7097: 7078: 7037: 7030: 7018: 6992:"Genetic isolation between two sympatric host-plant race of the European corn borer, 6940: 6933: 6921: 6871: 6852: 6806: 6773: 6725: 6714: 6555: 6528: 6484: 6473: 6415: 6384: 6365: 6358: 6346: 6305: 6294: 6236: 6217: 6128: 6117: 6069: 6050: 6004: 5985: 5981: 5933: 5807: 5674: 5663: 5618: 5599: 5560: 5498: 5442: 5397: 5297: 5263: 5248: 5169: 5161: 5127: 5087:

Opler PA, Baker HG, and Frankie GW (1975), "Reproductive biology of some Costa Rican

5021: 5006: 4965: 4954: 4898: 4859: 4851: 4817: 4798: 4793: 4759: 4740: 4736: 4691: 4672: 4594: 4575: 4531: 4466: 4455: 4414: 4354: 4335: 4330: 4292: 4273: 4236: 4225: 4125: 4069: 4058: 4016: 3971: 3864: 3825: 3794: 3689: 3685: 3639: 3634: 3595: 3551: 3547: 3501: 3456: 3381: 3369: 3314: 3272: 3215: 3170: 3166: 3093: 3089: 3048: 3037: 2985: 2935: 2921: 2886: 2837: 2793: 2762: 2721: 2520: 2515: 2453: 2409: 2332: 2279: 2064: 1998: 1910: 1904: 1731: 1595: 1375: 1349: 1236: 1168: 1041: 968: 707: 247: 125: 115: 110: 7090: 6864: 6814: 6766: 6684: 6638: 6540: 6408: 6175: 6062: 5997: 5926: 5880: 5611: 5553: 5491: 5390: 5354: 5306: 5256: 5218: 5014: 4910: 4810: 4752: 4684: 4636: 4587: 4407: 4347: 4285: 4118: 4028: 3983: 3929: 3701: 3651: 3607: 3563: 3326: 3284: 3182: 3105: 2997: 2770: 2623: 2577: 2421: 946:

equals the rate of gene exchange. The three primary geographic modes of speciation (

8531: 8098: 8076: 7884: 7544: 7505: 7287: 7249: 7193: 7173: 7126: 7070: 7010: 6973: 6911: 6901: 6844: 6802: 6754: 6706: 6672: 6624: 6596: 6520: 6463: 6453: 6394: 6338: 6284: 6274: 6229: 6209: 6161: 6107: 6099: 6042: 5977: 5914: 5868: 5855:

Polukonova NV and Karmokov MK (2013), "Microevolutionary changes in populations of

5836: 5797: 5789: 5755: 5723: 5655: 5589: 5539: 5477: 5434: 5376: 5340: 5332: 5292: 5244: 5206: 5156: 5108: 5068: 5058: 5002: 4944: 4936: 4888: 4846: 4788: 4732: 4710: 4664: 4631: 4565: 4521: 4511: 4487: 4451: 4447: 4395: 4325: 4265: 4215: 4205: 4162: 4106: 4050: 4006: 3961: 3951: 3917: 3856: 3821: 3784: 3774: 3731: 3723: 3681: 3629: 3585: 3543: 3513: 3491: 3446: 3438: 3404: 3361: 3306: 3264: 3205: 3162: 3128: 3085: 3027: 3019: 2977: 2947: 2925: 2917: 2821: 2758: 2711: 2701: 2656: 2611: 2565: 2532: 2510: 2443: 2399: 2247: 2008: 1838: 1737: 1546:

Some of the species in the genus exhibit significant variation in flowering times.

1257: 1248: 1230: 922: 718: 282: 8376: 6826: 5640:"Phenological patterns in a natural population of a tropical timber tree species, 3876: 8892: 8516: 8343: 8332: 8286: 8229: 8178: 7958: 7762: 7625: 7467: 7399: 6696: 6458: 5438: 4210: 3408: 2857:"Assortative mating and plant phenology: evolutionary and practical consequences" 2177: 2164: 2078:

complex) possibly the result of reproductive timing based on photoperiodic cues.

1778: 1676: 1610: 1410: 1365:

exhibit some evifence of allochrony, though it is possible that reinforcement or

1153:

forms them on leaves in the summer. This has led to full reproductive isolation.

865: 726: 722: 235: 225: 87: 6710: 5517: 4940: 8732: 8604: 8546: 7906: 7901: 7839: 7817: 7633: 7457: 2448: 2033: 1862: 1765: 1725: 1719: 1511: 1478: 1466: 1457: 1327: 1303: 1266: 1264:

Exhibits evidence of isolation due to temporal differences of its host species

1070: 1058: 804: 743: 317: 220: 7291: 6906: 6848: 6601: 6046: 5918: 5872: 5544: 5063: 4399: 4110: 3921: 3268: 2569: 35: 9004: 8934: 8812: 8771: 8617: 8371: 8039: 8034: 7637: 4486:

Sawadogo, Simon P; Costantini, Carlo; Pennetier, Cédric; Diabaté, Abdoulaye;

4040: 2266: 2251: 2058: 1695: 1622: 1436: 1336: 468: 140: 6977: 6279: 4614:

Denise Selivon and João S. Morgante (1997), "Reproductive isolation between

4548:

N. Pike, W. Y. S. Wang, and A. Meats (2003), "The likely fate of hybrids of

4516: 4088: 3779: 3496: 3210: 2706: 666:

is used to describe the general ecological phenomenon of the differences in

8929: 8877: 8822: 8655: 8650: 8244: 8002: 7471: 7420: 7415: 7254: 7185: 7116: 7082: 7022: 6925: 6856: 6744: 6718: 6532: 6477: 6350: 6298: 6221: 6121: 6054: 5989: 5811: 5667: 5603: 5446: 4958: 4902: 4802: 4744: 4676: 4579: 4570: 4535: 4459: 4339: 4277: 4229: 4062: 4020: 3975: 3868: 3798: 3727: 3693: 3643: 3599: 3555: 3505: 3460: 3373: 3318: 3276: 3219: 3174: 3097: 3041: 3023: 2989: 2939: 2841: 2725: 2524: 2457: 2413: 2324: 2243: 2228: 1967: 1951: 1877: 1755: 1749: 1562: 1423: 765: 738: 488: 473: 257: 252: 170: 6629: 6504:

Fudickar AM, Greives TJ, Atwell JW, Stricker CA, and Ketterson ED (2016),

5345: 2615: 1698:

differ substantially in emergence time (with no overlap) on two different

8956: 8827: 8556: 8091: 7921: 7827: 7785: 6399: 5728: 4255: 3966: 2320: 1871: 1854: 1628: 1501: 1159: 1064: 958:) can exist within this continuum, as well as other non-geographic modes. 838: 694: 498: 215: 165: 8396: 6916: 6575:

H-W. Deng (1997), "Photoperiodic response of sexual reproduction in the

5841: 5659: 3888: 3860: 658:

that occurs due to a change in breeding time that reduces or eliminates

8817: 8718: 8640: 8627: 8261: 8061: 7948: 7926: 7879: 7874: 7822: 7790: 7705: 7556: 7495: 7410: 7353: 5366: 5120: 4836: 4174: 4054: 2833: 2668: 2070:

Very limited isolation is detected between the two water flea species (

1971: 1940:

differ in their flight periods causing a reduction in gene flow. Other

1820: 1495: 1449: 1393: 1077: 881: 869: 800: 788:

Daily (considered to be common), examples include stony corals such as

647: 272: 195: 150: 130: 44: 6990:

Thomas Y, Bethenod M-T, Pelozuelo L, Frérot B, and Bourguet D (2003),

6213: 6103: 5793: 5482: 5073: 4668: 3365: 3117: 2981: 2404: 2381: 8951: 8802: 8411: 8029: 7777: 5892: 4922: 3442: 2274: 2209: 2197: 1946: 1933: 1129: 861: 793: 679: 667: 659: 531: 145: 65: 6758: 5826: 5759: 5579: 5146: 5112: 4547: 4166: 4144: 3132: 2825: 2660: 8854: 8056: 7177: 7074: 6524: 5771: 4613: 4269: 2239: 2084: 1824:) exhibits differences in life cycle in accordance with elevation. 1362: 1203:

have become reproductively isolated likely due to a combination of

1016: 789: 675: 521: 120: 6614: 5859:

Str. (Keyl, 1962) (Chironomidae, Diptera) from central Caucasus",

5230: 5086: 4485: 3619: 3575: 2273:

A large scale test of the hypothesis was conducted on fifty-seven

8239: 7953: 7560: 7395: 6324: 4311: 2262: 2232: 2002:

by 10 to 14 days preventing hybridization and causing isolation.

1192: 1115: 876:

Isolation by time (IBT) is partially analogous to the concept of

734: 6996:

Hübner. I. sex pheromone, moth emergence timing, and parasitism"

851:

Starts with mate-choice differentiation followed by allochrony.

5741: 4984: 3941: 1844: 1539: 1316: 1221: 1200: 815: 577: 5822: 5820: 4878: 4316:) host strains: Evidence for differing modes of inheritance", 3144: 2547: 2044:

Photoperiodic cues drive earlier development of the gonads in

986: 8160: 7322: 6147: 5854: 1710: 1106: 1049: 885: 730: 5417:

Hornok, S. (2009), "Allochronic seasonal peak activities of

3837: 3810: 3749: 3393: 6343:

10.1554/0014-3820(2001)055[0773:GEAHPP]2.0.CO;2

6167:

10.1603/0013-8746(2003)096[0818:EOPDPO]2.0.CO;2

5817: 5318: 1700: 1142: 682:(the observable characteristics or traits of an organism). 6959: 3250: 2634: 2632: 2319: 2223:

A noteworthy and significant pattern in nature is that of

1247:

levels) the reproductive isolation of two palm species on

7159:"On the generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient" 3420: 2783:

Dieckmann, U.; Doebeli, M.; Metz, JAJ; Tautz, D. (2004),

2782: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2261:

In contrast with this, latitudes near or at the equator (

1052:

that have speciated due to the timing of their spawning.

926:

Speciation represented as a continuum of gene flow where

5698:(Monzen)(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) between populations on 4502:

M and S molecular forms) in Burkina Faso, West Africa",

2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 1978:. The egg hatching timing factor implicates allochrony. 1207:

and spawn cues (e.g. spawning according to water level.

6650: 5282: 5188: 3472: 3012:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2629: 2592: 1244: 6152:(Diptera: Tephritidae) in Highbush Blueberry Fields", 3995: 3663: 2683: 1220:

The petrels group has reproductively isolated (in the

996:

Studies and examples of allochronic speciation events

3231: 3194: 3067: 2488: 2486: 2344: 932: 764:

Breeding timing is required to be genetically-based (

7119:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

3338: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2433: 1199:

Inhabiting different depths within centimeters, the

818:, both of which reproduce within a scale of decades. 7055: 7053: 2907: 2218: 1145:on different leaves of the same host tree species. 1105:in genes is associated with the emergence time for 856:

Mating and ecological factors accompany allochrony.

7234: 7232: 7230: 7228: 5693: 3296: 3121:Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2811: 2740: 2679: 2677: 938: 4378:(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) from central Colombia", 3752:"Sympatric speciation by allochrony in a seabird" 2903: 2901: 2463: 9002: 7050: 6329:: implications for host shifts and speciation", 2959: 7225: 6259:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5893:Sayar NP, Smith CA, White IM, Knio KM (2009), " 2674: 2638: 662:between two populations of a species. The term 16:Speciation arising from change in breeding time 6966:Annals of the Entomological Society of America 6154:Annals of the Entomological Society of America 3713: 2898: 2880: 2736: 2734: 2588: 2586: 7721: 7338: 7211:. Oxford University Press. pp. 219–239. 6579:group is reversed in two distinct habitats", 2854: 2792:, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2315: 2270:speciation, and an increase in biodiversity. 1643:genus show peak activity in fall and spring. 729:(the female part of the flower) to accepting 721:in animals is a common occurrence as well as 616: 7311:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7267:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7150: 7142:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7102:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7042:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6945:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6876:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6778:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6730:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6560:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6489:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6420:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6370:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 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multiple names: authors list ( 4599:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4471:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4419:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4359:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4297:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4241:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4130:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4074:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3525: 3053:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2874: 2543: 2541: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2130:The galling aphids depend on the budding of 1936:fields versus wild ones, the populations of 810:Yearly (considered rarer), examples include 768:) as opposed to changeable throughout life ( 2731: 2583: 987:Examples of divergence driven by allochrony 7728: 7714: 7345: 7331: 7156: 6792: 5416: 2225:latitudinal gradients in species diversity 623: 609: 7253: 6915: 6905: 6628: 6600: 6574: 6467: 6457: 6398: 6288: 6278: 6165: 6111: 5840: 5801: 5727: 5593: 5543: 5481: 5380: 5344: 5296: 5160: 5149:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 5072: 5062: 4948: 4892: 4850: 4839:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 4792: 4635: 4569: 4525: 4515: 4329: 4219: 4209: 4010: 3965: 3955: 3911: 3788: 3778: 3735: 3633: 3589: 3495: 3450: 3209: 3031: 2929: 2715: 2705: 2538: 2514: 2492: 2447: 2427: 2403: 2292: 2242:regions, various taxa experience similar 1149:forms galls on early spring leaves while 888:, egg sizes, number of eggs in a clutch, 8962:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 7735: 7206: 7131:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.012103.144032 1166:Three midge species infect the stems of 921: 826: 822: 733:, periods of pollen release (such as in 693: 5040: 4987:Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 1456:The marsupial mice respond strongly to 917: 837:Absent allochrony, only geographic and 9003: 2331:, Sinauer Associates, pp. 1–545, 8725:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 7709: 7326: 6699:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 1861:Genetically different strains of the 908: 7664: 7209:Speciation and patterns of diversity 1635:Three Hungarian tick species in the 895: 7688: 3892:European Journal of Plant Pathology 13: 8130:Evolutionary developmental biology 7015:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00261.x 6677:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1995.tb00426.x 5595:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1990.tb05943.x 5382:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1995.8020209.x 5337:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1960.tb03095.x 5211:10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3510024.x 4894:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1979.tb04700.x 4043:Bulletin of Entomological Research 4012:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00565.x 3957:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00564.x 3591:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01677.x 3311:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00569.x 14: 9022: 2883:The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation 2436:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1848:) that bloom at different times. 1326:where they live for years before 779:or other evolutionary mechanisms. 8984: 8975: 8974: 7687: 7675: 7663: 7652: 7651: 7275: 6807:10.1111/j.1744-7917.2010.01367.x 5982:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05007.x 5298:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2000.00159.x 5249:10.1111/j.1479-8298.2006.00171.x 5162:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01037.x 5007:10.1111/j.1570-7458.2007.00565.x 4852:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00571.x 4794:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02202.x 4737:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02925.x 4331:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01759.x 3826:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00854.x 3686:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05081.x 3635:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00069.x 3548:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05371.x 3234:Alaska Fishery Research Bulletin 3167:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2002.01506.x 3090:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2003.01869.x 2922:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00883.x 2763:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2003.01057.x 2516:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02480.x 2219:Asynchrony of Seasons Hypothesis 1594:Host races of the moths inhabit 1141:The gall-forming aphids produce 590: 589: 576: 34: 8787:Extended evolutionary synthesis 7976:Gene-centered view of evolution 7200: 7157:Hillebrand, H (February 2004). 7110: 6983: 6953: 6884: 6820: 6786: 6738: 6690: 6644: 6608: 6568: 6497: 6428: 6378: 6318: 6249: 6181: 6141: 6082: 6017: 5946: 5886: 5848: 5765: 5735: 5687: 5631: 5573: 5511: 5452: 5410: 5369:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5360: 5312: 5285:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5276: 5224: 5182: 5140: 5080: 5034: 4978: 4916: 4872: 4830: 4781:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4772: 4704: 4643: 4637:10.1590/S0100-84551997000400005 4607: 4541: 4479: 4427: 4367: 4318:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4305: 4249: 4180: 4138: 4082: 4034: 3989: 3935: 3882: 3831: 3804: 3743: 3707: 3657: 3613: 3569: 3519: 3466: 3414: 3387: 3332: 3290: 3244: 3225: 3188: 3138: 3111: 3061: 3003: 2953: 2848: 2805: 2776: 2027:intermediate migration routes. 583:Evolutionary biology portal 8915:Hologenome theory of evolution 8782:History of molecular evolution 8008:Evolutionarily stable strategy 7897:Last universal common ancestor 7352: 7242:Ideas in Ecology and Evolution 6617:European Journal of Entomology 5708:Applied Entomology and Zoology 4452:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2012.09.016 2231:) increases closer to Earth's 1596:Adam's needle and thread yucca 542:Creation–evolution controversy 296:History of evolutionary theory 1: 8709:Renaissance and Enlightenment 4624:Brazilian Journal of Genetics 3397:Forest Ecology and Management 2864:Evolutionary Ecology Research 2285: 8920:Missing heritability problem 8547:Gamete differentiation/sexes 6459:10.1371/journal.pone.0144264 5439:10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.03.048 4440:Journal of Insect Physiology 4211:10.1371/journal.pone.0054852 3409:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.06.005 2052:birds for half of the year. 1818:The non-biting midge (genus 527:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 7682:Evolutionary biology Portal 6711:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.04.005 5861:Russian Journal of Genetics 4941:10.1534/genetics.106.061457 2885:, Oxford University Press, 2227:. where species' richness ( 715:semelparity and iteroparity 10: 9027: 8552:Life cycles/nuclear phases 8104:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 6581:Limnology and Oceanography 5899:Journal of Natural History 5748:Canadian Journal of Botany 5648:American Journal of Botany 4380:Journal of Insect Behavior 2449:10.1016/j.tree.2017.11.008 2250:in cyclic patterns due to 1887:) and cultivated soybean ( 1589:Prodoxus quinquepunctellus 1367:microallopatric speciation 750:(either allopatrically or 562:Nature-nurture controversy 8970: 8870: 8795: 8699: 8626: 8582: 8437: 8341: 8158: 8117: 8050:Parent–offspring conflict 7986: 7855:Earliest known life forms 7776: 7743: 7647: 7594: 7543: 7486: 7434: 7388: 7360: 7292:10.1101/2020.05.05.079210 6907:10.1016/j.cub.2020.01.064 6849:10.1007/s00442-009-1493-8 6747:The Canadian Entomologist 6602:10.4319/lo.1997.42.3.0609 6047:10.1007/s10265-013-0592-0 6027:Journal of Plant Research 5919:10.1080/00222930902807742 5873:10.1134/S1022795413020099 5545:10.1007/s10682-012-9622-y 5091:species (Boraginaceae)", 5064:10.11646/phytotaxa.20.1.4 4622:(Diptera, Tephritidae)", 4400:10.1007/s10905-014-9451-7 4111:10.1007/s10592-015-0736-y 3922:10.1007/s10658-008-9343-9 2570:10.1007/s00227-002-1001-8 1954:of the parasitoid wasps ( 1696:Cecidomyiidae gall midges 1048:Three related species of 752:sympatrically distributed 449:Evolutionary neuroscience 424:Evolutionary epistemology 404:Evolutionary anthropology 384:Applications of evolution 8903:Cultural group selection 8767:The eclipse of Darwinism 8739:On the Origin of Species 8714:Transmutation of species 7525:Nonecological speciation 6653:Kaltenbachiella japonica 3342:Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 2125:Kaltenbachiella japonica 1324:semelparous reproduction 689: 439:Evolutionary linguistics 434:Evolutionary game theory 409:Evolutionary computation 8908:Dual inheritance theory 8747:History of paleontology 7166:The American Naturalist 6280:10.1073/pnas.1424717112 5427:Veterinary Parasitology 4554:Bactrocera neohumeralis 4517:10.1186/1756-3305-6-275 4504:Parasites & Vectors 3780:10.1073/pnas.0700446104 3497:10.1111/1744-7917.12287 3269:10.1023/A:1013791314900 2881:Dolph Schluter (2000), 2743:Journal of Biogeography 2707:10.1073/pnas.1220060110 2205:New World bird species 1966:) and their host plant 1950:show similar patterns. 1096:Thaumetopoea pityocampa 552:Objections to evolution 459:Evolutionary psychology 454:Evolutionary physiology 399:Evolutionary aesthetics 378:Fields and applications 360:History of paleontology 8596:Punctuated equilibrium 7917:Non-adaptive radiation 7865:Evolutionary arms race 7630:Punctuated equilibrium 7586:Character displacement 7406:Reproductive isolation 7375:Laboratory experiments 7255:10.4033/iee.2009.2.3.n 4925:Coregonus clupeaformis 4571:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800253 3728:10.1098/rstb.1998.0259 3253:Oncorhynchus gorbuscha 3024:10.1098/rspb.2003.2600 2855:Gordon A. Fox (2003), 1917:Diachasmimorpha mellea 1605:Gryllus pennsylvanicus 1467:Coregonus clupeaformis 959: 940: 857: 699: 656:reproductive isolation 636:Allochronic speciation 484:Speciation experiments 464:Experimental evolution 419:Evolutionary economics 241:Recent human evolution 99:Processes and outcomes 8888:Evolutionary medicine 8762:Mendelian inheritance 8470:Biological complexity 8458:Programmed cell death 8150:Phenotypic plasticity 7870:Evolutionary pressure 7860:Evidence of evolution 7758:Timeline of evolution 7511:Ecological speciation 7426:Evidence of evolution 6978:10.1093/aesa/68.2.305 6657:Ecological Entomology 6630:10.14411/EJE.2002.063 5857:Chironomus nuditarsis 5774:Ecology and Evolution 5462:Ecological Entomology 5237:Entomological Science 5043:Meconopsis autumnalis 4616:Anastrepha bistrigata 4376:Spodoptera frugiperda 4314:Spodoptera frugiperda 4091:Conservation Genetics 3423:Ecology and Evolution 3211:10.1093/jhered/esu063 2616:10.1007/s002270050061 2278:study of forty-eight 2096:T. Corsica fairmairei 1944:species that host on 1813:Chironomus nuditarsis 1796:Anthoxanthum odoratum 1522:Meconopsis autumnalis 1337:Spodoptera frugiperda 1205:parapatric speciation 1147:P. populi-transversus 1034:Montastraea annularis 941: 925: 878:isolation by distance 830: 823:Population structures 770:phenotypic plasticity 704:allopatric speciation 697: 652:ecological speciation 640:allochronic isolation 444:Evolutionary medicine 389:Biosocial criminology 355:History of speciation 268:Evolutionary taxonomy 231:Timeline of evolution 8862:Teleology in biology 8757:Blending inheritance 8135:Genetic assimilation 7998:Artificial selection 7737:Evolutionary biology 6400:10.1642/AUK-15-129.1 6190:Rhagoletis pomonella 5905:(19–20): 1159–1181, 5895:Terellia fuscicornis 5729:10.1303/aez.2003.501 5524:Evolutionary Ecology 5520:Strauzia longipennis 5191:Journal of Phycology 2141:Scolioneura betuleti 1923:Utetes canaliculatus 1899:Rhagoletis pomonella 1831:Terellia fuscicornis 1650:Strauzia longipennis 930: 918:Detecting allochrony 801:salmon breeding runs 414:Evolutionary ecology 28:Evolutionary biology 8925:Molecular evolution 8883:Ecological genetics 8752:Transitional fossil 8542:Sexual reproduction 8382:endomembrane system 8311:pollinator-mediated 8267:dolphins and whales 8045:Parental investment 7515:Parallel speciation 7063:American Naturalist 6841:2010Oecol.162..523O 6669:1995EcoEn..20...33K 6593:1997LimOc..42..609W 6513:American Naturalist 6450:2015PLoSO..1044264H 6327:Eurosta solidaginis 6271:2015PNAS..112E5980H 6265:(44): E5980–E5989, 6206:2014MolEc..23..688P 6039:2014JPlR..127..109O 5974:2011MolEc..20.1492K 5911:2009JNatH..43.1159S 5842:10.1038/hdy.1968.29 5786:2015EcoEv...5.2172M 5720:2003AppEZ..38..501T 5696:Asteralobia sasakii 5660:10.3732/ajb.1200147 5536:2013EvEco..27.1017F 5474:2016EcoEn..41..389H 5203:1999JPcgy..35...24C 5105:1975Biotr...7..234O 4999:2007EEApp.124..167B 4887:(1Part2): 478–485, 4729:2006MolEc..15.2095M 4392:2014JIBeh..27..555S 4258:American Naturalist 4202:2013PLoSO...854852C 4159:1984Biotr..16..161G 4103:2015ConG...16.1253G 3904:2009EJPP..123...61M 3861:10.1038/nature04566 3853:2006Natur.441..210S 3771:2007PNAS..10418589F 3765:(47): 18589–18594, 3678:2011MolEc..20.2128B 3540:2012MolEc..21..174Y 3488:2017InsSc..24..325B 3435:2013EcoEv...3.5098S 3358:2015MolEc..24.2729B 3198:Journal of Heredity 3159:2002MolEc..11.1077C 3082:2003MolEc..12.1793F 2974:2015MolEc..24.5006R 2786:Adaptive Speciation 2755:2004JBiog..31..773F 2698:2013PNAS..110.6919S 2653:1999Oikos..85..499H 2608:1997MarBi.127..705K 2562:2003MarBi.142..679F 2507:2005MolEc..14..901H 2396:2017MolEc..26.3330T 1985:Eurosta solidaginis 1694:Two populations of 1689:Asteralobia sasakii 1291:Antitrogus parvulus 997: 516:Social implications 504:Universal Darwinism 494:Island biogeography 429:Evolutionary ethics 394:Ecological genetics 340:Molecular evolution 278:Transitional fossil 106:Population genetics 22:Part of a series on 8898:Cultural evolution 8013:Fisher's principle 7942:Handicap principle 7932:Parallel evolution 7796:Adaptive radiation 7595:Speciation in taxa 7530:Assortative mating 6962:Ostrinia nubilalis 5706:(Aquifoliaceae)", 5233:Chilo suppressalis 4492:Anopheles coluzzii 4055:10.1079/ber2003245 2252:Earth's axial tilt 2190:Ostrinia nubilalis 2159:Papilio canadensis 2092:T. Corsica Corsica 2046:J. h. carolinensis 2040:J. h. carolinensis 2021:Sylvia atricapilla 1993:Solidago altissima 1896:Parasitoid wasps: 1801:The grass species 1784:The grass species 1663:Enchenopa binotata 1577:Chilo suppressalis 1458:photoperiodic cues 1132:populi-transversus 1059:Oncorhynchus nerka 1011:Acropora samoensis 995: 960: 936: 909:Adaptation by time 858: 812:periodical cicadas 700: 644:temporal isolation 547:Theistic evolution 479:Selective breeding 191:Parallel evolution 156:Adaptive radiation 8998: 8997: 8614:Uniformitarianism 8567:Sex-determination 8072:Sexual dimorphism 8067:Natural selection 7971:Unit of selection 7937:Signalling theory 7703: 7702: 7581:Secondary contact 7553:Hybrid speciation 7501:Natural selection 7488:Isolating factors 6994:Ostrina nubilalis 6214:10.1111/mec.12635 6194:Molecular Ecology 6150:Rhagoletis mendax 6104:10.1111/ele.12460 5962:Molecular Ecology 5794:10.1002/ece3.1481 5780:(11): 2172–2184, 5483:10.1111/een.12309 5041:Egan PA (2011), " 4717:Molecular Ecology 4713:Anguilla anguilla 4669:10.1111/mec.12832 4663:(14): 3452–3468, 4657:Molecular Ecology 4550:Bactrocera tryoni 4496:Anopheles gambiae 4488:Gibson, Gabriella 4446:(12): 1609–1619, 4436:Anopheles gambiae 3847:(7090): 210–213, 3722:(1371): 945–953, 3672:(10): 2128–2141, 3666:Molecular Ecology 3528:Molecular Ecology 3429:(15): 5098–5108, 3366:10.1111/mec.13211 3352:(11): 2729–2746, 3346:Molecular Ecology 3147:Molecular Ecology 3070:Molecular Ecology 3018:(1536): 259–266, 2982:10.1111/mec.13372 2968:(19): 5006–5019, 2962:Molecular Ecology 2692:(17): 6919–6924, 2495:Molecular Ecology 2405:10.1111/mec.14126 2390:(13): 3330–3342, 2384:Molecular Ecology 2216: 2215: 1911:Diachasma alloeum 1905:Rhagoletis mendax 1424:Anguilla anguilla 1376:Bactrocera tryoni 1350:Anopheles gambiae 1169:Larrea tridentata 992:Friesen (2017). 969:secondary contact 939:{\displaystyle m} 896:Isolation by time 862:phenotypic traits 841:cause isolation. 737:trees where male 719:Seasonal breeding 633: 632: 324:Origin of Species 126:Natural selection 9018: 8988: 8978: 8977: 8777:Modern synthesis 8537:Multicellularity 8532:Mosaic evolution 8417:auditory ossicle 8099:Social selection 8082:Flowering plants 8077:Sexual selection 7730: 7723: 7716: 7707: 7706: 7691: 7690: 7679: 7667: 7666: 7655: 7654: 7506:Sexual selection 7435:Geographic modes 7347: 7340: 7333: 7324: 7323: 7317: 7316: 7310: 7302: 7279: 7273: 7272: 7266: 7258: 7257: 7236: 7223: 7222: 7204: 7198: 7197: 7163: 7154: 7148: 7147: 7141: 7133: 7114: 7108: 7107: 7101: 7093: 7057: 7048: 7047: 7041: 7033: 7000: 6987: 6981: 6980: 6957: 6951: 6950: 6944: 6936: 6919: 6909: 6900:(7): 1312–1321, 6888: 6882: 6881: 6875: 6867: 6824: 6818: 6817: 6790: 6784: 6783: 6777: 6769: 6742: 6736: 6735: 6729: 6721: 6694: 6688: 6687: 6648: 6642: 6641: 6632: 6612: 6606: 6605: 6604: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6559: 6551: 6549: 6543:, archived from 6510: 6501: 6495: 6494: 6488: 6480: 6471: 6461: 6444:(12): e0144264, 6432: 6426: 6425: 6419: 6411: 6402: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6369: 6361: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6309: 6301: 6292: 6282: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6240: 6232: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6169: 6145: 6139: 6138: 6132: 6124: 6115: 6086: 6080: 6079: 6073: 6065: 6021: 6015: 6014: 6008: 6000: 5968:(7): 1492–1507, 5959: 5950: 5944: 5943: 5937: 5929: 5890: 5884: 5883: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5824: 5815: 5814: 5805: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5754:(9): 2563–2570, 5739: 5733: 5732: 5731: 5691: 5685: 5684: 5678: 5670: 5654:(9): 1453–1463, 5635: 5629: 5628: 5622: 5614: 5597: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5564: 5556: 5547: 5530:(5): 1017–1032, 5515: 5509: 5508: 5502: 5494: 5485: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5401: 5393: 5384: 5364: 5358: 5357: 5348: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5300: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5267: 5259: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5173: 5165: 5164: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5131: 5123: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5076: 5066: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5025: 5017: 4982: 4976: 4975: 4969: 4961: 4952: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4896: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4863: 4855: 4854: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4821: 4813: 4796: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4763: 4755: 4723:(8): 2095–2107, 4708: 4702: 4701: 4695: 4687: 4647: 4641: 4640: 4639: 4611: 4605: 4604: 4598: 4590: 4573: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4529: 4519: 4510:(275): 275–288, 4483: 4477: 4476: 4470: 4462: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4418: 4410: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4358: 4350: 4333: 4324:(7): 1447–1459, 4309: 4303: 4302: 4296: 4288: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4240: 4232: 4223: 4213: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4129: 4121: 4097:(5): 1253–1264, 4086: 4080: 4079: 4073: 4065: 4038: 4032: 4031: 4014: 4005:(4): 1326–1336, 3993: 3987: 3986: 3969: 3959: 3950:(4): 1313–1325, 3939: 3933: 3932: 3915: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3792: 3782: 3756: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3739: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3637: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3593: 3573: 3567: 3566: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3499: 3470: 3464: 3463: 3454: 3443:10.1002/ece3.865 3418: 3412: 3411: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3305:(4): 1372–1385, 3294: 3288: 3287: 3263:(1–3): 259–267, 3248: 3242: 3241: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3213: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3153:(6): 1077–1101, 3142: 3136: 3135: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3076:(7): 1793–1805, 3065: 3059: 3058: 3052: 3044: 3035: 3007: 3001: 3000: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2933: 2905: 2896: 2895: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2861: 2852: 2846: 2845: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2791: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2738: 2729: 2728: 2719: 2709: 2681: 2672: 2671: 2636: 2627: 2626: 2590: 2581: 2580: 2545: 2536: 2535: 2518: 2490: 2461: 2460: 2451: 2431: 2425: 2424: 2407: 2379: 2342: 2341: 2317: 2112:T. quadrisignata 2009:Falco sparverius 1964:U. canaliculatus 1839:Silybum marianum 1258:Erysiphe necator 1249:Lord Howe Island 1231:Howea belmoreana 998: 994: 945: 943: 942: 937: 625: 618: 611: 598: 593: 592: 585: 581: 580: 557:Level of support 350:Current research 335:Modern synthesis 330:Before synthesis 283:Extinction event 41:Darwin's finches 38: 19: 18: 9026: 9025: 9021: 9020: 9019: 9017: 9016: 9015: 9001: 9000: 8999: 8994: 8966: 8893:Group selection 8866: 8791: 8695: 8622: 8584:Tempo and modes 8578: 8433: 8337: 8154: 8113: 7989: 7982: 7959:Species complex 7772: 7763:History of life 7739: 7734: 7704: 7699: 7643: 7626:Paleopolyploidy 7590: 7545:Hybrid concepts 7539: 7482: 7430: 7400:Species complex 7384: 7356: 7351: 7321: 7320: 7304: 7303: 7280: 7276: 7260: 7259: 7237: 7226: 7219: 7205: 7201: 7161: 7155: 7151: 7135: 7134: 7115: 7111: 7095: 7094: 7058: 7051: 7035: 7034: 6998: 6988: 6984: 6958: 6954: 6938: 6937: 6894:Current Biology 6889: 6885: 6869: 6868: 6825: 6821: 6791: 6787: 6771: 6770: 6759:10.4039/n06-084 6743: 6739: 6723: 6722: 6695: 6691: 6649: 6645: 6613: 6609: 6573: 6569: 6553: 6552: 6547: 6508: 6502: 6498: 6482: 6481: 6433: 6429: 6413: 6412: 6383: 6379: 6363: 6362: 6323: 6319: 6303: 6302: 6254: 6250: 6234: 6233: 6186: 6182: 6146: 6142: 6126: 6125: 6092:Ecology Letters 6087: 6083: 6067: 6066: 6022: 6018: 6002: 6001: 5957: 5951: 5947: 5931: 5930: 5891: 5887: 5853: 5849: 5825: 5818: 5770: 5766: 5760:10.1139/b89-331 5740: 5736: 5692: 5688: 5672: 5671: 5642:Milicia excelsa 5636: 5632: 5616: 5615: 5578: 5574: 5558: 5557: 5516: 5512: 5496: 5495: 5457: 5453: 5415: 5411: 5395: 5394: 5365: 5361: 5317: 5313: 5281: 5277: 5261: 5260: 5229: 5225: 5187: 5183: 5167: 5166: 5145: 5141: 5125: 5124: 5113:10.2307/2989736 5085: 5081: 5047:M. manasluensis 5039: 5035: 5019: 5018: 4983: 4979: 4963: 4962: 4921: 4917: 4877: 4873: 4857: 4856: 4835: 4831: 4815: 4814: 4777: 4773: 4757: 4756: 4709: 4705: 4689: 4688: 4648: 4644: 4612: 4608: 4592: 4591: 4546: 4542: 4498:s.s. (formerly 4484: 4480: 4464: 4463: 4432: 4428: 4412: 4411: 4372: 4368: 4352: 4351: 4310: 4306: 4290: 4289: 4254: 4250: 4234: 4233: 4185: 4181: 4167:10.2307/2388050 4143: 4139: 4123: 4122: 4087: 4083: 4067: 4066: 4039: 4035: 3994: 3990: 3940: 3936: 3913:10.1.1.511.8215 3887: 3883: 3836: 3832: 3809: 3805: 3754: 3748: 3744: 3712: 3708: 3662: 3658: 3618: 3614: 3574: 3570: 3524: 3520: 3471: 3467: 3419: 3415: 3392: 3388: 3337: 3333: 3295: 3291: 3249: 3245: 3230: 3226: 3193: 3189: 3143: 3139: 3133:10.1139/f94-308 3116: 3112: 3066: 3062: 3046: 3045: 3008: 3004: 2958: 2954: 2906: 2899: 2893: 2879: 2875: 2859: 2853: 2849: 2826:10.2307/2410134 2810: 2806: 2800: 2789: 2781: 2777: 2739: 2732: 2682: 2675: 2661:10.2307/3546699 2637: 2630: 2591: 2584: 2546: 2539: 2491: 2464: 2432: 2428: 2380: 2345: 2339: 2318: 2293: 2288: 2248:solar radiation 2221: 2178:Tyrannus savana 2108:T. nigronervosa 1779:Agrostis tenuis 1744:S. amygdaloides 1677:Milicia excelsa 1437:Cuculus canorus 1382:B. neohumeralis 1322:Bamboo undergo 1182:in winter, and 1151:P. obesinymphae 1136:P. obesinymphae 989: 931: 928: 927: 920: 911: 898: 882:salmonid fishes 852: 847: 842: 833: 825: 692: 654:) arising from 646:) is a form of 638:(also known as 629: 588: 575: 574: 567: 566: 517: 509: 508: 379: 371: 370: 369: 297: 289: 288: 287: 236:Human evolution 226:History of life 210: 209:Natural history 202: 201: 200: 100: 92: 47: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9024: 9014: 9013: 8996: 8995: 8993: 8992: 8982: 8971: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8943: 8942: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8911: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8874: 8872: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8864: 8859: 8858: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8846: 8845: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8805: 8799: 8797: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8743: 8742: 8733:Charles Darwin 8730: 8729: 8728: 8716: 8711: 8705: 8703: 8697: 8696: 8694: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8671:Non-ecological 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8632: 8630: 8624: 8623: 8621: 8620: 8611: 8602: 8588: 8586: 8580: 8579: 8577: 8576: 8571: 8570: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8488: 8487: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8461: 8460: 8455: 8444: 8442: 8435: 8434: 8432: 8431: 8430: 8429: 8424: 8422:nervous system 8419: 8414: 8409: 8401: 8400: 8399: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8348: 8346: 8339: 8338: 8336: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8314: 8313: 8303: 8302: 8301: 8296: 8295: 8294: 8289: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8258: 8257: 8252: 8242: 8232: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8200: 8199: 8198: 8188: 8183: 8182: 8181: 8171: 8165: 8163: 8156: 8155: 8153: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8121: 8119: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8053: 8052: 8047: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8026: 8025: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7994: 7992: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7980: 7979: 7978: 7968: 7963: 7962: 7961: 7956: 7946: 7945: 7944: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7922:Origin of life 7919: 7914: 7909: 7907:Microevolution 7904: 7902:Macroevolution 7899: 7894: 7889: 7888: 7887: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7840:Common descent 7837: 7836: 7835: 7825: 7820: 7818:Baldwin effect 7815: 7814: 7813: 7808: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7782: 7780: 7774: 7773: 7771: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7744: 7741: 7740: 7733: 7732: 7725: 7718: 7710: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7697: 7685: 7673: 7661: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7641: 7634:Macroevolution 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7598: 7596: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7568: 7549: 7547: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7537: 7535:Haldane's rule 7532: 7527: 7522: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7492: 7490: 7484: 7483: 7481: 7480: 7475: 7461: 7458:Founder effect 7438: 7436: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7392: 7390: 7389:Basic concepts 7386: 7385: 7383: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7361: 7358: 7357: 7350: 7349: 7342: 7335: 7327: 7319: 7318: 7274: 7224: 7217: 7199: 7178:10.1086/381004 7172:(2): 192–211. 7149: 7109: 7075:10.1086/677261 7069:(3): 352–363, 7049: 7009:(2): 261–273, 6982: 6972:(2): 305–309, 6952: 6883: 6835:(2): 523–531, 6819: 6801:(2): 121–159, 6795:Insect Science 6785: 6753:(4): 545–553, 6737: 6705:(2): 331–341, 6689: 6643: 6623:(4): 477–484, 6607: 6587:(3): 609–611, 6567: 6525:10.1086/685296 6519:(4): 436–446, 6496: 6427: 6377: 6337:(4): 773–782, 6317: 6248: 6200:(3): 688–704, 6180: 6160:(6): 818–827, 6140: 6098:(8): 817–825, 6081: 6033:(1): 109–117, 6016: 5945: 5885: 5867:(2): 175–181, 5847: 5835:(2): 205–218, 5816: 5764: 5734: 5714:(4): 501–508, 5686: 5630: 5588:(3): 629–636, 5572: 5510: 5468:(4): 389–399, 5451: 5433:(4): 366–369, 5409: 5375:(2): 209–232, 5359: 5346:2027.42/137466 5331:(3): 334–346, 5321:Acheta veletis 5311: 5291:(2): 223–236, 5275: 5243:(3): 255–259, 5223: 5181: 5155:(4): 723–736, 5139: 5099:(4): 234–247, 5079: 5033: 4993:(2): 167–176, 4977: 4935:(1): 375–398, 4915: 4871: 4845:(3): 365–379, 4829: 4787:(3): 676–684, 4771: 4703: 4642: 4630:(4): 583–585, 4606: 4564:(5): 365–370, 4540: 4478: 4426: 4386:(5): 555–566, 4366: 4304: 4270:10.1086/658904 4264:(4): 470–485, 4248: 4179: 4153:(3): 161–172, 4137: 4081: 4049:(4): 307–314, 4033: 3988: 3934: 3881: 3830: 3820:(4): 717–727, 3803: 3742: 3706: 3656: 3628:(4): 784–795, 3612: 3584:(3): 539–553, 3568: 3534:(1): 174–183, 3518: 3482:(2): 325–335, 3476:Insect Science 3465: 3413: 3403:(1): 108–115, 3386: 3331: 3289: 3243: 3224: 3204:(6): 835–845, 3187: 3137: 3110: 3060: 3002: 2952: 2916:(4): 881–902, 2897: 2891: 2873: 2847: 2820:(1): 264–279. 2804: 2798: 2775: 2749:(5): 773–786, 2730: 2673: 2647:(3): 499–514, 2628: 2602:(4): 705–711, 2596:Marine Biology 2582: 2556:(4): 679–684, 2550:Marine Biology 2537: 2501:(4): 901–916, 2462: 2442:(3): 164–175, 2426: 2343: 2337: 2321:Jerry A. Coyne 2290: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2206: 2202: 2201: 2193: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2154: 2153: 2150: 2136: 2135: 2128: 2120: 2119: 2088: 2080: 2079: 2074:is within the 2068: 2054: 2053: 2050:J. h. hyemalis 2042: 2034:Junco hyemalis 2029: 2028: 2024: 2016: 2015: 2012: 2004: 2003: 1988: 1980: 1979: 1926: 1893: 1892: 1883:Wild soybean ( 1881: 1867: 1866: 1859: 1850: 1849: 1834: 1826: 1825: 1816: 1808: 1807: 1799: 1791: 1790: 1782: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1766:Juncus effusus 1761: 1760: 1732:S. eriocephala 1715: 1706: 1705: 1692: 1684: 1683: 1680: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1645: 1644: 1633: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1600: 1599: 1592: 1584: 1583: 1580: 1572: 1571: 1567: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1535: 1534: 1531: 1517: 1516: 1491:E. lemovicinum 1488: 1485:E. lemovicinum 1479:Exapion ulicis 1474: 1473: 1470: 1462: 1461: 1454: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1432: 1431: 1427: 1419: 1418: 1414: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1371: 1370: 1359: 1345: 1344: 1340: 1332: 1331: 1328:mass-flowering 1320: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1304:Oeneis melissa 1299: 1298: 1295: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1272: 1271: 1267:Vitis vinifera 1262: 1253: 1252: 1241: 1237:H. forsteriana 1226: 1225: 1218: 1209: 1208: 1197: 1188: 1187: 1164: 1155: 1154: 1139: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1111: 1110: 1100: 1091: 1090: 1087:O. tshawytscha 1074: 1071:O. tshawytscha 1054: 1053: 1046: 1029: 1028: 1021: 1006: 1005: 1002: 988: 985: 935: 919: 916: 910: 907: 897: 894: 824: 821: 820: 819: 808: 805:sockeye salmon 797: 781: 780: 773: 762: 691: 688: 686:of isolation. 650:(specifically 631: 630: 628: 627: 620: 613: 605: 602: 601: 600: 599: 586: 569: 568: 565: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 537:Social effects 534: 529: 524: 518: 515: 514: 511: 510: 507: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 380: 377: 376: 373: 372: 368: 367: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 320: 315: 310: 305: 299: 298: 295: 294: 291: 290: 286: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 263:Classification 260: 255: 250: 245: 244: 243: 233: 228: 223: 221:Common descent 218: 216:Origin of life 212: 211: 208: 207: 204: 203: 199: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 102: 101: 98: 97: 94: 93: 91: 90: 85: 80: 74: 73: 68: 63: 58: 52: 49: 48: 39: 31: 30: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9023: 9012: 9009: 9008: 9006: 8991: 8987: 8983: 8981: 8973: 8972: 8969: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8941: 8938: 8937: 8936: 8935:Phylogenetics 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8895: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8869: 8863: 8860: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8844: 8841: 8840: 8839: 8838:Structuralism 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8813:Catastrophism 8811: 8810: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8800: 8798: 8794: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8772:Neo-Darwinism 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8741: 8740: 8736: 8735: 8734: 8731: 8727: 8726: 8722: 8721: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8706: 8704: 8702: 8698: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8686:Reinforcement 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8633: 8631: 8629: 8625: 8619: 8618:Catastrophism 8615: 8612: 8610: 8609:Macromutation 8606: 8605:Micromutation 8603: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8585: 8581: 8575: 8572: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8512:Immune system 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8449: 8446: 8445: 8443: 8441: 8436: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8402: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8372:symbiogenesis 8370: 8369: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8349: 8347: 8345: 8340: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8312: 8309: 8308: 8307: 8304: 8300: 8297: 8293: 8290: 8288: 8285: 8284: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8260: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8247: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8237: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8224: 8221: 8220: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8197: 8194: 8193: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8180: 8177: 8176: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8166: 8164: 8162: 8157: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8122: 8120: 8116: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8097: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8079: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8042: 8041: 8040:Kin selection 8038: 8036: 8035:Genetic drift 8033: 8031: 8028: 8024: 8021: 8020: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7991: 7985: 7977: 7974: 7973: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7951: 7950: 7947: 7943: 7940: 7939: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7886: 7883: 7882: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7834: 7831: 7830: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7783: 7781: 7779: 7775: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7742: 7738: 7731: 7726: 7724: 7719: 7717: 7712: 7711: 7708: 7696: 7695: 7686: 7684: 7683: 7678: 7674: 7672: 7671: 7662: 7660: 7659: 7650: 7649: 7646: 7639: 7638:Chronospecies 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7599: 7597: 7593: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7576: 7572: 7571:Reinforcement 7569: 7566: 7565:Recombination 7562: 7558: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7546: 7542: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7493: 7491: 7489: 7485: 7479: 7476: 7473: 7469: 7465: 7462: 7459: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7433: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7401: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7387: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7359: 7355: 7348: 7343: 7341: 7336: 7334: 7329: 7328: 7325: 7314: 7308: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7285: 7278: 7270: 7264: 7256: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7235: 7233: 7231: 7229: 7220: 7218:9780511815683 7214: 7210: 7203: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7160: 7153: 7145: 7139: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7113: 7105: 7099: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7056: 7054: 7045: 7039: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 6997: 6995: 6986: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6956: 6948: 6942: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6887: 6879: 6873: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6823: 6816: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6789: 6781: 6775: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6733: 6727: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6704: 6700: 6693: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6647: 6640: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6611: 6603: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6577:Daphnia pulex 6571: 6563: 6557: 6550:on 2020-02-10 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6507: 6500: 6492: 6486: 6479: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6431: 6423: 6417: 6410: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6381: 6373: 6367: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6321: 6313: 6307: 6300: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6252: 6244: 6238: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6184: 6177: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6136: 6130: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6085: 6077: 6071: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6020: 6012: 6006: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5949: 5941: 5935: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5889: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5843: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5823: 5821: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5768: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5738: 5730: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5682: 5676: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5643: 5634: 5626: 5620: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5576: 5568: 5562: 5555: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5514: 5506: 5500: 5493: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5455: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5423:Haemaphysalis 5420: 5413: 5405: 5399: 5392: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5363: 5356: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5279: 5271: 5265: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5177: 5171: 5163: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5143: 5135: 5129: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5083: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5037: 5029: 5023: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4981: 4973: 4967: 4960: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4867: 4861: 4853: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4833: 4825: 4819: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4767: 4761: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4707: 4699: 4693: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4638: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4610: 4602: 4596: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4482: 4474: 4468: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4438:mosquitoes", 4437: 4430: 4422: 4416: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4370: 4362: 4356: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4308: 4300: 4294: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4244: 4238: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4196:(1): e54852, 4195: 4191: 4183: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4133: 4127: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4085: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4037: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3992: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3968: 3967:2027.42/73691 3963: 3958: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3914: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3885: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3834: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3800: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3746: 3738: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3660: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3572: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3469: 3462: 3458: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3390: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3335: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3247: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3191: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3114: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3064: 3056: 3050: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3006: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2956: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2904: 2902: 2894: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2808: 2801: 2799:9781107404182 2795: 2788: 2787: 2779: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2737: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2680: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2635: 2633: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2589: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2544: 2542: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2340: 2338:0-87893-091-4 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2291: 2283: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2268: 2267:precipitation 2264: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2211: 2207: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2192: 2191: 2187: 2186: 2182: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2167: 2166: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2155: 2151: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2127: 2126: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2067: 2066: 2061: 2060: 2059:Daphnia pulex 2056: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2030: 2025: 2023: 2022: 2018: 2017: 2013: 2011: 2010: 2006: 2005: 2001: 2000: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1987: 1986: 1982: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1948: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1925: 1924: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1912: 1907: 1906: 1901: 1900: 1895: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1880: 1879: 1874: 1873: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1863:mycoparasitic 1860: 1857: 1856: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1846: 1841: 1840: 1835: 1833: 1832: 1828: 1827: 1823: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1814: 1810: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1781: 1780: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1767: 1763: 1762: 1758: 1757: 1752: 1751: 1746: 1745: 1740: 1739: 1738:S. petiolaris 1734: 1733: 1728: 1727: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1713: 1712: 1708: 1707: 1703: 1702: 1697: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1686: 1685: 1681: 1679: 1678: 1674: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1651: 1647: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1637:Haemaphysalis 1634: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1624: 1623:Haemaphysalis 1620: 1619: 1615: 1613: 1612: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1591: 1590: 1586: 1585: 1581: 1579: 1578: 1574: 1573: 1568: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1537: 1536: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1528:M. paniculata 1524: 1523: 1519: 1518: 1514: 1513: 1508: 1505:plants while 1504: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1486: 1481: 1480: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1469: 1468: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1441: 1439: 1438: 1434: 1433: 1428: 1426: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1401: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1390: 1386: 1384: 1383: 1378: 1377: 1373: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1358: 1357: 1352: 1351: 1347: 1346: 1341: 1339: 1338: 1334: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1288: 1287: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1274: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1232: 1228: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1216: 1215: 1211: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1190: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1171: 1170: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1157: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1126: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1113: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1093: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1078:breeding runs 1075: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1066: 1061: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1013: 1012: 1008: 1007: 1003: 1000: 999: 993: 984: 980: 976: 972: 970: 966: 957: 953: 949: 933: 924: 915: 906: 904: 893: 891: 887: 883: 879: 874: 871: 867: 863: 855: 850: 845: 840: 836: 829: 817: 813: 809: 806: 802: 798: 795: 791: 787: 786: 785: 778: 777:reinforcement 774: 771: 767: 763: 760: 759: 758: 755: 753: 747: 745: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 711: 709: 705: 696: 687: 683: 681: 677: 671: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 626: 621: 619: 614: 612: 607: 606: 604: 603: 597: 587: 584: 579: 573: 572: 571: 570: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 545: 543: 540: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 519: 513: 512: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 469:Phylogenetics 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 381: 375: 374: 365: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 325: 321: 319: 316: 314: 313:Before Darwin 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 300: 293: 292: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 242: 239: 238: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 213: 206: 205: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 141:Genetic drift 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 103: 96: 95: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 75: 72: 69: 67: 64: 62: 59: 57: 54: 53: 51: 50: 46: 42: 37: 33: 32: 29: 26: 25: 21: 20: 8947:Polymorphism 8930:Astrobiology 8878:Biogeography 8833:Saltationism 8823:Orthogenesis 8808:Alternatives 8737: 8723: 8656:Cospeciation 8651:Cladogenesis 8600:Saltationism 8557:Mating types 8480:Color vision 8465:Avian flight 8387:mitochondria 8125:Canalisation 8003:Biodiversity 7748:Introduction 7692: 7680: 7668: 7656: 7518: 7472:Ring species 7421:Cospeciation 7416:Cladogenesis 7365:Introduction 7283: 7277: 7245: 7241: 7208: 7202: 7169: 7165: 7152: 7122: 7118: 7112: 7066: 7062: 7006: 7002: 6993: 6985: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6955: 6917:11336/177388 6897: 6893: 6886: 6832: 6828: 6822: 6798: 6794: 6788: 6750: 6746: 6740: 6702: 6698: 6692: 6663:(1): 33–42, 6660: 6656: 6652: 6646: 6620: 6616: 6610: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6570: 6545:the original 6516: 6512: 6499: 6441: 6437: 6430: 6390: 6386: 6380: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6320: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6183: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6095: 6091: 6084: 6030: 6026: 6019: 5965: 5961: 5948: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5888: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5850: 5832: 5828: 5777: 5773: 5767: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5700:Ilex crenata 5699: 5695: 5689: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5633: 5585: 5581: 5575: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5465: 5461: 5454: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5412: 5372: 5368: 5362: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5314: 5288: 5284: 5278: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5197:(1): 24–34, 5194: 5190: 5184: 5152: 5148: 5142: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5036: 4990: 4986: 4980: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4842: 4838: 4832: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4609: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4543: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4481: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4429: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4369: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4307: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4193: 4189: 4182: 4150: 4146: 4140: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4046: 4042: 4036: 4002: 3998: 3991: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3898:(1): 61–70, 3895: 3891: 3884: 3844: 3840: 3833: 3817: 3813: 3806: 3762: 3758: 3745: 3719: 3715: 3709: 3669: 3665: 3659: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3581: 3577: 3571: 3531: 3527: 3521: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3426: 3422: 3416: 3400: 3396: 3389: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3334: 3302: 3298: 3292: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3237: 3233: 3227: 3201: 3197: 3190: 3150: 3146: 3140: 3124: 3120: 3113: 3073: 3069: 3063: 3015: 3011: 3005: 2965: 2961: 2955: 2913: 2909: 2882: 2876: 2867: 2863: 2850: 2817: 2813: 2807: 2785: 2778: 2746: 2742: 2689: 2685: 2644: 2640: 2599: 2595: 2553: 2549: 2498: 2494: 2439: 2435: 2429: 2387: 2383: 2328: 2325:H. Allen Orr 2272: 2260: 2244:temperatures 2237: 2229:biodiversity 2222: 2188: 2176: 2163: 2157: 2145: 2139: 2132:Japanese elm 2123: 2116:T. tomentosa 2115: 2111: 2107: 2104:T haematodes 2103: 2100:T. garricola 2099: 2095: 2091: 2083: 2075: 2072:D. pulicaria 2071: 2065:D. pulicaria 2063: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2039: 2032: 2019: 2007: 1997: 1991: 1983: 1968:apple maggot 1963: 1959: 1955: 1952:Cospeciation 1945: 1941: 1937: 1930:R. pomonella 1929: 1921: 1915: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1888: 1884: 1876: 1870: 1853: 1843: 1837: 1829: 1819: 1811: 1802: 1794: 1785: 1777: 1764: 1754: 1748: 1742: 1741:) and late ( 1736: 1730: 1724: 1718: 1709: 1699: 1687: 1675: 1662: 1648: 1640: 1636: 1627: 1621: 1609: 1603: 1587: 1575: 1563:Bryopsidales 1561: 1538: 1526: 1520: 1512:U. europaeus 1510: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1490: 1483: 1477: 1465: 1448: 1435: 1422: 1409: 1399: 1392: 1380: 1374: 1369:is at play. 1354: 1348: 1335: 1317:Bambusoideae 1302: 1289: 1275: 1265: 1256: 1235: 1229: 1212: 1191: 1183: 1179: 1173: 1167: 1158: 1150: 1146: 1135: 1128: 1114: 1094: 1086: 1083:O. gorbuscha 1082: 1069: 1065:O. gorbuscha 1063: 1057: 1038:M. faveolata 1032: 1025:A. samoensis 1024: 1015: 1014:* and other 1009: 1004:Description 990: 981: 977: 973: 961: 912: 899: 875: 859: 853: 848: 843: 834: 782: 756: 748: 712: 701: 684: 672: 663: 643: 639: 635: 634: 489:Sociobiology 474:Paleontology 322: 258:Biogeography 253:Biodiversity 171:Coextinction 161:Co-operation 136:Polymorphism 61:Introduction 8957:Systematics 8828:Mutationism 8646:Catagenesis 8574:Snake venom 8507:Eusociality 8485:in primates 8475:Cooperation 8403:In animals 8223:butterflies 8196:Cephalopods 8186:Brachiopods 8118:Development 8092:Mate choice 7845:Convergence 7828:Coevolution 7786:Abiogenesis 7694:WikiProject 7454:Centrifugal 7125:: 273–309, 5419:Dermacentor 5235:(Walker)", 4653:Salmo salar 4500:An. gambiae 3127:: 223–232, 2280:neotropical 1999:S. gigantea 1872:Glycine max 1855:Ampelomyces 1803:A. odoratum 1726:S. discolor 1720:S. bebbiana 1641:Dermacentor 1629:Dermacentor 1552:Hesperiidae 1411:Salmo salar 1356:A. coluzzii 1186:in spring. 1180:A. resinosa 1178:in summer, 1175:A. auripila 1160:Asphondylia 1103:Codominance 839:mate choice 803:such as in 744:photoperiod 499:Systematics 308:Renaissance 186:Convergence 176:Contingency 166:Coevolution 9011:Speciation 8818:Lamarckism 8796:Philosophy 8719:David Hume 8681:Peripatric 8676:Parapatric 8661:Ecological 8641:Anagenesis 8636:Allopatric 8628:Speciation 8592:Gradualism 8517:Metabolism 8377:chromosome 8367:Eukaryotes 8145:Modularity 8062:Population 7988:Population 7949:Speciation 7927:Panspermia 7880:Extinction 7875:Exaptation 7850:Divergence 7823:Cladistics 7811:Reciprocal 7791:Adaptation 7557:Polyploidy 7519:Allochrony 7496:Adaptation 7464:Parapatric 7446:Peripatric 7442:Allopatric 7411:Anagenesis 7354:Speciation 6393:: 99–109, 5746:species", 5704:I. integra 5093:Biotropica 5074:2262/56528 4620:A. striata 4147:Biotropica 2892:0198505221 2329:Speciation 2286:References 2165:P. glaucus 1972:philopatry 1956:D. alloeum 1942:Rhagoletis 1821:Chironomus 1611:G. veletis 1496:Ulex minor 1450:Antechinus 1400:A. striata 1396:bistrigata 1394:Anastrepha 1277:Magicicada 1214:Hydrobates 1184:A. foliosa 1118:punctigera 1042:M. franksi 952:parapatric 948:allopatric 870:adaptation 680:phenotypes 664:allochrony 648:speciation 273:Cladistics 196:Extinction 181:Divergence 151:Speciation 131:Adaptation 45:John Gould 8952:Protocell 8803:Darwinism 8691:Sympatric 8440:processes 8328:Tetrapods 8277:Kangaroos 8203:Dinosaurs 8140:Inversion 8109:Variation 8030:Gene flow 8023:Inclusive 7833:Mutualism 7778:Evolution 7478:Sympatric 7300:218582518 7031:221734366 7003:Evolution 6934:214585322 6829:Oecologia 6359:198157171 6331:Evolution 5582:Evolution 5325:Evolution 5057:: 47–56, 5051:Phytotaxa 4881:Evolution 3999:Evolution 3944:Evolution 3908:CiteSeerX 3622:Evolution 3578:Evolution 3382:206182207 3299:Evolution 2910:Evolution 2814:Evolution 2275:New World 2256:dispersal 2210:New World 2198:voltinism 2147:S. vicina 1976:avoidance 1960:D. mellea 1947:Crataegus 1938:R. mendax 1934:blueberry 1786:A. tenuis 1756:S. lucida 1750:S. exigua 1626:spp. and 1507:E. ulicis 1502:U. gallii 1130:Pemphigus 965:parapatry 956:sympatric 890:fecundity 794:Orbicella 766:heritable 708:selection 676:mutations 668:phenology 660:gene flow 532:Dysgenics 248:Phylogeny 146:Gene flow 116:Diversity 111:Variation 9005:Category 8980:Category 8855:Vitalism 8850:Theistic 8843:Spandrel 8527:Morality 8522:Monogamy 8397:plastids 8362:Flagella 8318:Reptiles 8299:sea cows 8282:primates 8191:Molluscs 8169:Bacteria 8057:Mutation 7990:genetics 7966:Taxonomy 7912:Mismatch 7892:Homology 7806:Cheating 7801:Altruism 7658:Category 7575:evidence 7380:Glossary 7307:citation 7263:citation 7248:: 9–17, 7186:14970922 7138:citation 7098:citation 7091:39670263 7083:25141144 7038:citation 7023:12683523 6941:citation 6926:32197080 6872:citation 6865:22623508 6857:19937057 6815:86586378 6774:citation 6767:85614594 6726:citation 6719:22531610 6685:83596331 6639:56042738 6556:citation 6541:16006406 6533:27028072 6485:citation 6478:26656955 6438:PLOS ONE 6416:citation 6409:85683278 6366:citation 6351:11392395 6306:citation 6299:26499247 6237:citation 6222:24351094 6176:85974264 6129:citation 6122:26077935 6070:citation 6063:13606001 6055:24122370 6005:citation 5998:34557058 5990:21261766 5934:citation 5927:56004378 5881:12200060 5829:Heredity 5812:26078854 5675:citation 5668:22912370 5619:citation 5612:43689173 5604:28567982 5561:citation 5554:18472327 5499:citation 5492:87320676 5447:19410373 5398:citation 5391:85777010 5355:87867996 5307:84556390 5264:citation 5257:86106927 5219:83704320 5170:citation 5128:citation 5022:citation 5015:85880513 4966:citation 4959:17110497 4929:Genetics 4911:32131280 4903:28568177 4860:citation 4818:citation 4811:24056512 4803:21214656 4760:citation 4753:10586483 4745:16780427 4692:citation 4685:11737380 4677:24931807 4595:citation 4588:34631721 4580:12714981 4558:Heredity 4536:24330578 4467:citation 4460:23068991 4415:citation 4408:16310075 4355:citation 4348:22004781 4340:19467132 4293:citation 4286:12528391 4278:21460569 4237:citation 4230:23359438 4190:PLOS ONE 4126:citation 4119:13307002 4070:citation 4063:12908916 4029:19105047 4021:11005299 3984:28276015 3976:11005298 3930:13114251 3869:16467788 3799:18006662 3702:23432529 3694:21481050 3652:16864372 3644:17439611 3608:25277034 3600:15119438 3564:23572464 3556:22098106 3506:26530538 3461:24455139 3374:25913096 3327:23316021 3319:11005303 3285:19278664 3277:11841171 3257:Genetica 3220:25292170 3183:24965183 3175:12030984 3106:25772120 3098:12803632 3049:citation 3042:15058436 2998:13151100 2990:26339867 2940:19895559 2842:28568097 2771:55279438 2726:23509294 2624:37997956 2578:81981786 2525:15773924 2458:29289354 2422:46852358 2414:28370658 2327:(2004), 2240:latitude 2238:In high- 2085:Tibicina 2076:D. pulex 2036:hyemalis 1509:infects 1493:infects 1363:twilight 1081:salmon ( 1017:Acropora 1001:Species 903:additive 790:Acropora 723:spawning 596:Category 522:Eugenics 364:timeline 345:Evo-devo 303:Overview 121:Mutation 83:Evidence 78:Glossary 8871:Related 8701:History 8562:Meiosis 8497:Empathy 8492:Emotion 8392:nucleus 8333:Viruses 8323:Spiders 8235:Mammals 8218:Insects 8018:Fitness 7954:Species 7753:Outline 7670:Commons 7622:Fossils 7612:Insects 7561:Klepton 7450:Quantum 7396:Species 7370:History 7194:9886026 6837:Bibcode 6665:Bibcode 6589:Bibcode 6469:4681481 6446:Bibcode 6387:The Auk 6290:4640724 6267:Bibcode 6230:2745741 6202:Bibcode 6113:4744793 6035:Bibcode 5970:Bibcode 5907:Bibcode 5803:4461419 5782:Bibcode 5716:Bibcode 5532:Bibcode 5470:Bibcode 5199:Bibcode 5121:2989736 5101:Bibcode 4995:Bibcode 4950:1774998 4725:Bibcode 4527:3851435 4388:Bibcode 4221:3554598 4198:Bibcode 4175:2388050 4155:Bibcode 4099:Bibcode 3900:Bibcode 3849:Bibcode 3790:2141821 3767:Bibcode 3737:1692297 3674:Bibcode 3536:Bibcode 3514:9091980 3484:Bibcode 3452:3892371 3431:Bibcode 3354:Bibcode 3240:: 46–54 3155:Bibcode 3078:Bibcode 3033:1691593 2970:Bibcode 2948:9909878 2931:2857697 2834:2410134 2751:Bibcode 2717:3637745 2694:Bibcode 2669:3546699 2649:Bibcode 2604:Bibcode 2558:Bibcode 2533:8226535 2503:Bibcode 2392:Bibcode 2282:frogs. 2263:tropics 2233:equator 1885:G. soja 1878:G. soja 1704:hosts. 1665:complex 1306:semidea 1201:limpets 1193:Cellana 1116:Inurois 1076:Yearly 1068:*, and 1040:*, and 886:ovaries 735:conifer 88:History 71:Outline 8990:Portal 8666:Hybrid 8502:Ethics 8344:organs 8306:Plants 8292:lemurs 8287:humans 8272:horses 8262:hyenas 8250:wolves 8245:canids 8179:origin 7617:Plants 7468:Clines 7298: 7215: 7192: 7184: 7089: 7081: 7029: 7021: 6932: 6924: 6863: 6855: 6813: 6765: 6717: 6683: 6637: 6539: 6531: 6476: 6466: 6407: 6357: 6349: 6297: 6287: 6228: 6220: 6174: 6120: 6110: 6061: 6053: 5996: 5988: 5925: 5879: 5810: 5800: 5666: 5610: 5602: 5552: 5490: 5445: 5389: 5353: 5305: 5255: 5217: 5119: 5089:Cordia 5013: 4957: 4947: 4909: 4901: 4809: 4801: 4751: 4743: 4715:L.)", 4683: 4675: 4586: 4578: 4534: 4524: 4458: 4406: 4346: 4338: 4284: 4276: 4228: 4218: 4173: 4117: 4061: 4027: 4019: 3982: 3974: 3928: 3910: 3877:867216 3875: 3867: 3841:Nature 3797: 3787: 3734: 3700: 3692: 3650: 3642: 3606: 3598: 3562: 3554: 3512: 3504: 3459: 3449: 3380: 3372: 3325: 3317: 3283: 3275: 3218: 3181: 3173: 3104: 3096: 3040: 3030: 2996: 2988: 2946: 2938: 2928: 2889: 2870:: 1–18 2840: 2832: 2796: 2769: 2724: 2714: 2667: 2622: 2576: 2531: 2523: 2456: 2420: 2412: 2335: 2114:, and 1974:, and 1962:, and 1920:, and 1889:G. max 1845:Cynara 1753:, and 1735:, and 1540:Cordia 1280:spp.* 1234:* and 1222:Azores 1217:spp.* 1196:spp.* 1163:spp.* 1134:* and 1107:larval 1020:spp.* 954:, and 866:clines 860:Other 816:bamboo 727:stigma 594: 318:Darwin 8453:Death 8448:Aging 8427:brain 8213:Fungi 8174:Birds 8087:Fungi 7885:Event 7768:Index 7602:Birds 7296:S2CID 7190:S2CID 7162:(PDF) 7087:S2CID 7027:S2CID 6999:(PDF) 6930:S2CID 6861:S2CID 6811:S2CID 6763:S2CID 6681:S2CID 6635:S2CID 6548:(PDF) 6537:S2CID 6509:(PDF) 6405:S2CID 6355:S2CID 6226:S2CID 6172:S2CID 6059:S2CID 5994:S2CID 5958:(PDF) 5923:S2CID 5877:S2CID 5744:Salix 5608:S2CID 5550:S2CID 5488:S2CID 5387:S2CID 5351:S2CID 5303:S2CID 5253:S2CID 5215:S2CID 5117:JSTOR 5011:S2CID 4907:S2CID 4807:S2CID 4749:S2CID 4681:S2CID 4584:S2CID 4404:S2CID 4344:S2CID 4282:S2CID 4171:JSTOR 4115:S2CID 4025:S2CID 3980:S2CID 3926:S2CID 3873:S2CID 3755:(PDF) 3698:S2CID 3648:S2CID 3604:S2CID 3560:S2CID 3510:S2CID 3378:S2CID 3323:S2CID 3281:S2CID 3179:S2CID 3102:S2CID 2994:S2CID 2944:S2CID 2860:(PDF) 2830:JSTOR 2790:(PDF) 2767:S2CID 2665:JSTOR 2641:Oikos 2620:S2CID 2574:S2CID 2529:S2CID 2418:S2CID 1858:spp. 1714:spp. 1711:Salix 1632:spp. 1566:spp. 1543:spp. 1453:spp. 1143:galls 1050:coral 739:cones 731:sperm 690:Model 642:, or 56:Index 8940:Tree 8412:hair 8352:Cell 8255:dogs 8240:cats 8230:Life 8208:Fish 8161:taxa 7607:Fish 7313:link 7269:link 7213:ISBN 7182:PMID 7144:link 7104:link 7079:PMID 7044:link 7019:PMID 6947:link 6922:PMID 6878:link 6853:PMID 6780:link 6732:link 6715:PMID 6562:link 6529:PMID 6491:link 6474:PMID 6422:link 6372:link 6347:PMID 6312:link 6295:PMID 6243:link 6218:PMID 6135:link 6118:PMID 6076:link 6051:PMID 6011:link 5986:PMID 5940:link 5808:PMID 5702:and 5681:link 5664:PMID 5625:link 5600:PMID 5567:link 5505:link 5443:PMID 5421:and 5404:link 5270:link 5176:link 5134:link 5045:and 5028:link 4972:link 4955:PMID 4899:PMID 4866:link 4824:link 4799:PMID 4766:link 4741:PMID 4698:link 4673:PMID 4655:)", 4618:and 4601:link 4576:PMID 4552:and 4532:PMID 4494:and 4473:link 4456:PMID 4421:link 4361:link 4336:PMID 4299:link 4274:PMID 4243:link 4226:PMID 4132:link 4076:link 4059:PMID 4017:PMID 3972:PMID 3865:PMID 3814:Ibis 3795:PMID 3759:PNAS 3690:PMID 3640:PMID 3596:PMID 3552:PMID 3502:PMID 3457:PMID 3370:PMID 3344:)", 3315:PMID 3273:PMID 3255:)", 3216:PMID 3171:PMID 3094:PMID 3055:link 3038:PMID 2986:PMID 2936:PMID 2887:ISBN 2838:PMID 2794:ISBN 2722:PMID 2686:PNAS 2521:PMID 2454:PMID 2410:PMID 2333:ISBN 2246:and 2162:and 2144:and 2062:and 2038:and 1996:and 1875:and 1842:and 1701:Ilex 1608:and 1525:and 1499:and 1482:and 1398:and 1379:and 1353:and 814:and 66:Main 8438:Of 8407:eye 8357:DNA 8342:Of 8159:Of 7288:doi 7250:doi 7174:doi 7170:163 7127:doi 7071:doi 7067:184 7011:doi 6974:doi 6964:", 6912:hdl 6902:doi 6845:doi 6833:162 6803:doi 6755:doi 6751:139 6707:doi 6673:doi 6655:", 6625:doi 6597:doi 6521:doi 6517:187 6464:PMC 6454:doi 6395:doi 6391:133 6339:doi 6285:PMC 6275:doi 6263:112 6210:doi 6192:", 6162:doi 6108:PMC 6100:doi 6043:doi 6031:127 5978:doi 5915:doi 5869:doi 5837:doi 5798:PMC 5790:doi 5756:doi 5724:doi 5656:doi 5590:doi 5540:doi 5522:", 5478:doi 5435:doi 5431:163 5377:doi 5341:hdl 5333:doi 5323:", 5293:doi 5245:doi 5207:doi 5157:doi 5109:doi 5069:hdl 5059:doi 5003:doi 4991:124 4945:PMC 4937:doi 4933:175 4889:doi 4847:doi 4789:doi 4733:doi 4665:doi 4632:doi 4566:doi 4556:", 4522:PMC 4512:doi 4448:doi 4396:doi 4326:doi 4266:doi 4262:177 4216:PMC 4206:doi 4163:doi 4107:doi 4051:doi 4007:doi 3962:hdl 3952:doi 3918:doi 3896:123 3857:doi 3845:441 3822:doi 3818:150 3785:PMC 3775:doi 3763:104 3732:PMC 3724:doi 3720:353 3682:doi 3630:doi 3586:doi 3544:doi 3492:doi 3447:PMC 3439:doi 3405:doi 3401:233 3362:doi 3307:doi 3265:doi 3261:111 3206:doi 3202:105 3163:doi 3129:doi 3086:doi 3028:PMC 3020:doi 3016:271 2978:doi 2926:PMC 2918:doi 2822:doi 2759:doi 2712:PMC 2702:doi 2690:110 2657:doi 2612:doi 2600:127 2566:doi 2554:142 2511:doi 2444:doi 2400:doi 2118:). 1928:In 1089:). 1062:*, 1036:*, 792:or 43:by 9007:: 7636:· 7632:· 7628:· 7563:· 7559:· 7517:· 7470:· 7456:· 7452:· 7448:· 7309:}} 7305:{{ 7294:, 7286:, 7265:}} 7261:{{ 7244:, 7227:^ 7188:. 7180:. 7168:. 7164:. 7140:}} 7136:{{ 7123:34 7121:, 7100:}} 7096:{{ 7085:, 7077:, 7065:, 7052:^ 7040:}} 7036:{{ 7025:, 7017:, 7007:57 7005:, 7001:, 6970:68 6968:, 6943:}} 6939:{{ 6928:, 6920:, 6910:, 6898:30 6896:, 6874:}} 6870:{{ 6859:, 6851:, 6843:, 6831:, 6809:, 6799:18 6797:, 6776:}} 6772:{{ 6761:, 6749:, 6728:}} 6724:{{ 6713:, 6703:64 6701:, 6679:, 6671:, 6661:20 6659:, 6633:, 6621:99 6619:, 6595:, 6585:42 6583:, 6558:}} 6554:{{ 6535:, 6527:, 6515:, 6511:, 6487:}} 6483:{{ 6472:, 6462:, 6452:, 6442:10 6440:, 6418:}} 6414:{{ 6403:, 6389:, 6368:}} 6364:{{ 6353:, 6345:, 6335:55 6333:, 6308:}} 6304:{{ 6293:, 6283:, 6273:, 6261:, 6239:}} 6235:{{ 6224:, 6216:, 6208:, 6198:23 6196:, 6170:, 6158:96 6156:, 6131:}} 6127:{{ 6116:, 6106:, 6096:18 6094:, 6072:}} 6068:{{ 6057:, 6049:, 6041:, 6029:, 6007:}} 6003:{{ 5992:, 5984:, 5976:, 5966:20 5964:, 5960:, 5936:}} 5932:{{ 5921:, 5913:, 5903:43 5901:, 5875:, 5865:49 5863:, 5833:23 5831:, 5819:^ 5806:, 5796:, 5788:, 5776:, 5752:67 5750:, 5722:, 5712:38 5710:, 5677:}} 5673:{{ 5662:, 5652:99 5650:, 5646:, 5621:}} 5617:{{ 5606:, 5598:, 5586:44 5584:, 5563:}} 5559:{{ 5548:, 5538:, 5528:27 5526:, 5501:}} 5497:{{ 5486:, 5476:, 5466:41 5464:, 5441:, 5429:, 5400:}} 5396:{{ 5385:, 5371:, 5349:, 5339:, 5329:14 5327:, 5301:, 5289:13 5287:, 5266:}} 5262:{{ 5251:, 5239:, 5213:, 5205:, 5195:35 5193:, 5172:}} 5168:{{ 5153:94 5151:, 5130:}} 5126:{{ 5115:, 5107:, 5095:, 5067:, 5055:20 5053:, 5024:}} 5020:{{ 5009:, 5001:, 4989:, 4968:}} 4964:{{ 4953:, 4943:, 4931:, 4905:, 4897:, 4885:33 4883:, 4862:}} 4858:{{ 4843:87 4841:, 4820:}} 4816:{{ 4805:, 4797:, 4785:24 4783:, 4762:}} 4758:{{ 4747:, 4739:, 4731:, 4721:15 4719:, 4694:}} 4690:{{ 4679:, 4671:, 4661:23 4659:, 4628:20 4626:, 4597:}} 4593:{{ 4582:, 4574:, 4562:90 4560:, 4530:, 4520:, 4506:, 4469:}} 4465:{{ 4454:, 4444:58 4442:, 4417:}} 4413:{{ 4402:, 4394:, 4384:27 4382:, 4357:}} 4353:{{ 4342:, 4334:, 4322:22 4320:, 4295:}} 4291:{{ 4280:, 4272:, 4260:, 4239:}} 4235:{{ 4224:, 4214:, 4204:, 4192:, 4169:, 4161:, 4151:16 4149:, 4128:}} 4124:{{ 4113:, 4105:, 4095:16 4093:, 4072:}} 4068:{{ 4057:, 4047:93 4045:, 4023:, 4015:, 4003:54 4001:, 3978:, 3970:, 3960:, 3948:54 3946:, 3924:, 3916:, 3906:, 3894:, 3871:, 3863:, 3855:, 3843:, 3816:, 3793:, 3783:, 3773:, 3761:, 3757:, 3730:, 3718:, 3696:, 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